MASS MEDIA

-The mass media are the means for delivering impersonal communications to a vast

audience. The term media (plural of medium) comes from the Latin word for “middle,”

suggesting that media connect people. Mass media arise as communications technology

(first newspapers

and then radio, television, films, and the Internet) spreads information on a massive scale

(Macionis 2012). Giddens (2009) notes that these are referred to as 'mass' media, because

they communicate to a mass audience comprised of very large numbers of people.

- According to Andersen (2017) the term mass media refers to the channels of

communication that are available to wide segments of the population— the print, film, and

electronic media. Communication refer to the transfer of information from one individual

or group to another

- The mass media have extraordinary power to shape culture, including what people believe

and the information available to them. If you doubt this, observe how much the mass

media affect your everyday life. A YouTube video “goes viral” e.g. that of the murder of

George Floyd (25 May 2020) by a white policeman in Minneapolis, Minnesota US which

led to mass protests, arrest and charge of the police officer and his accomplices. Also,

friends may talk about last night’s episode of a particular show e.g. Estate blues or

“Wadiwa wepa moyo” on ZBC TV. Some may have even met their partners or spouses via

electronic media. Your way of dressing, talking, and even thinking has likely been shaped

by the media, despite the fact that most people deny this, claiming “they are just

individuals.” For many families, TV and video are the “babysitters.”

- One of the truly powerful communicators of culture is television.

-The widespread availability of Internet-based blogs, chat groups, and social networks is,

however, radically changing how people communicate, including about current events.

Young people, especially, spend more time using computers for games and other leisure

activities than they use for reading (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2012a). Facebook,

Twitter, Snapchat, WhatsApp and other electronic networks have become such a common

form of interaction that they are now referred to as social media—the term used to refer to

the vast networks of social interaction that new media have inspired.

- Such usage increases the possibility of democratic participation by allowing the open
discussion and transmittal of information (Ferdinand 2000). At the same time, however,

these forms of communication can mean increased surveillance, both by governments and

by hackers. As with other forms of culture, how these networks are used and controlled is

a social process.

- Canadian media theorist, Marshall McLuhan (1964), argued that different types of media

have very different effects on society. His famous dictum is that, 'the medium is the

message'. That is to say, society is influenced much more by the type of the media than by

its content, or the messages, which are conveyed by it. A society in which satellite

television plays an important part, for example, is obviously a very different society from

one that relies on the printed word carried aboard an ocean liner.

Ownership and control of the Mass Media

- Ownership and control of mass media is used to create a picture of the social world

beneficial to the ruling class.

- Owners have ultimate control over a company and have power over which type of

audience will be reached. Like managers control a business, media ownership and control

is ideological because the ruling class is trying to control how people see the social world.

- The ruling class is able to control directly and indirectly how people think about the things

happening in society by their ability to control and limit the information people receive.

Government/ State Media Ownership

-Government or state media are part of a government, which function as its mouthpiece. It

is a media that works for mass communication , which is ultimately controlled and funded

by the state, e.g. ZBC( Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation)

- In Zimbabwe certain media do not advertise or publish information pertaining to certain

political parties, companies because it’s their editorial policies.

- The state may impose censorship on the mass media. Governments have also taken over

the control or certain media in order to protect local media and industry. Where the state

controls the media, the editorial policy focuses on satisfying the needs of the Government.

The Government can introduce limiting legislation limiting the ownership of different

forms of media

Advantages
- It is not guided by an individual interest. It is media for the people.

- It can act as a voice for the voiceless. It accommodates voices of general public

- Contents are considerably more credible, reliable and accurate compared to that of

independent media

-State media have far much greater reaches than independent media. They are preferred

for national campaigns which require maximum public attention.

Disadvantages

- It serves a particular interest group not general people. Usually current regimes use it

as a propaganda tool e.g. ZBC has been labelled a propaganda tool for ruling party

ZANU PF

-It can be manipulated by the ruling party hence reducing its credibility and efficiency

- It is not independent of the government as the government may censor the content

which it deems illegal, immoral or unfavorable to e.g. Channel 2 was removed for

being accused of broadcasting lesbianism and gay behaviour contrary to our

constitution

- Private ownership

- These are commercial media house that is privately owned for profits (e.g. the gazette) and

community media houses that are owned and controlled by communities (e.g. radio

dialogue).

Advantages

-Owners are in control of their company

-Provides more opportunity for advertising

-More diverse shows which might not be offered by state media

Disadvantages

-It can be biased and it is not obliged to provide impartial or unbiased information e.g.

The Daily News and News Day have been accused of being biased towards the

opposition MDC

-The owner can force his opinion to be reported by the workers

-Marxists say Media ownership controls media content

-Media owners control what we see in the media:-

-They exploit their power position to manipulate the content of the media.

-Capitalist media owners tell news editors stories to cover and views to put across.

-The media ends up putting across the views that serve the interest of capitalism.

-The media reflects the ideas of the ruling class (including the media owners).

-Media reinforces and broadcast the world view of the elite.

-The views of the ruling class are presented as the natural, common-sense views

society should hold.

-It means one set of ideas dominates over other ideas, a phenomenon known as

cultural Hegemony/supremacy.

-Pluralism say media reflects the values and beliefs of society

-Society gets the media it wants; media outlets respond to market demand if not they go out

of business.

-In this case the market matters no matter who owns the media.

-Pluralists do acknowledge the media will express some opinion more than others but they

see it as a reflection of the most common views in society rather than bias from

journalists, editors and owners.

-The Media act as “Watchdog”- This watchdog role is intended to keep governments from

taking too much power from the people and overstepping their bounds. Central to this role

is the notion that the press works independent of the government. The “freedom of the

press” allows the media to act as the eyes and ears of the people.

-The media also engages in investigative reporting, which can uncover dangers or

corruption that the media can then expose so that the public can demand change.

Media Content

-Media regulation policies in many countries have directly influenced the content of the

media.

-In politics, properties of media corporations bring in their political views, which are a

cause of concern to political parties holding different political positions.

-Through editorial policies they dictate the form of content, which should appear in their

media.

-The content of the press may be in the ownership of most newspapers. The contents may

be biased and distorted deliberately. This may also influence voting behaviour during
elections of given Governments.

-The media content maybe biased towards the needs of pressure groups such as women

action groups. The media may help the pressure groups to highlight issues concerning

gender and age.

-Different perspectives and ideology can influence the content of different media. The

capitalists would ensure that the media content propagates their values and ideology.

Pluralism: - media content reflects diversity in society.

-Society is made up of different and interacting parts and the state oversees and keeps

them in check.

-Believe that the content of media reflects the values of society

-Any media that reflects the values in society will be popular and stay in business and

any that does not will go.

-Media regulates itself.

Postmodernism: - media content reflects a consumerist identity.

-Peoples’ identity comes from what they buy and what kind of culture and media they

choose to consume.

-Media show people what they can buy and what kind of life style they can choose

from.

-There is no dominant set of ideas; society presents many choice and alternative

opinions.

-In the media a piece of information or an image can be distorted intentionally in order

to make it appear correct to viewers; it’s made less true or appear truer.

-News is influenced by practical constrains like time, space, and money.

-News is influenced by the values and practices of Journalists

-News is influenced by society; it’s socially constructed.

Perspectives on Mass Media

(a) Functionalism

-In the mid-twentieth century, functionalist theorists such as Charles Wright (1960)

focused on the ways in which the media helps to integrate and bind societies together.

-For mass media, this means examining how audiences interact with media and how they

use media
-Different media provide different primary uses.

-Macro analysis: how media functions for the society as a whole

-Microanalysis: how media functions for the individual

Functions of Mass Media

-Surveillance/Information function- The media provides us with a continuous flow of

information about our society and the world, from webcams and radio reports alerting us

to traffic jams, to rolling weather reports (e.g Cyclone Idai warning), the stock market and

news stories about issues that might affect us personally.

-Interpretation function- Media outlets interpret messages in more or less explicit and

ethical ways. Newspaper editorials have long been explicit interpretations of current

events, and now cable television and radio personalities offer social, cultural, and political

commentary that are full of subjective interpretations. Although some of them operate in

ethical grey areas because they use formats that make them seem like traditional news

programs, most are open about their motives.

-Socialization and Instructive function- Some media outlets exist to cultivate knowledge

by teaching instead of just relaying information. TV has great potential in socialization

e.g. The History Channel, the National Geographic Channel, and the Discovery Channel,

serve more instructive functions. Mass media play a significant role in providing a

collective experience for members of society. Think about how the mass media bring

together members of a community or even a nation by broadcasting important events and

ceremonies (such as inaugurations, press conferences, parades, state funerals, and the

Olympics) and by covering disasters.

-The mass media is a powerful socializing agent. For sociologists significance of the

media is not limited to the content of media messages. Media affect how we learn about

our world and interact with one another. Media literally mediate our relationship with

social institutions. We base most of our knowledge on government news accounts, not

experience. We are dependent on the media for what we know and how we relate to the

world of politics because of the media-politics connection. We read or watch political

debates followed by instant analysis and commentary by "experts." Politicians rely on

media to communicate their message

-Offers social control- media stresses the basic values of society in their contents,
emphasizing the difference between the normal and the deviant. This emphasis is achieved

in two ways:

-selection of material. A typical news story consists of a ‘shocking’ event, such as a

violent crime which highlights what society disapproves of-normal everyday behaviour

is not regarded as news

-By presentation, reporting deviant events in a way that shows they are not approved ofnewspapers
generally present their news on criminals, drug takers, etc. in such a way as

to show their disapproval.

-Linkage or Bonding function-Media outlets can bring people closer together, which

serves the bonding function. For example, people who share common values and interests

can gather on online forums (e.g. social media), and masses of people can be brought

together while watching coverage of a tragic event like September 11 (2001) disaster in

America.

-Diversion function- We all use the media to escape our day-to-day lives, to distract us

from our upcoming exam, or to help us relax. When we are being distracted, amused, or

relaxed, the media is performing the diversion function.

-Entertainment-The media provides amusement, a diversion from the rigors of work and

acts to reduce social tensions. This is essentially the function of a release valve for society,

allowing people to set aside their problems and conflicts, at least temporarily.

-Mobilization-The media can be used to encourage people to contribute to economic

development, to support and uphold moral rules and to mobilize the population in times of

war. This can be through very direct public campaigns, but also in much more subtle

ways, such as the moral tales within soap operas or films, for example.

Dysfunction of media

-In addition to the functions just noted, the media perform a dysfunction. Sociologists

-The Narcotizing Effect- Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton (1948) created the term

narcotizing dysfunction to refer to the phenomenon in which the media provide such

massive amounts of coverage that the audience becomes numb and fails to act on the

information, regardless of how compelling the issue. Interested citizens may take in the

information but make no decision or take no action. Consider how often the media initiate

a great outpouring of philanthropic support in response to natural disasters or family

crises. Research shows that as time passes, viewer fatigue sets in. The mass media

audience becomes numb, desensitized to the suffering, and may even conclude that a

solution to the crisis has been found (S. Moeller 1999)

(b) Conflict Perspective

-Conflict theorists argue that the mass media maintain the privileges of certain groups.

-Moreover, powerful groups may limit the media’s representation of others to protect their

own interests.

-Ideology and bias in the media

-Karl Marx, saw ideology as important in the reproduction of relations of class domination.

Powerful groups are able to control the dominant ideas circulating in a society so as to

justify their own position. Thus, according to Marx, as religion is often ideological in

teaching the poor to be content with their lot, ideology prevent the powerless to gain a true

perspective on their lives

-John Thompson argues that the critical notion is to be preferred, because it links ideology

with power. Ideology is about the exercise of symbolic power - how ideas are used to

hide, justify or legitimate the interests of dominant groups in the social order For instance,

the ideological aspects of TV news reporting and how it systematically generates bias. For

example, when reporting on industrial disputes, news reports tend to favour government

and management at the expense of striking workers. The effects of strikes, causing

disruption for the public, are much more likely to be reported on than their underlying or

immediate causes.

-In general, Thompson argues that mass media - including not only the news but also all

varieties of Programme content and genre - greatly expand the scope of ideology in

modern societies. They reach mass audiences and are, in his terms, based on 'quasiinteraction' - that
is, audiences cannot answer back in a direct way.

- Those who construct the news act as 'gatekeepers' for what gets on the agenda - in other

words, what the public hears about at all. Strikes in which there were active confrontations

between workers and management, for instance, might get widely reported, while more

consequential and long lasting industrial disputes might be largely ignored.

This term (gatekeeping) describes how material must travel through a series of gates (or

checkpoints) before reaching the public. Thus, a select few decide what images to bring
to a broad audience. In many countries the government plays a gatekeeping role.

-The Marxist, Hall agrees that news is supportive of capitalist interests because those in

powerful positions have better access to media institutions than the less powerful. Hall

argues that this is a result of the news values employed by most journalists. In particular,

most journalists rank the views of politicians, police officers, civil servants and business

leaders (Hall calls these groups primary definers) as more important (or credible) than

those of pressure groups, trade unionists or ordinary people. Hall calls this the hierarchy

of credibility.

-Hoggart wrote that TV news goes through four filters:

-Time and resources

-Visual value

-News value

-Prevailing culture

-The first two are practical or technical, the second two are cultural or ideological.

-The Digital Divide

-Worldwide, low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and the

citizens of developing countries have far less access than others to the latest

technologies—a gap that is called the digital divide. People in low-income households

and developing countries, for example, are less likely than others to have Internet access.

When marginalized people do gain Internet access, they are still likely to trail the

privileged.

-According to Schaefer (2012) the digital divide is most evident in developing countries.

In Africa, 4 percent of the population has Internet access. These fortunate few typically

pay the highest rates in the world—$250 to $300 a month—for the slowest connection

speeds.

(c) Symbolic interactionism

-Interactionists are especially interested in shared understandings of everyday behavior.

These scholars examine the media on the micro level to see how they shape day-to-day

social behavior. Increasingly, researchers point to the mass media as the source of major

daily activity; some argue that television serves essentially as a primary group for many

individuals who share TV viewing.

-Types of interaction in media

-Face-to –face interaction- such as people talking at a party, is rich in the cues used by

individuals to make sense of what others say.

-Mediated interaction- involves the use of a media technology - paper, electrical

connections, and electronic impulses. Characteristic of mediated interaction is that it is

stretched out in time and space - it goes well beyond the contexts of ordinary face-to-face

interaction. Mediated interaction takes place between individuals in a direct way - for

instance, two people talking on the telephone - but there is not an opportunity for the same

variety of non-verbal cues.

-Mediated quasi-interaction. This refers to the sort of social relations created by the mass

media. Such interaction is stretched across time and space, but does not link individuals

directly: hence the term 'quasi-interaction'. The two previous types are 'dialogical':

individuals communicate in a direct way. Mediated quasi-interaction is 'monological': a

TV programme, for example, is a one-way form of communication. People watching the

programme may discuss it, and perhaps address some remarks to the TV set - but, of

course, it does not answer back.

-Impact on social behaviour

-Online social networks, in fact, have become a new way of promoting consumption.

Advertisers have traditionally marketed products and services through spot ads, mass

mailings, or billboards, whether they are promoting flat-screen televisions or public

service messages like “Don’t drink and drive.” Recently in 2020 , various media platforms

have been used to alert people on the spread of COVID 19 e.g. “ stay home and travel

tomorrow” mantra via ZBC.

-Media plays an important role in creating and propagating shared symbols.

-Media can construct symbols on its own.

By using symbolic interactionist theory, researchers can look at the ways media affects a

society’s shared symbols and, in turn, the influence of those symbols on the individual

(Jansson-Boyd, 2010).

-Source of friendship networks

-Interactionists note, too, that friendship networks can emerge from shared viewing habits

or from recollection of a cherished television series from the past. The rise of the Internet
has also facilitated new forms of communication and social interaction.

(d) Feminist Perspective

-Feminists share the view of conflict theorists that the mass media stereotype and

misrepresent social reality.

-According to this view, the media powerfully influence how we look at men and women,

communicating unrealistic, stereotypical, and limiting images of the sexes.

-Women as sex objects-Women are often shown as being shallow and obsessed with

beauty. They are more likely than men to be presented unclothed, in danger, or even

physically victimized. Pornography presents women as sex objects and seems to make

viewing

women that way acceptable. In music videos, women wear sexy and skimpy clothing and

are more often the object of another’s gaze than is true for their male counterparts; music

videos are especially represented in sexualized ways (Coy 2014; Collins 2004). Many

health professionals and researchers see the persistent media portrayal of ideal female

bodies as a contributory factor in the problem of eating disorders, particularly amongst

young women.

-Unequal news coverage-When women achieve newsworthy feats in fields traditionally

dominated by men, such as professional sports, the media are often slow to recognize

their

accomplishments. Even when they are covered by the press, female athletes are not

treated equally by television commentators. When they are not successful, they are more

likely than men to be described as lacking in athletic ability.

-Media reinforce and maintain gender divisions- Angela McRobbie discovered that main

stories in the girl’s magazine Jackie described a girl as someone to be looked at and

appreciated, rather than someone who went out and about doing things. The main theme

of the magazines was romance and love. McRobbie argues that the magazines encourage

girls to be passive and to regard only romance as truly important in their lives. The

stereotype of what are female characteristics is constantly reinforced by the media. In

terms of social control women who challenge the stereotype are regarded as being odd in

some way or deviant. Research studies have repeatedly demonstrated that representations

of girls and
women in the mass media overwhelmingly use traditional stereotypes of gender roles.

Women are conventionally seen in domestic roles as housewives and homemakers,

objects of male sexual desire or in working situations that extend the domestic role -

such as nurses, carers or office workers. Generally, such representations have been

fairly consistent across news reports, drama and entertainment programming, leading

Gaye Tuchman (1978) to refer to the symbolic annihilation of women on television.

Tuchman (idid) analyzed the representation of women in the media, women were in jobs

which were extensions of their domestic roles.

-Ownership and control of media- it reproduces patriarchal ideology. Men still fill many

journalist roles.

Media effects on human behavior and society

-Marxist view of transmission of ideology assumes attitudes and behaviour are influenced.

Alternative views say that there's influence but the result is dependent on the

characteristics of the audience. It is argued that media content exerts an

overwhelmingly negative effect on impressionable young audiences.

PASSIVE AUDIENCE APPROACHES- Sociologists have argued that media content can

have a direct effect upon their audiences and trigger particular social responses in terms of

behaviour and attitudes.

1. Promotion of violent behavior:The hypodermic syringe model (‘magic bullet’ theory)

This compares the media message to a drug injected by syringe. The model is based on

the assumption that the audience (patient) passively and directly accepts the message

and does

not critically engage with it in any way.

Under this view, the media is seen as 'drugging' the audience, destroying its ability to

think critically about the wider world (Marcuse 1964).

-Imitation or copycat violence-Bandura et al. (1963) showed a film of children being

violent to dolls to another group of children, who were then given dolls themselves.

They found that the children tended to imitate the violence on the screen. They

concluded on the basis of this experiment that violent media content could lead to

imitation or copycat violence.

-Disinhibiting effect -McCabe and Martin (2005) concluded that media violence has
a disinhibiting effect – it convinces children that in some social situations, the ‘normal’

rules that govern conflict and difference can be suspended, i.e. discussion and

negotiation can be replaced with violence with no repercussions.

-Desensitisation effect-Newson argued that sadistic images in films were too easily

available and that films encouraged viewers to identify with violent perpetrators rather

than victims. Furthermore, Newson noted that children and teenagers are subjected to

thousands of killings and acts of violence as they grow up through viewing television

and films. Newson suggested that such prolonged exposure to media violence may have

a drip-drip effect on young people over the course of their childhood and result in their

becoming desensitized to violence. Newson argues that they see violence as a normal

problem-solving device and concluded that, because of this, the latest generation of

young people subscribe to weaker moral codes and are more likely to behave in antisocial ways than
previous generations.

Criticism of the hypodermic model

-A number of critiques have developed of the imitation-desensitization model of media

effects, e.g. some media sociologists claim that media violence can actually prevent reallife violence.

-Audiences are very diverse and react in different ways. Young (1981), argues that

seeing the effects of violence and especially the pain and suffering that it causes to the

victim and their families, may make us more aware of its consequences and so less

inclined to commit violent acts. Sensitization to certain crimes therefore may make

people more aware and responsible so that they avoid getting involved in violence.

-Long term and short term effects may differ.

-Sociologists are generally very critical of the hypodermic syringe model because it

fails to recognize that audiences have very different social characteristics in terms of

age, maturity, social class, education, family background, parental controls, etc.

-Ignores other media effects; watching violent films may act an outlet of aggression

rather than a cause of it. Fesbach and Sanger (1971) found that screen violence can

actually provide a safe outlet for people’s aggressive tendencies. This is known

as catharsis. They suggest that watching an exciting film releases aggressive energy

into safe outlets as the viewers immerse themselves in the action.

2. Manipulation of audience: The propaganda model / the mass manipulative model

-Herman and Chomsky (1988) argue that the media participate in propaganda campaigns

helpful to elite interests. They suggest that media performance is largely shaped by market

forces and that built into the capitalist system is a range of filters that work ceaselessly to

shape media output, e.g. advertisers want their advertising to appear in a supportive selling

environment whilst government can pressure the media with threats of withdrawal of TV

licences and therefore control the flow of information

-Cohen and Young used the term the mass manipulative model. Marxists say the media

transmit the dominant ideology to keep the working class falsely conscious. Further,

people are persuaded to consume, and fantasy distracts people from the miseries of

capitalism. Marxists say the media is directly controlled by the ruling class, while

structuralists say journalists and editors are themselves influenced by ruling class ideology

and willingly go along with the interests of capitalists.

-According to this model, audiences are viewed as passive and uncritical receivers.

-Norris (1996), claims that media coverage of political issues can influence voting

behaviour. Although sociologists are generally of the opinion that in the short term the

mass media do little to change people’s voting intentions, however, exposure over a long

period of time to a political message can change people’s opinions towards it.

Evaluation

-Interactionist say that viewers are not passive sponges, and that they make choices and if

they want something, then it would be provided as it is profitable.

-Schlesinger (1990) is critical of theories that focus on the power of elites or owners

because the media do not always act in the interests of the powerful. Contemporary

politicians are very careful about what they say to the media because they are very aware

that the media can shape public perceptions of their policies and practices and perhaps

influence voting behaviour, as well as putting them under considerable pressure to resign.

ACTIVE AUDIENCE APPROACHES- see the media as far less influential. They believe

that people have considerable choice in the way they use and interpret the media.

1. People modify or reject media messages :The two-step flow model

-Katz and Lazarsfeld (1965) suggest that personal relationships and conversations with

significant others, such as family members, friends, teachers and work colleagues, result
in people modifying or rejecting media messages.

-Step 1 media message reaches the audience

-Step 2 media message is interpreted by the audience’s opinion leaders and it influences

them.

Opinion leaders are key members in society whose reactions directly influences others and

these play an important role by interpreting the media message for others then shape what

influence the message might have.

Criticism of the two step flow model

There may be no dominant opinion leaders or consensus on the meaning of media

messages.

Ignore that meaning of media messages may be imposed by the powerful.

2. Consumers use the media to satisfy specific needs:The uses and gratification model

Audiences use the media to meet their own needs (Lull 1990). For example, you may

enjoy watching a show like “Estate Blues” on ZBC while simultaneously tweeting about it

on Twitter with your friends.

-Wood (1993) illustrated how teenagers may use horror films to gratify their need for

excitement.

-Blumler and McQuail (1968) identify four basic needs which people use the media to

satisfy.

-Diversion- people may immerse themselves in particular types of media to make up for

the lack of satisfaction at work or in their daily lives, e.g. playing FIFA games on

computer may compensate for the lack satisfaction after a defeat of one’s team in a live

match.

-Personal relationships – media products such as internet may compensate for the

decline of community in our lives. One may treat a WhatsApp group as an alternative

family.

-Personal identity - people may use the media to ‘make over’ or to modify their identity.

-Surveillance – people use the media to obtain information and news in order to help

them make up their minds on particular issues.

Evaluation

-Marxists are critical of this model because they suggest that social needs may be socially
manufactured by the media and may therefore be ‘false needs’.

3. Media message pass through filters: The selective filter model

-In his selective filter model, Klapper (1960) suggests that, for a media message to have

any effect, it must pass through three filters.

Selective exposure – the audience must choose to view, read or listen to the content of

specific media. Media messages can have no effect if no one sees or hears them.

However, what the audience chooses depends upon their interests, education, work

commitments and so on.

-Selective perception – the audience may not accept the message; some people may take

notice of some media content, but decide to reject or ignore others.

-Selective retention – the messages have to ‘stick’ in the mind of those who have

accessed the media content.

Evaluation

-However, research indicates that most people have a tendency to remember only the

things they broadly agree with.

-Audience's class and cultural background affects media interpretation: The

reception theory

-Stuart Hall's account of reception theory (1980) focuses on the way in which an audience's

class and cultural background affects the way in which it makes sense of different media

'texts' – a term that is used to encompass various forms of media from books and

newspapers

to films and CDs.

-Some members of an audience may simply accept the preferred reading 'encoded' in a text

- such as a news bulletin - by its producer. This preferred reading, Hall argues, is likely to

reflect the dominant or mainstream ideology.

-However, Hall argues that the understanding of a text also depends on the cultural and

class background of the person interpreting it. Other members of an audience may take an

'oppositional' reading of a text, because their social position places them in conflict with

the preferred reading. For example, a worker involved in strike action or a member of an

ethnic minority is likely to take an oppositional reading of a text such as a news story on
industrial or race relations, rather than accept the dominant reading encoded in the text by

its producer.

FURTHER READING ON THE EFFECTS OF MASS MEDIA

-Media and crime

-Media over report crime- media institutions try to earn profits from attracting as many

viewers, listeners or readers as possible. This results in some crime which are of greater

“human interest’ being over reported compared to others.

-Media creates stereotypes and moral panic- the media creates a stereotype of the ‘typical’

sort of crime and creates public fear about it- which lead to moral panic. People get

worried about certain crimes, law and order tend to focus more on that stereotyped

deviance ignoring other forms of crime.

Media creates a label- due to some criminals being reported whilst wearing certain types

of dressing, the police and public can see that style of dress signifying ‘trouble’. so

anybody dressed like that is a possible troublemaker e.g. during the post-election violence

which occurred in Harare on 1 August 2018 , soldiers and police were reported to have

targeted those in red, the regalia color of opposition MDC. It was alleged that anyone in

red was labelled a troublemaker.

-The amplification of deviance- the result of the above media activities result in actual

deviance than in a situation where it wasn’t present