FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
Series: Architecture and Civil Engineering Vol. 11, No 2, 2013, pp. 169 - 177
DOI: 10.2298/FUACE1302169A
ARCHITECTURE: THE QUEST FOR CULTURAL IDENTITY
UDC 711.4:316.72=111
Anthony K. Adebayo, Anthony C. O. Iweka#,
Bolawole F. Ogunbodede, Joseph M. Igwe
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences,
University of Lagos, Akoka – Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria
#
[email protected] Abstract. Despite the modern and grandiose appearance of most architectural projects,
closer examinations cast doubts on their sensitivity to the cultural and traditional past of
the societies for which they were intended. Space for human habitation and interaction
is one of the primary aspects of man's culture, and is basic to any architectural
discussion. For a long time, architecture in most developing nations was shaped by
colonial contexts and ideologies. The architects seemed more committed to revitalizing
the civilization of other advanced countries within a new world setting. The focus of
this paper is on the interplay between architecture and culture. The relationship
between spaces created by architects and the local culture is examined within the
context of place – the house, the community, the region, as well as the nation. The
study identifies ties that bind groups together. It also explores the components that
constitute spatial character. Physical and intangible aspects of materials in achieving
environmental character are evaluated. Key questions regarding the professional and
ideological inclination of architects are addressed. Finally, the impact of emerging
global trends occasioned by contact of cultures is analyzed.
Key words: architectural planning, culture, cultural symbolism, identity, place, space.
1. INTRODUCTION
From medieval to modern times, works of architecture have played prominent roles in
the civilization of several societies. In ancient Egypt, architecture was employed as a
means of glorifying the gods and pharaohs [1]; [2]. The Greeks utilized architecture in
pursuit of virtue and perfection. In some other nations, architecture has helped in record-
ing man's aspirations and in expressing the most sublime of his feelings. Architectural
monuments stand as timeless representations of tradition and culture. They also carry a
historical message about the connection between human beings and the built environment.
Received September 12, 2013
170 A. K. ADEBAYO, A. C. O. IWEKA, B. F. OGUNBODEDE, J. M. IGWE
Culture as a concept represents the way of life of a human group, motivated by the
urge to interpret its world and organize the means and methods of being accommodated in
it [3]. Culture is a major behaviour modifier. [4] views culture as the totality of a people's
way of life, which provides society with inherited transmissible code of conduct as an in-
tegral part of the total system of ideas, values, knowledge, philosophy, law, moral, and
belief systems which combine to form the content of life of the particular society. Build-
ings are generally perceived as products of social and cultural conditions. This probably
explains why architecture is used to pursue cultural identity. For example, the Romans
used their buildings to express their power and prosperity.
For a long time, architects of most developing nations operated within frames of refer-
ence of other advanced countries within a new world setting [5]. Some of the grandiose
mega structures that dot the landscape of countries in Southeast Asia have little meaning
to the hungry masses. The collaboration of planners and architects from different parts of
the world has resulted in the importation of alien styles into the traditional fabric without
adequate consideration for the site, culture or climate. The consequence is the emergence
of architecture for unknown users, an architecture without personality and spirit, which
exists for sales purposes only [6]. This situation attracted global attention during
HABITAT II conference in Turkey in 1996. The conference conceded that the imple-
mented strategies and policies for housing delivery failed to take into account, economic,
political and socio-cultural conditions of each country. A similar situation was reported
regarding the first International Conference on Architecture and Design in Kuwait. The
challenge at that conference was to determine when the people of Kuwait and other Gulf
countries could have modern architecture that suits their community, environment and
heritage. These are indications that our surroundings have failed to establish who we are
and where we are. Grand symbolic state buildings need to be rationalized along political and
cultural bearings. Most of what has been built have no message for those who use them.
Le Corbusier expressed his generations disgust with the tradition of the past in his fa-
mous pronouncement that a house is a machine to live in. It can be argued, however, that
the preservation of historical buildings and monuments makes it possible for the present
and future generations to experience and appreciate the splendour of past works [2]. The
attention of Le Corbusier and his colleagues was focused on providing spaces for the pre-
sent and future functional requirements of machines. Today, it is widely accepted that
space is one of the major aspects of man's culture and is basic to any architectural discus-
sion. Architectural spaces affect the way in which people carry out their daily lives and
how they exhibit their perceptions, attitudes and values. For example the norms and value
of privacy, personal space and territoriality vary with different groups. These are also re-
flected in the expressed attitudes and behaviours of individuals specific to their socio-
cultural characteristics [6].
This paper aims at analyzing the dialectical relationship between architecture and
culture. Specifically, the relationship between spaces created by architects and the local
culture is examined. The paper starts with an overview of cultural responsiveness of ar-
chitecture. Spatial and territorial concepts of space, place and identity are discussed. The
paper further takes a look at architectural works that are considered as cultural intrusions
in the environment where they are located. Other issues discussed are: the cultural context
of spatial experience, materials and cultural symbolism; professional and ideological in-
clination of architects; contact of cultures and emerging global consciousness.
Architecture: The Quest for Cultural Identity 171
2. OVERVIEW OF CULTURAL RESPONSIVENESS OF ARCHITECTURE
Throughout history, architecture has remained a dominant form of representation of
cultural and traditional norms of various groups of people. Culture finds expression in the
architecture of a people, as a repository of their tradition and way of life [4]. Monuments
and historical buildings stand as testimonies to the existence of any group of people. It is
in this context that [7] sees architecture as an active component of culture which can be
manipulated to create a system of settings within which human life takes place. It should
be people-specific and should also represent the way of life of such people [4].
Humanity is in dire need of responsible architecture that responds to different dimen-
sions of cultural and traditional patterns of existence. This anticipation requires an
acknowledgement of the difference between core of a culture and its periphery, especially
in the face of rapid changes. Peripherals of a culture are those aspects that are given up
willing and eagerly for new ones, whereas the core or imperatives of a culture are those
aspects that are retained until bitter end [7]; [3].
A responsive design can therefore be described as any purposeful physical expression
of space, time, meaning and communication in such a way that their implications for any
given culture are clearly understood. Such designs usually incorporate two components:
(a) the contextual content that makes place legible to the user; (b) the experience and mo-
tivation for using the space
The colonial townships in Nigeria negated these principles, as they exhibit remarkable
departure from the spatial organization of the traditional city compounds of the nation [8].
The designs produced might have been functional and suitable for western cultures, but
they were inadequate for Nigerian cultural environment.
The idea of cultural responsiveness does not have a universal acclaim as it was re-
jected by the modern movement. The modern movement emphasized universality on the
basis of the existence of plurality of groups and subcultures.
3. SPACE, PLACE AND IDENTITY
As noted by [7] design of the environment involves the organization of four things –
space, time, meaning and communication. Space is crucial in shaping the consciousness
of human beings. The meaning of architectural space can be interpreted by analyzing its
physical structure and its psychological character. Architecture makes spaces tangible.
The human factor ranks high among the criteria for shaping a space. Space is a product of
socio-cultural practices. [9] asserts that the importance of space in human life is not only
in its usage but that its symbolic and ideological meanings contribute in shaping human
relations. Space is a place that directs and facilitates life. Space assumes its character
from where individuals live and define their necessities.
The value conferred on any space is derived from the relationship of the space with its
environment. In fact, man dwells when he experiences the environment as meaningful
[10]. It is life in the space that gives space its value. The environment is interpreted to
mean spaces within the building, urban space as well as close and distant spaces that sur-
round man. [7] views environmental design as being enmeshed in culture. It is therefore
seen as playing a critical role in the preservation of specific components of culture. Space
organization, shape and form possess qualities which vary from culture to culture in terms
172 A. K. ADEBAYO, A. C. O. IWEKA, B. F. OGUNBODEDE, J. M. IGWE
of identity, religion, cosmology, family, tradition and continuity. [7] suggests that a major
step is the identification of culture core and how certain elements of the environment sup-
port particular cultural mechanisms that connect people and environments. Genius Loci or
Spirit of place is the term that Noberg-Schulz assigns to the concept of creating meaning-
ful places [10]. [5] describes place as space to which meaning has been ascribed.
Therefore, the creation of a culturally appropriate place relies on the preservation of
local features that make a specific area unique. [10] used the term "place-making" to de-
scribe this situation, while [5] perceives "place-making" as occurring within particular
spatial scales such as the space of a house, the space of the community and the space of
the nation state. The concept of place can also be examined from the perspective of the
components that constitute spatial character such that personality, structure, community,
appropriateness and identity can be identified. Individuals and groups conceptualise their
identity within the context of place. In fact identity develops as people engage in the pro-
cess of transformation of places of existence into places of living.
Identity has been explained by [6] as a process that can be obtained through tracking
the roots of civilization and culture in history. As a concept, identity is intangible; but as a
process identity can only be created by referring to the historical background and the cul-
tural aspects of a locale or region. At individual level, questions of identity are bound up
with the spaces we inhabit and assign meaning to the places with which we identity. The
term self-identity describes this situation and it is strongly linked to territoriality. This
distinctiveness is explained by [11] as it manifests in Hausa and Yoruba traditions in Ni-
geria. In a typical Yoruba setting, nuclear households are clustered around a common
open space that defines the compound. The same display of communality is seen in the
Hausa tradition except that the open spaces (court yards) are organized to promote the
privacy of the women, in line with Islamic practices. This corroborates the view that built
forms should be culture-specific and that some qualities will vary for different cultures,
particularly those core elements that remain relatively constant [7]. For identity in archi-
tecture to be meaningful, it must be approached from two levels of cultural existence:
(a) Culture core, or cultural imperatives or ethos which represent the critical elements
of predominant values that give the culture its distinctive character. Failures are
more catastrophic in this sense.
(b) Peripheral elements, which refer to cultural imperatives at the general level where
changes can be accommodated with minimal or no consequences.
This is probably why [7] concludes that what is important needs to be discovered, not
assumed. The impact of Western colonization in Asia and Africa can hence be assessed
by discerning the core and peripheral elements that were affected. Such components can
then be evaluated and related to architecture and the built environment. The peripheral
perspective of culture justifies why identity is seen as a problematic concept. It is heavily
contextual, difficult to measure, differs from place to place and changes overtime. Identity
can be achieved if architectural designs aim at utilizing specific components of culture for
specific parts of the environment e.g. family and kinship groups, family structures, insti-
tutions, status etc.
Architecture: The Quest for Cultural Identity 173
4. REMINDERS ОF ALIEN INTRUSIONS ИN WORKS ОF ARCHITECTURE
A significant part of the exposure which Africa and other developing nations received
from their colonial masters was on architecture as a symbol of civilization. Most public
buildings in Nigeria reflect colonial perceptions of the traditional activities of Nigerians.
The message of culture transmitted through those buildings does not adequately represent
Nigeria's common heritage. [1] describes such buildings as aberrations in the country's
national monument and concludes that they are not architecture for Nigerian society. He
cites Murtala Mohammed International Airport, Lagos; National Theatre, Lagos; Interna-
tional Conference Centre, Abuja; and national Stadium, Abuja as examples.
It has also been demonstrated that the single family home designed to accommodate
nuclear families in the English or American sense is an alien culture from Nigeria's colo-
nial past. The traditional American family is generally associated with living in a detached
single family home that is owned privately. Such homes are sanctified and celebrated.
However, the Public Housing Policy practised in America created an ideological problem
between the American dream house and what public housing offered. The walk-up or high
rise configuration also ran contrary to the America's housing mentality.
[12] reported that a complex of workers' houses in Pessac, near Bordeaux was de-
signed by Le Corbusier for unknown inhabitants. It was later discovered that the inhabitants
were worried that some features of conventional houses in the region were absent.
Consequently majority of the houses were adjusted to accommodate the traditional pattern.
In India, Chandigarh was designed by Le Corbusier to create a modern urban envi-
ronment amid immense poverty. The appearance of the city took an aesthetic form of an
American suburb, and this was adjudged to be contrary to the Indian life style. The de-
signers of Chandigarh disregarded the existing traditions of the people, and attempted to
change or alter them through what was regarded as an aggressive act of Western Cultural
Imperialism. Chandigarh is therefore seen as one of the reminders of the failures of ar-
chitecture.
In Nigeria, Ghana, Gambia and Sierra Leone, the colonial buildings stand as proto-
types. This is probably why [4] concluded that climate and not culture of the people was
the major design parameter in these former British Colonies during the colonial period.
5. CULTURAL CONTEXT ОF SPATIAL EXPERIENCE АND BEHAVIOUR
Architecture essentially reflects the habits, modes of life and traditions as basic deter-
minants of human activities. Therefore the architecture of a people is an expression of the
elements of their culture that are sustainable [4]. In this context culture is the distinctive
means by which specific populations relate to their environment. Culture specific design
is a logical consequence of cultural responsiveness.
Design process creates spaces that serve as emotional ties between human beings and
their past as well as their future. Spatial experiences take on different meanings which
have come to be associated with the cultural and traditional dimensions of the home as a
sacred social unit of space. Since space is interpreted differently in different cultures, it
follows that any meaningful evaluation of spatial quality should be from the users' per-
spective. [7] advises that the users must not all be grouped together because they are vari-
174 A. K. ADEBAYO, A. C. O. IWEKA, B. F. OGUNBODEDE, J. M. IGWE
able in most present day situations. He therefore emphasizes the need to define explicitly
those groups which are relevant for the design.
The custom, culture and traditions of a people represent the social and anthropological
peculiarity of the people. [4] sees these peculiarities as the contents that give form to the
design. These peculiarities are the characteristics which should provide a guide in defin-
ing and identifying groups whose culture the environment is supposed to be responsive to.
For architecture to be meaningful, it should develop organically and logically from
preceding traditions in response to changing situations. In Kuwait, for example, the pros-
perity that followed the discovery of oil in 1938 resulted in the creation of a new archi-
tectural identity that is foreign to its traditional and cultural heritage. The cultural and so-
cial aspects regarding Kuwaiti design identity were transformed and distorted [6].
In Nigeria, the characteristic compound reveals hierarchical organization of spaces
such that their mutual positioning and sizes are deeply rooted in the culture of the people.
In almost all the cultures, the traditional mode of living is expressed through a conglom-
eration of residential units. It has been found out that the self (or individual) is not empha-
sized in the architecture of most Nigerian traditional societies. Rather, prominence is
given to the community, communal life and group activities [4]. It is this communal
mode of living that propels the characteristic compound.
In Kuwait, a significant consideration that featured in the design of older houses was
providing security and privacy in the light of the separation of men and women as a cul-
tural concept. Moreover houses were zoned into two sections: one facing the street for
men, the other is set back and isolated for women [6]. Like in Nigeria, the courtyard was
regarded as an important social and environmental element in Kuwaiti traditional houses.
The courtyards play a role in the house form through its functionality in the cultural con-
text. [6]; [13]; [14]; [15]. The implementation of the courtyard which was seen as a sym-
bol of architectural ingenuity in sustainable design has been abandoned in Kuwait since
the 1950s in preference for international styles.
Therefore, in providing the settings within which human life takes place, architecture
attracts meanings that are highly variable culturally. It is important to specify which fea-
tures or elements of the environment are important. Such important elements must be dis-
covered, not assumed [7].
6. MATERIALS АND CULTURAL SYMBOLISM
It is presumptuous to tell designers what aesthetics should be adopted. The relation-
ship between materials, culture and the architect cannot be interpreted in a rigid mechani-
cal way. Symbols lie at the core of culture, but they have to be created and communicated
to others. Space becomes place when it is given contextual meaning derived from cultural
or regional content. The creation of symbols and space requires application and interpre-
tation of materials. The identity and symbolism of a place is therefore enhanced by physi-
cal aspects of material substance, shape, texture and colour.
The emotional content of place is fuelled by the social lives of people, the cultural
content and the nature of the defining edges and planes of the environment. The place ex-
perience is achieved by the articulation of surfaces, indigenous materials and natural fea-
tures so that they become sympathetic to the feelings, needs and traditions of the people.
Architecture: The Quest for Cultural Identity 175
Emotional characteristics are often intangible and difficult to identify. The character of an
environment is therefore defined by the totality of the texture forms, shapes and colours of
materials. These are the ingredients of what spaces communicate to the users.
Symbols help us to interpret who we are, what we are or what we can be. Myths are
also considered important because they transform secular history into sacred legends.
There is a preponderance of colonial symbols in the Nigerian architectural scene. Efforts
should therefore be made by Nigerian architects to develop indigenous symbols, myths
and themes in their works.
7. PROFESSIONAL АND IDEOLOGICAL INCLINATION ОF ARCHITECTS
What most professionally designed environments communicate to the users is a prod-
uct of the education, office practice and aspirations of its designers. Most prominent ar-
chitects in the developing world today were either trained in the West or have received a
Western influenced architectural education closer to home. The nature of such training
did not equip recipients with capability for developing and communicating native ideas,
interpretations and symbols. This and many other issues that affect the architect are be-
yond his or her control, for example, technological change, the dynamics of urbanization
and economy.
Unlike any other arts, architecture requires a commissioner before it can be per-
formed. In other words, the architect cannot readily produce a building and then try to
find a buyer. Some have argued that the architectural profession serves only itself. The ar-
chitect, they claim, works to feed his own ego; and to serve only those who can pay the
bills – the ruling elite of our capitalist society. Therefore architecture is under the control of
the class which controls the means of production, and the ruling class. A great number of
architects in the developing nations are in paid employment either in the public sector or in
the private sector as technical staff. In both cases, they are largely excluded from the
decision-making process as architects, hence cannot influence the drive for cultural identity.
Some projects, particularly symbolic buildings are hardly left to architects alone. Lo-
cation of parliament buildings, for instance, is a product of social and cultural forces. The
siting and placement of such a building is influenced by political considerations [16].
Another significant aspect of the international culture is that the demands of many
large-scale projects in developing nations usually exceed the capability of indigenous
firms to implement. Thus even where a local architect is commissioned, additional tech-
nical and managerial expertise is imported. Large European and American architectural
firms have continued to benefit from this exportation of "Americanisms" to places like the
Middle East and the third word. The persistence of this kind of situation inevitably results
in the people's loss of their material identity, their culture, their customs and especially
their natural environment.
8. CONTACT OF CULTURE AND EMERGING GLOBAL CONSCIOUSNESS
Cultural responsiveness retains minority position in architecture because it is politically
difficult to advocate and implement. The heterogeneity which characterizes geo-sociological
environments all over the world suggests that cultural differentiation must be acknowledged.
176 A. K. ADEBAYO, A. C. O. IWEKA, B. F. OGUNBODEDE, J. M. IGWE
However, the emergence of the satellite dish and the internet has provided the society with
limitless access. Spaces are becoming less important while boundaries are dissolving. Places,
people, ideas and institutions are no longer precise indicators of identities.
In this world of expanding horizons, the elements of identity are mobile; they begin
from somewhere else and move across borders. A convergence is taking place and re-
gional identities are vanishing in the face of homogeneous economic forces and a global
culture which promotes simplification and universality. Such global consciousness makes
purely local design solutions unlikely.
9. DISCUSSION
People are central to any architectural planning and design. Buildings and equipment
should support users rather than alienate or frustrate them. Humans identify with spaces
and symbols created for them by relating such spaces and symbols to the core of traditions
or culture. The architect requires a deep understanding of the people, their culture and a
reverence of their traditional past, because cultural identity is location-specific.
A greater proportion of urban and housing designs that dominate the developing
countries portray images of the cultural patterns of colonial planners and architects. The
assimilation of these cultures through contacts triggered incompatibilities, while at the same
time reduced cultural differentiation. The challenge then is in locating an equilibrium point
in the quest for cultural survival or progress. This situation is aggravated by the emergence
of cyberspace and radicalized trend whist the world is no longer bound by space.
The education of the architect bears striking similarities in many parts of the world.
He is confronted by a paradox occasioned by his professional training and ideological in-
clination which predisposes him to choose the west as his model, while simultaneously
attempting to define a national culture.
For cultures to survive or progress there must be contact of cultures, which naturally
generates new relationships and this increases possibilities of compatibilities while at the
same time reduces cultural differentiation.
10. CONCLUSION
Works of architecture, especially spaces for human habitation and interaction are not
merely physical mapable things but products of social activity. This study looked at dif-
ferent ways in which architecture and the built environment represent an abstraction of the
culture and aspirations of users. Culture is recognized as a major determinant of most hu-
man spatial behaviour. Individuals and groups conceptualize their identity within the
context of the components that constitute spatial character, such as personality, structure,
community, materials, and identity.
For architecture to be meaningful, it should originate organically and logically from
preceding traditions in response to changing situations. Identity can only be created by re-
ferring to the historical background and the cultural aspects of a person, group or region.
Therefore cultural compatibility should be included among the many concerns influencing
the design of buildings. However, in the context of prevailing cultural pluralism, specifics
are crucial in any discussion of identity whether about culture or the environment. This is
Architecture: The Quest for Cultural Identity 177
one reason why identity is regarded as a problematic concept as it is heavily contextual,
difficult to measure, differs from place to place and changes over time. Regional differ-
ences are fast disappearing in the face of global contact of cultures, which increases pos-
sibilities of compatibilities.
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ARHITEKTURA: POTRAGA ZA KULTURNIM IDENTITETOM
Uprkos modernom i grandioznom izgledu mnogih arhitektonskih projekata, bliži uvid stvara sumnju
u njihovu osetljivost na kulturnu i tradicionalnu prošlost društuva kojima su namenjeni. Prostor gde ljudi
žive i gde se odvija njihova interakcija je jedan primarnih aspekata ljudske kulture i osnova svake
arhitektonske diskusije. Veoma dugo, arhitektura zemalja u razvoju je bila oblikovana kolonijalističkim
kontekstima i ideologijama. Arhitekte su više bile posvećene revitalizaciji civilizacije drugih naprednih
društava u novom okruženju. Ovaj rad prvensteno tretira interakciju arhitekture i kulture. Ondos izmeĎu
prostora koje su kreirali arhitekti i lokalnih kultura se ispituje u kontekstu mesta – kuće, zajednice,
regiona kao i zemlje. Proučavanje prepoznaje veze koje povezuju grupe. TakoĎe istražuje komponente
koje tvore karakter prostora. Procenjuju se fizički i nefizički aspekti materijal u kreiranju karaktera
okoline. Govori se o glavnim pitanjima koja se tiču profesionalne i ideološke naklonosti arhitekata.
Konačno, analizira se uticaj globalnih trendova u nastajanju, koji se javljaju usled kontakta kultura.
Kljuĉne reĉi: arhitektonsko planiranje, kultura, kulturni simbolizam, identitet, mesto, prostor.
