केंद्रीय विद्यालय संगठन लखनऊ संभाग

KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN LUCKNOW REGION

बोर्ड कक्षाओं के वलए पूरक अध्ययन सामग्री

SUPPLEMENTARY STUDY MATERIAL FOR
BOARD CLASSES

कक्षा/CLASS XII
विषय/SUBJECT भौविकी/PHYSICS

CHIEF MENTOR
Smt. Sona Seth, Deputy Commissioner, KVS Regional Office Lucknow

MENTOR
Sh. Anup Kumar Awasthi, Assistant Commissioner, KVS Regional Office Lucknow
Smt. Archana Jaiswal, Assistant Commissioner, KVS Regional Office Lucknow
Sh. Vijay Kumar, Assistant Commissioner, KVS Regional Office Lucknow

COORDINATOR
Sh. R. C. Pandey, Principal, KV IIT Kanpur

CONTENT DEVELOPMENT TEAM

Ms. Anvita Bajpai, PGT (Physics), PM SHRI KV AFS Memaura
Sh. Nageshwar Prasad Pandey, PGT (Physics), PM SHRI KV Barabanki
Sh. Govind Sharan Sharma, PGT (Physics), PM SHRI KV AFS BKT Lucknow
Ms. Meenu Rana, PGT (Physics), PM SHRI KV Chakeri No. 1 Kanpur
Sh. Awadh Narain, PGT (Physics), KV IIT Kanpur
Ms. Deepshikha Saxena, PGT (Physics), KV IIT Kanpur

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 KVS RO LUCKNOW
CONTENT TO ENSURE MLL
CLASS: XII
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
SESSION: 2024-25

Chapter Name of the Chapter Page No. Tentative

No. Marks
Covered
1. Electric Charges and Fields

2. Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

04 to 15 13
3. Current Electricity

4. Moving Charges and Magnetism

5. Magnetism and Matter

6. Electromagnetic Induction 15 to 30 14

7. Alternating Current

8. Electromagnetic Waves

9. Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

30 to 45 9
10. Wave Optics

11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

12. Atoms
45 to 59 7
13. Nuclei

14. Semiconductor Electronics 59 to 68 7

15 Mind Maps 69 to 82 --

Total Marks 50

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 CHAPTER-1
ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES

Electric dipole:
⃗⃗⃗
𝒑 = 𝒒 𝒙 𝟐𝒂

⃗⃗⃗ is a vector quantity directed from -ve charge to +ve charge.

𝒑

Electric field due to electric dipole: ⃗𝑬𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏 . 𝟐𝒑𝟑

𝟒𝝅Ɛ 𝒓
𝟎

⃗ 𝒆𝒒. = - 𝟏 . 𝒑𝟑
𝑬 𝟒𝝅Ɛ 𝒓
𝟎

Electric dipole in a uniform electric field:

Fnet = 0, ζ ≠ 0
ζ = p.E.Sinɵor ⃗⃗𝛇 = 𝒑 ⃗⃗
⃗ x𝑬
For stable equilibrium: ɵ = 00

For unstable equilibrium: ɵ = 1800

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Force due to multiple charges: ⃗ =𝑭
𝑭 ⃗ 𝟏+𝑭
⃗ 𝟐+𝑭
⃗ 𝟑+⋯

Electric field due to multiple charges: ⃗ =𝑬

𝑬 ⃗ 𝟏+𝑬
⃗ 𝟐+𝑬
⃗ 𝟑+⋯

Question 1. Derive expression of the torque acting on an electric dipole, when it is held in a uniform electric field.
What is the net force on the dipole?

Answer:

As forces acting on +q and -q are equal and

opposite hence Fnet = 0
As forces form a couple so dipole experiences
a torque, given by-
Torque = Force x perpendicular distance
ζ = qE x 2a Sinɵ
ζ = (q x 2a) E. Sinɵ
⃗ x ⃗𝑬
ζ = pE Sinɵ or ⃗⃗𝛇 = 𝒑 ⃗

Question 2. Depict the orientation of the dipole in (i) Stable, (ii) unstable equilibrium in a uniform electric field.

Answer:

Question 3. An electric dipole of length of 2cm is placed at an angle of 300 with an electric field 2 x 105 N/C . If the
dipole experiences a torque of 8 x 10-3 Nm, what is the magnitude of either charge on dipole?

Answer: Given, 2a = 2cm = 2 x 10-2m, E = 2 x 105 N/C

ɵ = 300 , ζ = 8 x 10-3 Nm
ζ = (q x 2a) E Sin ɵ
𝛇 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
q= =
𝟐𝒂𝑬𝐒𝐢𝐧 ɵ 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒙 𝟐𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟎𝟎

On solving- q = 4 x 10-6 C
⃗
⃗ = 𝑭 , Flux ɸE = 𝑬
Electric flux: 𝑬 ⃗ .𝑨
⃗ = E.A.Cos ɵ OR ɸE = E ∮ 𝒅𝑨
𝒒

𝟏
Gauss Theorem: The net outward normal electric flux through any closed surface of any shape is Ɛ times of net charge
𝟎
enclosed by the surface.
𝒒𝒏𝒆𝒕
i.e. ɸ = Ɛ𝟎

* Flux does not depend on shape and size of gaussian surface.

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Application of Gauss theorem:

1. Electric field due to infinitely long positively charged straight wire-

Step 1: Imagine a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r ( as the field is required at a distance ‘r’ from charged wire) and
of length ‘l’(length depends on observer because in place of charge ‘charge distribution’ is given).
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
Step 2: According to Gauss’s law, ɸ = є0

𝜆.𝑙
 ɸ= є0
………………….(1)

⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Step 3: According to definition of electric flux, i.e. ɸ = ∫ 𝑬 𝒅𝑺

but there are three surfaces (Two circular & one cylindrical)

 ɸ = ∫𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟏 + ∫ 𝑬
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑺 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟐 + ∫ 𝑬
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑺 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟑
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
 ɸ = ∫ 𝑬 . 𝒅𝑺𝟏 . 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝟗𝟎𝟎 + ∫ 𝑬 . 𝒅𝑺𝟐 . 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝟎𝟎 + ∫ 𝑬 . 𝒅𝑺𝟑 . 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝟗𝟎𝟎
 ɸ = 𝟎 + ∫ 𝑬 . 𝒅𝑺𝟐 . 𝟏 + 𝟎
 ɸ = 𝑬. 𝟐𝝅𝒓. 𝒍……………(2)

Step 4: From equation (1) and (2)-

𝜆.𝑙
= 𝑬. 𝟐𝝅𝒓. 𝒍
є0

𝜆
⃗ =
𝐄 𝐫̂----------------(Result)
2𝜋є0 𝑟
𝒒
• For line charge, linear charge density λ = 𝑳
𝒒
• For surface charge, surface charge density σ = 𝑨

2. Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet-

Flux will be calculated for surface 1 and 2, for surface 3

flux =0 as ɵ = 900 between 𝑬 ⃗⃗ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∮ 𝑬
⃗ . 𝒅𝑨
So, ɸ = ∮ 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = EA +EA = 2EA………(i)
⃗ . 𝒅𝑨
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
According to Gauss’s law, ɸ = є0
𝜎𝐴
 ɸ= є0
………………….(ii)

From equation (i) and (ii)-

𝜎𝐴
= 2𝐸𝐴
є0
𝜎
E = 2є
0

3. Electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell-

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(i) Outside the shell:

Consider a gaussian surface of radius R (r<R). r being the radius of the shell.

So flus through small area dA, dɸ = ⃗𝑬. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝒅𝑨 = E.dA

So total flux, ɸ = E.∮ 𝒅𝑨 = E.4πR2……………(i)

𝒒𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅
According to Gauss’s law, ɸ =
є𝟎

𝝈𝑨
ɸ=
є𝟎
𝝈𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
ɸ= ………………….(ii)
є𝟎

So from equation (i) and (ii)

𝝈𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝝈 𝒓𝟐
E.4πR2 = => E = .
є𝟎 Ɛ𝟎 𝑹𝟐

(ii) At the surface r=R

𝝈 𝟏 𝒒
Therefore E = = .
Ɛ𝟎 𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝟎 𝒓𝟐

(iii) Inside the shell-

The net charge inside the shell is zero therefore E =0
Graphical representation:

Question 1. How does the electric flux due to a point charge enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface get affected
when its radius is increased?

Answer: Flux remains unaffected as flux does not depends on shape and size of Gaussian surface.

Question 2. A charge Q is placed at the centre of a cube. What is the electric flux through one of its surface?
𝑸 𝑸
Answer: According to Gauss law, flux through cube is . As a cube has y faces therefore flux through one surface = .
Ɛ𝟎 𝟔Ɛ𝟎

Question 3. The magnitude of electric field due to a point charge at a distance of 4m is 9 NC -1. From the same charge,
at what distance electric field will be 16 NC-1?
𝑸 𝑸 𝑸
Answer: As E = K. , therefore, 9 = K and 16 = K
𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝟐 𝒓𝟐

𝟗 𝒓𝟐
On dividing 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟏𝟔
=> r =3m

Question 4. According to coulomb’s law which is the correct relation for the following figure?

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(a) q1q2 > 0 (b) q1q2 < 0 (c) q1q2 = 0 (d) q1 / q2 >0

Answer: Since the force is attractive, the charges must be of opposite nature, so q1q2 < 0 is correct.

Chapter 2 - ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

1. Electric potential V=W/q ( scalar quantity SI unit J/C )
2. Electric potential due to a point charge = kQ/r
3. Electric potential due to a dipole , on axis V=kp/r2 ,on equator V=0
4. Equipotential Surface A surface for which potential is same at all points.
5. Work done in moving a charge on equipotential surface is zero.

6. Potential energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field U=-pEcosθ

7. Electric potential energy for system of charges

For three charges system U

➢ Put values of charges with their sign ( positive or negative )

QUESTIONS:-
1. Draw a graph showing the variation of (i) electric field, and electric potential with distance r due to a point charge.
[ 1 mark ]
Ans.-

2. Derive the expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when a dielectric slab of thickness t is inserted
between the plates of capacitor [ 3 marks]
Ans. Electric field in the area filled with air between the plates.
Eo=σ/εo
Electric field intensity within the dielectric medium E=σ/Kεo
By the definition of potential difference, the potential difference between the plates.
V= Work done in moving a unit charge from one plate (negative) to another (positive) plate.
= Work done in moving a unit charge a distance (d−t) in air and distance t in dielectric medium
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V=Eo×(d−t)+Et
On substituting the values of Eo and E,
V=σ/εo(d−t)+σ/Kεot
or V=σ/εo[(d−t)+t/K]
or V=q/Aεo[(d−t)+t/K]
Hence capacity of the condenser
C=qV
C=εoA/[(d−t)+t/K]
This is the required expression.

3. A parallel plate capacitor is charged by a battery. After sometime the battery is disconnected and a
dielectric slab with its thickness equal to the plate separation is inserted between the plates. How will
[ 3 marks]

(i) the capacitance of the capacitor,

(ii) electric field between the plates and
(iii) the energy stored in the capacitor be affected? Justify your answer in each case.

Answer:
Let C be the capacitance and V be the potential difference.
The charge on the capacitor plates will then be Q = CV.
The electric field between the plates, E = Vd and the energy stored,

As the dielectric (K) is introduced after disconnecting the battery

We have the new values of charge, Q’ = Q Capacitance C’ = KC

Potential V’ = QKC=VK

(i) New capacitance is K times its original.

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4. A slab of material of dielectric constant K has the same area as that of the plates of a parallel plate capacitor
but has the thickness d/2, where d is the separation between the plates. Find out the expression for its
capacitance when the slab is inserted between the plates of the capacitor.
[ 3 marks ]

Answer.
Total potential difference between the plates

5.A point charge Q is placed at point O as shown in the figure. Is the potential difference VA – VB positive,
negative or zero, if Q is
(i) positive
(ii) negative? [ 2 marks]

Answer:
Clearly,

As OA < OB, so the quantity within bracket is negative.

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(i) If q is positive charge, VA – VB = negative
(ii) If q is negative charge, VA – VB = positive
6.Calculate the amount of work done to dissociate a system of three charges 1 μC, 1 μC and -4 μC placed on
the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side 10 cm. [ 3 marks]

Answer

7.What is the work done in moving a test charge q through a distance of 1 cm along the equatorial axis of an
electric dipole? [ 1 mark ]
Answer:
Since potential for equatorial axis
V=0
∴ W = qV = 0
8.Calculate the expression for the work done on an electric dipole of dipole moment p in turning it from its
position of stable equilibrium to a position of unstable equilibrium in a uniform electric
field E. [ 2 marks ]
Answer:
Torque, acting on the dipole is, τ = pE sin θ

CHAPTER:3 Current Electricity

Q1. Define drift velocity and derive the expression for it.

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ANS: Drift velocity (vd) is the average velocity of free electrons in a
conductor under the influence of an electric field. [CBSE 09,15,16,20].

Q2. Deduce the Ohm’s Law using the concept of drift velocity. [CBSE 2014,
2019 ].
Ans:

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Q3. Define current density and deduce Microscopic Ohm’s law.

13
ANS:

Q4.Plot
the graph
showing the variation of resistivity with temperature for a (i) Metals (ii) Alloys
(iii) Semiconductor.[CBSE 2016,17,19,22,23 ].
Ans.

Q5. What is Wheatstone bridge? When is bridge said to be balanced? Use

Kirchhoff's rule to obtain conditions for the balance condition of a
Wheatstone bridge. [CBSE 2015,17,23].
Ans: Wheat-stone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances which can
be used to calculate one of them in terms of rest. The bridge is said to be
balance if
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆

Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the closed mesh ABDA, we get

I1P + IgG - (I - I1) R = 0..........(1)
where G is the resistance of the galvanometer. Again applying kirchhoff's
second law to the closed mesh BCDB we get,
(I - Ig) Q - (I - I1 + Ig) S - IgG = 0 ............(2)
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In balance condition no current flows in the arm BD i.e. Ig = 0.
Putting Ig = 0 in equations (1) and (2),
we get I1P - (I - I1) R = 0
or I1P = (I - I1)R ..............(3)
and I1 Q - (I - I1) S = 0
i.e. I1 Q = (I - I1) S.............(4)
Dividing (3) by (4), we get
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆

Q6. The figure shows the plot of terminal

voltage V versus the current I for a given cell.
Calculate from the graph (a) EMF of the cell
(b) internal resistance of the cell. [CBSE
2017,21,23 ].
Ans: (a) When I=0, V= E
So, E= 6 Volts
(b) V= E -Ir
4= 6 - Ir
4= 6-1*r
r=2Ω
Q7. Two cells of EMF 1.5 volt and 2.0 volt having
internal resistance 0.2 ohm and 0.3 ohm
respectively are connected in parallel. Calculate
the EMF and internal resistance of the
equivalent cell. [CBSE 2013,16,21,23 ].
𝐸1𝑟2+𝐸2𝑟1 𝑟1∗𝑟2
Ans: 𝐸= 𝑟=
𝑟1+𝑟2 𝑟1+𝑟2
1.5∗0.3+2∗0.2 0.2∗0.3
E= 𝑟= = 0.12 ohm
0.2+0.3 0.2 +0.3
0.85
E= = 1.7 V
0.5

CHAPTER:4
(MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM)

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Q1. Write Biot-savart law in vector form. [CBSE2017,18,20,22].
Ans:

Q2. Use Biot-Savart law to find the expression for the magnetic field due to
a circular loop of radius r carrying current I at its centre. [CBSE 14,15 ].
𝜇0 𝑖 𝑑𝑙 𝑋 𝑟
Ans: 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟3

The magnitude of magnetic field dB due to current

element at the centre O is
𝜇0 𝑖 𝑑𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝑖 𝑑𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛 90
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝑖 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝜇0 𝐼 2𝜋𝑟
∫ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑟 2 0
𝜇0 2𝜋𝐼
B=
4𝜋 𝑟

Q3: Derive the expression for the force acting on a current carrying
conductor of length l in a uniform magnetic field B. [CBSE 2017].

Ans: Consider a conductor PQ carrying current I placed in a uniform

magnetic field B. The magnetic field is acting along x-axis and conductor is
placed along x-axis. Let n = no. of electrons per unit volume

A = area of cross-section of conductor vd = drift velocity of electrons

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∴ I = n A e vd ............(1)

Since each electron is moving in uniform magnetic field, therefore, each

electron will experience Lorentz force.

Q4.

Derive an expression for the force per unit length between the two infinitely
long straight parallel current carrying conductors. Hence define the SI unit
of current. [CBSE 2016,18,22].

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Ans:
Similarly, one can show that Fba = -Fab.
One Ampere: When two parallel current carrying conductors are placed at
unit distance and of unit length experience a force of 2 X 10-7 N then the
current flowing through the conductor is said to be 1 ampere.
NOTE: When the direction of current is same than the nature of force will be
attractive and when the direction of current is a opposite then the nature of
force will be repulsive.
Q5. With the help of neat and labelled diagram explain the principle and
working of a moving coil galvanometer. [CBSE 14,16,17,18,22 ].
(i) What is the function of uniform radial field?
(ii) Why is it necessary to introduce a cylindrical soft iron core inside
the coil of galvanometer?
Ans:

It works on the principal that when a current carrying rectangular coil is

placed in a uniform magnetic field experience a torque.
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 When current is passed through the coil, it experiences the torque
τ = NIAB Sin θ
Since the magnetic field is radial so θ=900
τ = NIAB Sin 90 = NIAB
This torque produces the restoring torque in the phosphor Bronze strip
the restoring torque,
τ=kθ
In equilibrium condition,
NIAB = k θ
kθ 𝑘
I= Where G= is called Galvanometer constant.
𝑁𝐴𝐵 𝑁𝐴𝐵
(i) Radial magnetic field provide uniform torque to the coil.
(ii) To increase the strength of magnetic field.
Q6. Explain why the Galvanometer as such cannot be used as an
Ammeter? [CBSE 23,24].
Ans: (i) Galvanometer is a very sensitive device it gives a full deflection
for a current of order Micron ampere
(ii) it has large resistance when connected in series it will change the
value of current in the circuit.
Q7: A proton and Alpha particle enter in a uniform magnetic field
perpendicularly such that they have (i) Same linear momentum (ii) Same
accelerating potential. Find the ratio of their radii in both cases. [CBSE
17,19,21,23 ].
Ans: (i) We know that,
𝑚𝑣 𝑝
r= =
𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵
𝑟𝑝 𝑞2 2𝑞 2
= = =
𝑟𝛼 𝑞1 𝑞 1
(ii) Again,
𝑚𝑣 𝑝 √2𝑚𝑞𝑉 √2𝑚𝑉
r= = = =
𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵 𝑞 √𝑞
𝑟𝑝 √𝑞𝛼 √ 𝑚𝑝 2𝑞 𝑚 1
= * =√ √ =
𝑟𝛼 √𝑞𝑝 √𝑚𝛼 𝑞 4𝑚 √2
Q8. A wire AB carrying a study current of 10 A and is lying on the table.
Another wire CD carrying 6 A is held directly above AB at a height of 2 mm.
Find the mass of per unit length of the wire CD so that it remains
suspended at its position when left free. Give the direction of current
flowing in CD with respect to AB. [CBSE 2013,16,19].
Ans:

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Q9. A square loop of side 20 cm carrying a current of 1 A is kept near an
infinite long straight wire carrying a current of 2 A in the same plane as shown
in the figure. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on
the loop due to current carrying conductor. [CBSE 2021,23 ].
Ans:

20
 CHAPTER:5
(MAGNETISM & MATTER)
Q1. An electron in an atom revolves around the nucleus in an orbit of radius
with frequency ν. Write the expression for the magnetic dipole moment of
the revolving electron.
𝑒 𝑒 1
Ans: 𝐼 = and M = IA = 𝜋r2 = eωr2.
𝑇 𝑇 2
Q2. What are the SI unit of pole strength and magnetic dipole moment?
Ans: (i) SI unit of pole strength is Am
(ii) SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is Am2
Q3. How does the (i) Pole strength and (ii) magnetic dipole moment of each
part of a bar magnet change, if it cut into two equal pieces transverse to its
length?
Ans: (i) Pole strength will remain same.
(ii) Magnetic dipole moment will be halved.
2𝑙 𝑀
M’= m X = ml =
2 2
Q4. The permeability of a magnetic material is 0.9983. Name the type of
magnetic material it represents.
Ans: As µ < 1, so it is Diamagnetic material.

21
Q5. Compare Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic material on
the basis of behavior in (i) Magnetic field (ii) Susceptibility (iii) Permeability
(iv) Temperature.
Ans:
Physical Quantity Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

Susceptibility(χm) -1≤ χm < 0 0<χm < Ɛ χm>>1

Relative 0≤ µr <1 1< µr <1+Ɛ µr >>1

Permeability
Temperature No effect χm α
1
Decreases
𝑇
In Magnetic Field

CHAPTER-6 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

# SUB TOPIC- MAGNETIC FLUX
DEFINITION- : It is defined as the total number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through a given surface .
FORMULA- ϕ=B ⃗⃗⃗ = BA cos θ , where θ is the angle between area vector and magnetic field.
⃗⃗⃗ .A
It’s S.I. is Weber (Wb). It is a scalar quantity
Q.1- A coil of area A is kept perpendicular in a uniform magnetic field B. If the coil is rotated by 180 0 what will be the
change in flux? 1M
Hint- Change in flux = BA cos180 – BAcos 0 = -2BA
Q.2- Define magnetic flux. Write its SI unit. Is it Scalar or vector? 1M
# SUB TOPIC- ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION & FARADAY’S LAW
DEFINITION(emi)-: Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit is changed, an emf and hence a current is
induced in the circuit. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.

FARADAY’S LAWS- I law- Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed loop changes , an emf is induced in the loop.
II law- The magnitude of emf is given by
dϕ
e= − where ϕ= BA cos θ
dt
Q.1 State the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
Q.2 A wire cuts across a flux of 0.2x10-2 Wb in 0.12 s. What is the induced emf in the wire? 1 M
Hint- Change in flux= 0.2x10-2 Wb , t= 0.2 s
e= - change in flux/ time interval = 1.67x 10-2 volt

22
Q.3- The closed loop (PQRS) of wire is moved in to a uniform magnetic field at right angles to the plane of the paper as
shown in figure. Predict the direction of the induced current in the loop. 1M

Hint- Anticlockwise
# SUB TOPIC- LENZ’S LAW-
The direction of induced current is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux responsible for its production.
Illustration-When north pole is moved towards loop, due to Lenz’s Law loop will repel it by inducing current in
anticlockwise direction. Similarly, when north pole is taken away current will be induced in clockwise direction.
This shows that mechanical work is required to induce the current, which according to conservation of energy.

Q.1- What is the direction of induced currents in metal rings 1 and 2 when current I in the wire is increasing steadily ?
1M

Hint- Clockwise in loop 1, anticlockwise in loop 2

Q. 2-State Lenz’s law. Explain, by giving examples that Lenz’s law is consequence of conservation of energy.
3M
Q.3- A long straight current carrying wire passes normally through the centre of circular loop. If the current through the
wire increases, will there be an induced emf in the loop? Justify. 2M
Hint- The circular field lines set up around the wire lie in the plane of the loop. The flux linked the coil in perpendicular
direction is zero. Any change in the current will not change the flux. Hence no current is set up.
# SUB TOPIC- A.C. GENERATOR-

PRINCIPLE- It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, i,e, whenever there is change in magnetic flux
linked with a coil, an emf is induced in the coil .
WORKING –

When the armature coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field, effective area of coil (𝐴 cos 𝜃) changes continuously due to
which magnetic flux linked with it changes. Hence an emf is induced in the circuit and a current flows through the coil.
Magnetic flux linked with the coil, at any instant is given by-
𝜙 = B A cos 𝜃 = B A cos 𝜔𝑡
23
 ⇨ Induced emf in the coil
𝑑𝜙 𝑑
𝑒 = −𝑁 𝑑𝑡
= −𝑁 𝑑𝑡( 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡)
⇨ 𝑒 = −𝑁𝐵𝐴 (−𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡

Obviously, when sin 𝜔𝑡 =1

𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒0 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝜔
⇨ 𝒆 = 𝒆𝟎 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑒 𝑒
& I = = 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅 𝑅
Q.1- Explain the principle and working of ac generator with a suitable diagram. Also, draw the wave form of out emf.
3M

# SUB TOPIC- SELF INDUCTANCE-

“ It is the property of the current carrying coil that opposes the change of the current flowing through it.”
This occurs mainly due to the self induced emf produced in the coil itself.
Magnetic flux 𝜙 linked with coil is directly proportional to own current I
i.e. 𝜙 = 𝐿𝐼 where L is known as self inductance .
For N turns of a coil , N 𝜙=L I
By Faraday’s law
𝑑𝜙
Emf 𝑒 = −𝑁 𝑑𝑡
=> e= -LdI/dt
S.I unit of Self inductance is henry (H).

# SUB TOPIC- SELF INDUCTANCE OF A LONG SOLENOID-

Let a current I is flowing through a long solenoid, then magnetic field at its centre
𝜇 𝑁𝐼 𝑁
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼 = 0 𝑙 [∵ 𝑛 = 𝑙 ]
⇨ magnetic flux linked with each turn of the solenoid
𝜇 𝑁𝐼 𝜇 𝑁 𝐼𝐴
𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴 = ( 0𝑙 ) 𝐴 = 0 𝑙
𝑁𝜙 N 𝜇 𝑁 𝐼𝐴 𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴
⇨ 𝐿= I
= I( 0𝑙 ) = 𝑙
𝜇0 (𝑛𝑙)2 𝐴
⇨ 𝐿= 𝑙
= 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙
If we fill the inside of the solenoid with a material of relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 , then
𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑛2 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙
NOTE- From the formula it is clear that –
(i) L is directly proportional to no. of turns per unit length.
(ii) L is directly proportional to area of cross section of the coil.
Q.1 Deduce an expression for self inductance of a long solenoid of N turns , having a core of relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 .
3M
Q.2 Define self inductance , write its SI unit. Give two factors on which self inductance of an air core solenoid depends.
2M

# SUB TOPIC- MUTUAL INDUCTANCE-

Definition- The mutual inductance of two coils may be defined as the induced emf set up in one coil when the current in
the neighbouring coil changes at unit rate.
𝑑I2
Formula-(1) M= 𝜙/𝐼 (2) −𝑒 = 𝑀 ( )
𝑑𝑡

SI unit – henry (H) , 1henry= 1Vs/A

# SUB TOPIC- MUTUAL INDUCTANCE OF TWO LONG SOLENOID-

24
Magnetic field at the centre of solenoid 𝑆2
𝜇0 𝑁2 I2
𝐵2 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 I2 =
𝑙
Magnetic flux linked with each turn of inner solenoid 𝑆1
𝜇0 𝑁2 I2 𝜇0 𝑁2 I2 𝐴1
𝜙1 = 𝐵2 𝐴1 =( ) 𝐴1 =
𝑙 𝑙
Hence mutual inductance
𝑁1 𝜙1 𝑁 𝜇 𝑁 I 𝐴 𝜇 𝑁 𝑁 𝐴
⇨ 𝑀12 = I2
= I 1 ( 0 2𝑙 2 1 ) = 0 1𝑙 2 1
2
𝜇 (𝑛 𝑙) (𝑛 𝑙)𝑟 2
⇨ 𝑀12 = 0 1 𝑙 2 1 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑟12 𝑙
Similarly, 𝑀21 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑟12 𝑙
⇨ 𝑀12 = 𝑀21 = 𝑀 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑟12 𝑙
If a medium of relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 is filled in between the solenoids then
𝑀 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑟12 𝑙
Factors on which mutual inductance of a pair of solenoids depends :
(i) number of turns and separation between two solenoids
(ii) relative orientation of two solenoids
Q.1- Define mutual inductance . Give its SI unit. 1M
Q.2- Obtain the mutual inductance of a pair of long coaxial solenoid s each of the length l and radii r1 and r2(r2> r1). N1
and N2 are the total no. of turns of S1 and S2 respectively. 3M

Commonly made error-

1. Instead of defining self inductance or mutual inductance students are used to define self induction and mutual
induction.
2. Students did not get usual meaning of each symbol.
3. Students get confused about frequency. They should use frequency to find out angular velocity.

25
26
 Chapter 7- ALTERNATING CURRENT
SUB TOPIC- Pure resistive, pure inductive and pure capacitive circuit
Types of circuit Voltage and current Phase relation Phasor diagram and wave form of
equation between V and I V and I
Pure Resistive 𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Voltage and
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 current are in
same phase

Pure capacitive 𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Current leads to

𝝅 𝝅
𝐼= 𝐼0 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + ) the voltage by 𝟐
𝟐
radian

Pure inductive 𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Voltage leads to

𝝅 𝝅
𝐼= 𝐼0 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟐 ) the current by 𝟐
radian

Q. 1 Draw the phasor diagram for pure resistive, pure capacitive and pure inductive circuits. 1M
Q.2 Draw graphs showing the variation of voltage and current with time over one cycle of a.c. for pure resistance, pure
capacitance and pure inductance. 1M

SUB TOPIC- Reactance and reactance vs frequency curve

Reactance Formula Reactance vs frequency curve
Capacitive 𝑿𝑪 =
𝟏
=
𝟏
𝝎𝑪 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
𝟏
⇨ 𝑿𝑪 ∝
𝒇

Inductive 𝑿𝑳 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
⇨ 𝑿𝑳 ∝ 𝑓

Q.1- Write the formula of inductive reactance and show the variation between inductive reactance and frequency
graphically. 1M

Q.2- Write the formula of capacitive reactance and show the variation between capacitive reactance and frequency
graphically. 1M

27
SUB TOPIC- SERIES LCR CIRCUIT-

AC through LCR circuit :

We have the applied a.c. voltage

𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 -------(1)

From phasor diagram

𝑽 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2 = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐶 − 𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2 = 𝐼√𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2

𝑉
⇨ 𝑰= 2
√𝑅2 +(𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )

Obviously, effective resistance of the circuit, known as

impedance is given by
𝑍 = √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
Hence, I = I0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) ----(2)
𝑉𝐶 −𝑉𝐿 𝐼0 𝑋𝐶 −𝐼0 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿
Where, tan 𝜙 = 𝑉𝑅
= 𝐼0 𝑅
= 𝑅
𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿
⇨ 𝜙 = tan−1 ( 𝑅
)
Power factor- cos 𝝓 = R/Z
From (1) & (2) we conclude that current in the circuit leads the voltage in phase by 𝜙.

Q. 3- A series LCR circuit is connected to an ac source . Using the phasor diagram , derive the expression for the
impedance of the circuit. 3M

SUB TOPIC – RESONANCE IN SERIES LCR CIRCUIT-

At resonance state of series LCR circuit, frequency of applied ac source becomes equal to the natural frequency of ac
circuit.

at resonance when, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 , and phase angle , ϕ = 0

28
Impedance Z= R
1
Angular frequency at resonance is given by, 𝜔 =
√𝐿𝐶

Q.4- Plot a graph to show the variation of current with frequency of the ac source , explaining the nature of its variation for
two different resistances R1 and R2 (R1> R2) at resonance. 2M
Hint-

SUBTOPIC- TRANSFORMER-
Transformer : It is an electrical device, which is used to increase or decrease the voltage in a.c. circuits.
Principle : It is based on the principle of mutual induction, i,e, whenever there is change in magnetic flux linked with
a coil, an emf is induced in the neighbouring coil.

Working- When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, magnetic flux linked with it changes which links to the
secondary and induces an emf in it due to mutual induction.
Back emf induced in Primary
𝑑𝜙
𝑒𝑝 = − 𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑡
Similarly, emf induced in the secondary
𝑑𝜙
𝑒𝑠 = − 𝑁𝑠 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙
𝑒𝑠 − 𝑁𝑠 𝑁𝑠
⇨ = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙 = ---------(1)
𝑒𝑝 − 𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝑝
𝑑𝑡
As the primary has negligible resistance, 𝑒𝑝 = 𝑉𝑝 and if secondary is in an open circuit then 𝑒𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 , Then from (1) we
have,
𝑒𝑠 𝑉 𝑁
𝑒𝑝
= 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑟 --------(2)
𝑝 𝑝
𝑁𝑠
Where, 𝑟 = 𝑁𝑝
, is called transformation ratio
Now, if the transformer is ideal, then
power input = power output
⇨ 𝑉𝑃 x 𝑖𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 x 𝑖𝑠
𝑖𝑠 𝑉𝑝 𝑁 1
⇨ 𝑖𝑝
= 𝑉𝑠
= 𝑁𝑝 = 𝑟
𝑠

Efficiency of transformer- Out put power/ Input power = 𝑉𝑠 𝑖𝑠 /𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑝

Note- Above relation shows that when voltage is stepped-up, the current is correspondingly reduced in the same ratio,
and vice-versa .

Energy losses in a transformer :

29
 1. Copper loss , 2. Iron loss , 3. Hysteresis loss , 4. Flux leakage
Q. 4- Explain with the help of a diagram, the working of step-down transformer. Why is a laminated iron core used in a
transformer? 3M
Hint- Laminated core is used in transformer to reduce the eddy current that causes loss in form of heat.

CHAPTER - 8

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Basic Equations
Electric & Magnetic Fields:

● Ex = E0 sin (kz-ωt), where k = 2π/λ = propagtion constant

● By = B0 sin (kz-ωt), where c = E0/B0

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

1. Source: Produced by accelerated or oscillating charge
2. Wave Nature: Transverse waves where electric and magnetic field vectors are:
○ Perpendicular to each other
○ Perpendicular to direction of wave propagation
3. Medium: No material medium required for propagation
4. Speed:
○ In free space: c = 1/√(μ0ε0)
○ In medium: v = 1/√(με)
5. Energy:
○ Divided equally between electric & magnetic fields
○ Energy density (in vacuum): U = UE + UB = ½ ε0E² + ½ B²/μ0
6. Velocity: Less than c in dielectric medium
7. Interaction: Not deflected by electric and magnetic fields

Wave Equations
30
Electric Field: Ex = E0 sin (kz-ωt) = E0 sin [2π(z/λ - νt)] = E0 sin [2π (z/λ - t/T)]

Magnetic Field: By = B0 sin (kz-ωt) = B0 sin [2π(z/λ - νt)] = B0 sin [2π (z/λ - t/T)]

Questions

Problem 1: The magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave is given by: By = 2×10-7 sin (0.5×10³ x + 1.5×1011t) (a)
What is the wavelength & frequency of wave? (b) Write an expression for the electric field. [3 marks]

Problem 2: Draw a sketch of a linearly polarized em wave propagating in the z-direction. Indicate the directions of the
oscillating electric & magnetic fields. [1 mark]

Problem 3: When can a charge act as a source of em wave? [1 mark]

TEST YOURSELF

Question 1: Name the following constituent radiations of electromagnetic spectrum which-

1. are used in satellite communication/in radar and geostationary satellite

2. are used for studying crystal structure of solids
3. are similar to the radiations emitted during decay of radioactive nuclei
4. used for water purification/ are absorbed from sunlight by ozone layer ( 2 marks)

Question 2: Name the following constituent radiations of electromagnetic spectrum which-

1. has its wavelength range between 390 nm to 770 nm

2. produce intense heating effect/ used in warfare to look through fog
3. are used for radar systems used in aircraft navigation ( 3 marks)

Question 3: Name the following constituent radiations of electromagnetic spectrum which-

1. are adjacent to the low frequency end of electromagnetic spectrum

2. produced by nuclear reactions/used to destroy cancer cells/treatment of cancer
3. produced by bombarding a metal target by high speed electrons
4. maintains the earth's warmth/ used in remote sensing ( 2 marks)

Question 4: Which constituent radiations of electromagnetic spectrum is used -

1. in Radar
2. in photographs of internal parts of human body/as a diagnostic tool in medicine
3. for taking photographs of sky, during night and fog conditions
4. has the largest penetrating power. Give reason for your answer in each case. ( 2 marks)

Question 5: Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths-

1. λ₁ are used to treat muscular strain

2. λ₂ are used by a F.M. radio station for broadcasting
3. λ₃ are used to detect fractures in bones
4. λ₄ are absorbed by ozone layer of the atmosphere. Identify the name and part of the electromagnetic spectrum
to which these radiations belong. Arrange these wavelengths in order of magnitude. ( 2 marks)

31
Question 6: Write the generalized expression for Ampere's circuital law in terms of the conduction and
displacement current. Mention the situation when there is:

1. only conduction current and no displacement current

2. only displacement current and no conduction current ( 2 marks)

Electromagnetic Spectrum

32
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

S. No. EM Wave Range of λ Range of ν Source Use

1 Radio Wave A few Km to A few Hz to Oscillating Radio and TV

0.3 m 109 Hzs electronic broadcasrting
circuits

2 Microwave 0.3 m to 10-3 10⁹ Hz to 3 Oscillating Radar, analysis of fine

m x 10¹¹ Hz electronic details of atomic and
circuits molecular structures &
Microwave oven

3 Infra-Red wave 10-3 m to 7.8 3 x 10¹¹ Hz Molecules Industry, medicine,

x 10-7 m to 4 x 10¹⁴ and hot astronomy, night vision
Hz bodies device, green house,
revealing secret writings
on ancient walls, etc.

4 Light or Visible 7.8 x 10-7 m 4 x 10¹⁴ Hz Atoms and Optics and Optical
Spectrum to 3.8 x 10-7 to 8 x 10¹⁴ molecules Instruments, Vision,
m Hz when photography, etc.
electrons
are excited

5 Ultra Violet Rays 3.8 x 10-7 m 8 x 10¹⁴ Hz Atoms and Medical application,
to 6 x 10-10 m to 3 x 10¹⁷ molecules in sterilization, killing
Hz electrical bacteria and germs in
discharges food stuff, detection of
and Sun invisible writing, forged
documents, finger print
etc.
6 X-Rays 10-9 m to 6 x 3 x 10¹⁷ Hz Inner or X-ray photography,
10-12 m to 5 x 10¹⁹ more tightly treatment of cancer, skin
Hz bound disease & tumor, locating
electrons in cracks and flaws in
atoms finished metallic objects,
detection of smuggled
goods in bags of a
person study of crystal
structure, etc.
7 γ-Rays They overlap 3 x 10¹⁸ Hz Radioactive Information about
the upper to 3 x 10²² substances structure of nuclei,
limit of X-ray. Hz astronomical research,
10-10m to 10- etc.
14 m

33
 Chapter 9 - RAY OPTICS
Topic- Refraction of light…..

Key-points:
λ′
✓ In Refraction of light, wavelength of light changes, λ= where n is the refractive index of the medium.
𝑛
c
✓ Speed of light also changes, v = n
✓ Frequency and energy of light remains the same.

1. When a wave is propagating from a rarer to a denser medium, which characteristic of the wave does not change and why ?
(1 mark )
Ans. frequency, as frequency is a characteristic of the source of waves

OR

When monochromatic light travels from one medium to another, its wavelength changes but its frequency remains same. Why ?
Ans. frequency is a characteristic of the source of waves. That is why it remains the same.
But wavelength is characteristic of medium. So wavelength and velocity both change.

2. When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does this decrease in speed imply a
reduction in the energy carried by the wave ? (1 mark)
Ans. No. Energy carried out by a wave depends on the amplitude of the wave, not on the speed of wave propagation.
Test Yourself:
◼ A ray of monochromatic light propagating in air, is incident on the surface of water. Which of the following will be the same
for the reflected and refracted rays? (1 mark)
(a) Energy carried (c) Speed
(b) Frequency (d) Wavelength
◼ A ray of light of wavelength 600 nm propagates from air into a medium. If its wavelength in the medium becomes 400 nm,
the refractive index of the medium is (1 mark)
(a) 1.4 (b) 1.6 (c) 1.5 (d) 1.8
Topic : Total Internal Reflection (TIR).…
Key-points:

✓ Total internal reflection : When a ray of light travelling from denser to a rarer medium is incident on the interface at an
angle greater than the critical angle, it is totally reflected back in to the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total
internal reflection of light.
✓ Conditions for TIR :
(i) light ray must travel from denser to a rarer medium
(ii) angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle (𝑖 > 𝑖𝑐 )
✓ Critical angle : The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the rarer medium is 900
is called critical angle.
1
✓ Relation b/w refractive index of denser medium and critical angle : 𝑛=
sin 𝑖𝑐

34
3. What is the critical angle for a material of refractive index √2 ? (1 mark)
1 1
Ans. sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝜇 =
√2
⇨ 𝑖𝑐 = 450

4. Find the relation between critical angle and refractive index. (2 marks)
sin 𝑖 1
Ans. By Snell’s law, =
sin 𝑟 𝜇
But when 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐 , 𝑟 = 900
sin 𝑖𝑐 1 1
⇨ sin 90
= 𝜇
⇨ 𝜇 = sin 𝑖
𝑐
5. Draw a ray diagram to show how a right angled isosceles prism can be used to-
(i) deviate a light ray through (i) 900 ,
(ii) deviate a light ray through 1800 / to obtain the inverted image
(iii) to invert an image without the deviation of the rays ? (3 marks)
(i) (ii) (iii)

6. Three rays (1,2,3) of different colours fall normally on one of the sides of an isosceles right angled prism as shown.
The refractive index of prism for these rays is 1.39, 1.47 and 1.52 respectively. Find which of these rays get
internally reflected and which get only refracted from AC. Trace the path of rays. Justify your answer. ( 2 marks)
[Ans. For TIR, 𝒊 > 𝒊𝒄

Test Yourself:
◼ What is total internal reflection of light ? State the conditions for the phenomenon of total internal reflection to
occur. (3 marks)
◼ Define critical angle. What is the relation between refractive index & critical angle for a given pair of optical media ?
(2 marks)

35
36
 Topic - Mirror Formula (Concave Mirror)

∆ENF and ∆𝐴′𝐵′𝐹 are similar

𝐵′𝐴′ 𝐵′𝐹 𝑣−𝑓
∴ = = -----------(1)
𝐵𝐴 𝑁𝐹 𝑓
∆𝐴𝐵𝑃 and ∆𝐴′𝐵′𝑃 are also similar
𝐵′𝐴′ 𝑃𝐵′
∴ = =
𝑣
----------(2)
𝐵𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝑢

⇨ from equation (1) and (2)

𝑣−𝑓 𝑣
=
𝑓 𝑢
𝑣 𝑣
− 1=𝑢
𝑓
1 1 1
− =
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
Using sign conventions, u = -u, v = -v, f = -f
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

Test Yourself:
◼ A concave mirror produces a real and magnified image of an object kept in front of it. Draw a ray diagram to show
the image formation and use it to derive the mirror equation. ( 3 marks)
◼ Draw a ray diagram for the formation of image of an object by a convex mirror. Hence, obtain the mirror equation.
(3 marks)
[Hint: Use sign conventions u = -u, v = + v, f = + f in the above derivation]

Topic : Thin Lens Formula…

1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

Topic - Lens Maker’s Formula……

For the refraction at the interface ABC (Rarer to denser medium),

𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 (𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏 )
− = ---------(1)
𝒗′ 𝒖 𝑹𝟏
For the refraction at ADC (Denser to rarer medium), image 𝐼1
will act as an imaginary object and if the lens is very thin, then
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 (𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏 )
− =− ---------(2)
𝒗 𝒗′ 𝑹𝟐
on adding (1) & (2) we get

37
 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) (𝑹 − 𝑹 )
𝒗 𝒖 𝟏 𝟐

1 𝟏 (𝑛2 −𝑛1 ) 𝟏 𝟏
⇨ 𝑣
−𝒖 = 𝒏𝟏
(𝑹 − 𝑹 )
𝟏 𝟐
1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⇨ 𝑣
− 𝒖 = (𝒏 − 𝟏) (𝑹 − 𝑹 )
𝟏 𝟐

38
 But when 𝑢 = −∞ then 𝑣 = 𝑓
1 𝟏
⇨ − −∞ = (𝒏 − 𝟏) (𝑹𝟏 − 𝑹𝟏 )
𝑓 𝟏 𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= (𝒏 − 𝟏) ( − )
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Assumptions used :
(i) lens used is very thin.
(ii) Aperture of the lens is very small
(iii) Object is a point object placed at the principal axis.
(iv) All the rays are paraxial.

Keypoints:
✓ if the refractive index of lens = refractive index of medium (n1 = n2), then
(a) The lens will disappear in a medium
(b) The lens will behave as a plane glass plate
✓ An air bubble inside water will behave as a diverging/concave lens.
✓ If a lens of refractive index (n1) is immersed in a medium of refractive index (n2),then
(i) If n2 > n1, nature of lens will change & its focal length will increase
(ii) If n2 < n1, nature of the lens will not change but focal length will increase.

Test Yourself:
◼ Derive expression for the lens maker’s formula using necessary ray diagram.
1 𝟏 𝟏
𝑓
= (𝒏 − 𝟏) (𝑹 − 𝑹 )
𝟏 𝟐
Also state the assumptions in deriving the above relation. ( 3 marks)

◼ A glass lens of refractive index 1.45 disappears when immersed in a liquid. What is the value of refractive index of
the liquid ? (1 mark)
◼ What should be the value of the refractive index of the medium in which the lens should be placed so that it acts
as a plane sheet of glass ? (1 mark)
◼ A biconcave lens made of transparent material of refractive index 1.25 is immersed in water of refractive index
1.33. Will the lens behave a converging or diverging lens ? Give reason. (2 marks)
◼ A biconvex lens made up of glass of refractive index 1.5 is dipped, in turn, in
(i) a medium of refractive index 1.65, (ii) a medium of refractive index 1.33
Will the lens behave a converging or diverging lens in the two cases ? Give reason. (3 marks)

Topic - Refraction through a glass prism…..

Refraction through a glass prism :

Let a light ray is incident on the principal section
ABC of a glass prism as shown
In quadrilateral AQNR,
∠𝐴 + 900 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 + 900 = 3600
⇨ ∠𝐴 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 1800 ----------(1)
In triangle QNR,
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 1800 ----------(2)
From (1) and (2)

39
 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝐴 --------(3)
Now, total deviation
𝛿 = (𝑖 − 𝑟1 ) + (𝑒 − 𝑟2 ) = (𝑖 + 𝑒) − (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )
⇨ 𝛿 =𝑖+𝑒 – 𝐴 ---------(4)
But when 𝛿 = 𝛿𝑚 , 𝑖 = 𝑒 hence 𝑟1 = 𝑟2
⇨ from (3), 2𝑟 = 𝐴 ⇨ 𝑟 = 𝐴/2
From (4), 𝛿𝑚 = 2i – 𝐴 ⇨ 𝑖 = (𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚 )/2
𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚
sin 𝑖 sin( )
⇨ n=
sin 𝑟
= 2
sin 𝐴/2

Test Yourself:

◼ Draw a ray diagram to show the refraction of light through a glass prism. Hence derive the relation ( 3 marks)
𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚
sin( )
n = 2
sin 𝐴/2

◼ A ray of light is refracted by a glass prism of refractive index n. Obtain an expression for the refractive index of the
glass in terms of the angle of prism A and angle of minimum deviation 𝛿𝑚 . Also plot a graph of angle of deviation
as a function of angle of incidence for a triangular prism. ( 5 marks)
◼ A ray of light is refracted by a glass prism of refractive index n. Obtain a relation between angle of incidence, angle
of emergence, angle of prism and angle of deviation. ( 2 marks)

Topic - Optical Instruments (Compound Microscope)…..

Ray diagram of a compound microscope when the final image is at least distance of distinct vision:

Objective = small f,
small aperture Final image =
Eye lens = small f, virtual &
large aperture inverted

(fo < fe)

Magnifying power : It is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the image to the angle subtended at
the eye by the object, when both lie at the least distance of distinct vision.
𝛽 tan 𝛽
M = ≈
𝛼 tan 𝛼
⇨ M=
𝑣0
(1 +
𝐷 𝐿
) = − 𝑓 (1 +
𝐷
) Length of microscope = 𝑣0 + 𝑢𝑒
𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑜 𝑓𝑒

Ray diagram of a compound microscope in normal adjustment

𝑣0 𝐷 Length of microscope = 𝑣0 + fe 40
M = X
𝑢0 𝑓𝑒
 Test Yourself:
◼ Draw a labelled ray diagram of a compound microscope when image is formed at least distance of distinct vision.
Define its magnifying power and write the expression for the magnifying power. ( 3 marks)
◼ Draw a labelled ray diagram for the formation of image by a compound microscope in normal adjustment.
write an expression for its magnifying power in this case. ( 3 marks)
◼ You are given the following three lenses. Which two lenses will you use as an eyepiece and as an objective to
construct a compound microscope ? Give reason. (2 marks)

Topic - Astronomical Telescope (Refracting type)….

When the final image is formed at infinity (Normal Adjustment)

Objective = large f, large Final image =

aperture virtual &
Eye lens = small f, small inverted
aperture

𝑓0
Magnifying power= M = −
𝑓𝑒

Length of telescope = fo + fe
When the final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision

𝑓 𝑓
Magnifying power M =− 0 (1 + 𝑒 )
𝑓𝑒 𝐷
Length of telescope = fo + ue

Test Yourself:
◼ Draw a labelled ray diagram to show the image formation by an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment.
Also write the expression for its magnifying power in this case. ( 3 marks)

◼ Draw a labelled ray diagram of an astronomical telescope when the final image is formed at least distance of
distinct vision and write the expression for its magnifying power. ( 3 marks)

◼ You are given the following three lenses. Which two lenses will you use as an eyepiece and as an objective to
construct an astronomical telescope ? Give reason. ( 2 marks)

41
Topic - Astronomical Telescope (Reflecting Type) Cassegrain type…

𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜

𝑴= = -
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑒

Advantages of reflecting telescope

(i) No chromatic aberration
(ii) Spherical aberration can be minimized by using parabolic mirror
(iii) Easy to manufacture mirror of large aperture
(iv) Brighter image
(v) large magnifying power

Test Yourself:
◼ Draw a schematic diagram of a reflecting telescope. State two advantages of reflecting telescope over refracting telescope. Write
the formula for its magnifying power ? ( 3 marks)

Topic - Equivalent focal length of two thin lenses in contact…

Keypoints:

1 1 1
✓ Equivalent focal length of two thin convex lenses, = +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

✓ Equivalent power of the combination, P = P1 + P2

1 1 1
✓ If one lens is convex and the other concave, = −
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

✓ If one lens is convex and the other concave having same focal lengths, f1 = +f, f2 = -f, f = ∞, P = 0
(Such lenses are used in sun-glasses having zero power)

Test Yourself:
◼ When a convex lens of focal length 30 cm is in contact with a concave lens of focal length 20 cm, find out if the system is converging
or diverging. ( 2 marks)

Sign Conventions:

1. Focal length of Convex lens = +f , Convex mirror = +f

2. Focal length of Concave lens = - f , Concave mirror = -f
3. Power of Convex lens = +f
4. Power of Concave lens = -f
5. For a Plano Convex lens, R1 = + R1, R2 = ∞
6. For a Plano Concave lens, R1 = -R1, R2 = ∞
7. For a Biconvex lens, R1 = + R, R2 = +R
8. For a Biconcave lens, R1 = - R, R2 = - R
9. Position of Real image = -, virtual image = + 42
𝑣 𝑣
10. Magnification by mirror m =- 𝑢 , by lens m =+ 𝑢 [m = - (Real & inverted image), m = + (Virtual & erect image)]
 Chapter 10 - WAVE OPTICS

Topic - Wavefront…..

1. Define a wavefront. How is it different from a ray ? (2 marks)

Ans. Wavefront : The locus of all the particles of a medium vibrating in the same phase is called wavefront
Difference from a ray :
(i) A ray is always normal to the wavefront at each point.
(ii) A ray gives the direction of propagation of light wave while the wavefront is the surface of constant phase.

2. (i) Sketch the wavefront that will emerge from a distance source of light like a star. ( 3 marks)
(ii) Sketch the shape of wavefront emerging/diverging from a point source of light and also mark the rays.
(iii) Sketch the wavefront that will emerge from a linear source of light like a slit.
Ans. (i) Plane wavefront (ii) Spherical wavefront (iii) Cylindrical Wavefront

3. Sketch the reflected wavefront emerging from a (i) concave mirror (ii) convex mirror, if plane wavefront is incident
normally on it. ( 2 marks)
Ans. (i) reflected wavefront from a concave mirror (ii) reflected wavefront from a convex mirror

4. Sketch the refracted wavefront emerging from a convex, concave lens & prism, if plane wavefront is incident normally on it.
(3 marks)

Ans. (a) refracted wavefront from a convex/concave lens (b) refracted wavefront from a prism

Topic - Reflection on the basis of Huygen’s wave theory….

5. Using Huygen’s construction draw a figure showing the propagation of a plane wavefront reflecting at a plane surface.
Show that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. (3 marks)

Let a plane wavefront AB is incident on a reflecting surface XY as shown. By the Huygens’s principle, in the
time disturbance reaches from B to C, secondary wavelets from A must have spread over a hemisphere of radius

43
 AD = BC = ct. Hence tangent CD be the reflected wavefront

In ∆ ABC & ∆ ADC,

AC = common
∠𝐵 = ∠𝐷 = 900
AD = BC = c t (By construction)
⇨ ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ ADC (By RHS Congruence)
∴ ∠𝑖 = ∠ 𝑟 (By CPCT)

Topic - Refration on the basis of Huygen’s wave theory….

6. Use Huygens’ principle to verify the laws of refraction. ( 3 marks)

OR
Derive Snell’s law on the basis of Huygen’s wave theory when light is travelling from a rarer to a denser medium/
Denser to rarer medium.

Let a plane wavefront AB is incident on a refracting surface XY as shown. By the Huygens’s principle,
𝐵𝐶
in the time (𝑡 = ) disturbance reaches from B to C, secondary wavelets from A must have spread over a hemisphere
𝑣1
of radius 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑣2 t. Hence tangent CD be the refracted wavefront
sin 𝑖 𝐵𝐶⁄ 𝐵𝐶 𝑣1 𝑡 𝑣1
Obviously, = 𝐴𝐷⁄
𝐴𝐶
= = = = constant
sin 𝑟 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐷 𝑣2 𝑡 𝑣2
This is Snell’s law of refraction

Topic - Coherent Sources of light…..

7.What are coherent sources of light ? Why are coherent sources necessary to produce a sustained interference
pattern? (2 marks)
Ans. Coherent sources : Two sources producing light waves of same frequency and zero or constant initial phase
difference are called coherent sources of light
Necessity : Coherent sources produce waves with constant phase difference, due to which positions of and
minima does not change with time and a sustained interference pattern is obtained
OR
What are the essential conditions for two light sources to be coherent ?
Ans. (i) Two sources must produce waves of same frequency/ wavelength, and
(ii)phase difference between the waves must be zero or constant .
Topic - Young’s Double Slit Experiment (YDSE)….

44
 𝐷𝜆
✓ Fringe width β =
𝑑
𝜆
✓ Angular fringe width θ =
𝑑
Where D = distance of screen from the slits
d = distance between the slits
λ = wavelength of light
β λ
✓ If Young’s apparatus is immersed completely in a liquid of refractive index n, then fringe width decreases β’ = since λ’ =
𝑛 𝑛
✓ If white light is used in place of monochromatic light, then interference pattern will be coloured but central fringe will be white.

Topic - Diffraction of light from a single slit

✓ Bending of light around the corners of an obstacle and formation of fringes in the geometrical shadow region.
✓ For diffraction to occur, size of obstacle should be of the order of wavelength of light used (a ~ 𝜆 )
2𝐷𝜆
✓ Width of Central maximum β0 = ,
𝑑
✓ Intensity is directly proportional to square of amplitude.

8.Draw the intensity pattern for single slit diffraction and double slit interference. ( 2 marks)
Ans. Interference Diffraction

9. State the differences between Interference and Diffraction patterns. ( 3 marks)

Interference Diffraction
1. It is due to superposition of two waves from two 1. It is due to superposition of secondary wavelets from
coherent sources different parts of the same wavefront
2. Width of fringes/ bands is equal 2. Width of fringes/bands is not equal
3. All maxima have same intensity 3. Maxima have different intensity and intensity decreases
rapidly with the order of maxima

Test Yourself:
◼ What happens to the interference pattern when two coherent sources are
(a) Infinitely close, and
(b) Far apart from each other. ( 2 marks)
◼ Assertion (A): In Young’s double slit experiment, all fringes are of equal width.
Reason (R): The fringe width depends upon wavelength of light (λ) used, distance of screen from plane of slits (D), and slit
separation (d). ( 1 mark)
◼ How is the spacing between fringes in a Double slit experiment affected if:

45
 (i) The slit separation is increased
(ii) The colour of light is changed from red to blue.
(iii) The whole apparatus is submerged in an oil of refractive index 1.2 ? Justify your answer. ( 3 marks)
◼ In a diffraction pattern due to single slit, how will the angular width of central maximum change, if
(i) Orange light is used in place of green light.
(ii) The screen is moved closer to the slit.
(iii) The slit width is decreased?
Justify your answer in each case. ( 3 marks)
◼ If the width of the slit is made double to original width in diffraction at a single slit, how does it affect the size and intensity of the
central band ? ( 2 marks)

AVOID THESE COMMON ERRORS IN OPTICS:

1. Not putting arrows in ray-diagrams.
2. Not drawing neat ray-diagrams.
3. Not labelling the diagrams properly.
4. Not writing the formula while answering any reasoning question or solving a numerical. (Most Important: You
will lose 1/2 mark for this)
5. Not using correct Sign Conventions. (It will result in wrong calculations)

CHAPTER - 11
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER
Basic Concepts

Photoelectric effect: Phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metal when light radiations of suitable
frequency fall on it.

Work function: The minimum amount of energy required by an electron to just escape from the metal surface is known
as work function of the metal.

● Work function = hν₀ (or φ₀) = eV₀

● Measured in (eV) or Joules, 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J

Threshold frequency (ν₀): Minimum frequency of incident radiation below which no photoelectron emission takes place
from a metal surface.

Stopping potential or cut-off potential: The minimum negative potential (Vo) applied to anode for which photoelectric
current becomes zero.

Key Points

8. Ultraviolet light causes photoelectric emission from any metal surface while visible light causes photoemission
from alkali metals (low work function)
9. If ν < ν₀ or λ > λ₀ ⇒ no photoelectric emission

46
 10. Stopping potential depends upon the frequency of incident light: V₀ ∝ ν
11. Photoelectric current depends upon the intensity of incident light but is independent of frequency

Important Graphical Relations

5. Variation of photocurrent with intensity of incident radiations.

6. Variation of photocurrent with anode potential for different intensities but constant frequency.

7. Variation of photocurrent with anode potential for different frequencies but constant intensity.

4. Maximum Kinetic Energy: Kmax = eV₀ = ½mv²max

5. Kmax:
a. Depends on radiation source
b. Depends on nature of material
c. Independent of intensity
8. Variation of incident radiation with stopping potential / Max K.E. of photoelectrons.
47
Question: Sketch the graphs showing the variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident radiation for two
photosensitive materials A and B having threshold frequencies νo1 < νo2 respectively. [3 marks]

(i) Which of the two metals A or B has higher work function?

(ii) What information do you get from the slope of the graphs?

(iii) What does the value of the intercept of graph A on the potential axis represent?

Laws of Photoelectric Emission

5. For a given substance, below ν0 (threshold frequency), no photoelectric emission takes place
6. For a given photosensitive substance, Photoelectric current ∝ intensity (when ν > ν₀)
7. Kmax of photoelectrons ∝ ν (when ν > ν₀)
8. Photoelectric emission is instantaneous.

Einstein's Photoelectric Equation

hν = hν₀ + ½mv²max

[Energy of incident photon] = [Work function] + [Max. K.E. of photoelectrons]

Or Kmax = hν - hν₀

Or eV₀ = h(ν-ν₀)

Or V₀ ∝ ν

Question: Ultraviolet radiation of 6.2 eV falls on an aluminium surface having work function 4.2 eV. The K.E.(in Joules) of
fastest electron emitted is nearly: Options: [1 mark]

(i)
3.2 × 10-19 (ii) 3.2 × 10-16 (iii) 3.2 × 10-17 (iv) 3.2 × 10-18

Question: The maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron is 3eV. What is the stopping potential? [1 mark] [Stopping
potential = Kinetic energy in eV but drop the e]

48
Question: Ultraviolet radiations of different frequencies ν₁ and ν₂ are incident on two photosensitive materials having
work functions W₁ and W₂ (W₁>W₂) respectively. The kinetic energy of emitted electrons is same in both the cases. Which
one of the two radiations will have higher frequency? [1 mark]

De-Broglie Dualistic Hypothesis

According to de-Broglie: A moving material particle sometimes acts as wave and sometimes as a particle, or a wave is
associated with moving particle called matter wave or de-Broglie wave.

Basic wavelength formula: λ = h/mv

where:

5. m = mass of particle
6. v = velocity of particle
7. h = Planck's constant

Properties of Photon

5. Rest mass = 0
6. Speed in vacuum = c
7. Energy = E = hν = hc/λ
8. Momentum = p = E/c = h/λ
9. Number of photons emitted/sec = n = Power/Energy
10. de-Broglie wavelength = λ = h/p

Additional Wavelength Relations

3. de Broglie wavelength of a particle with energy E:

a. λ = h/√(2mE)
b. λ = h/√(2mqV)
4. de-Broglie wavelength of an electron:
a. λ = 12.27 × 10-10 /√V m
b. λ ∝ 1/√V

Question: Calculate the ratio of the accelerating potential required to accelerate a proton and an α-particle to have the
same de-Broglie wavelength associated with them. [2 marks]

Question: A proton and an α-particle are accelerated through the same potential. Which of the two has:
[2 marks]
49
(i) greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with it?

(ii) less kinetic energy.

Question: The two lines marked A and B in the given figure, shows a plot of de-Broglie wavelength λ vs.
1/√V, where V is the accelerating potential, for two nuclei ₁H² and ₁H³.

(i) What does the slope of the lines represent?

(ii) Identify which lines correspond to these nuclei. [2 marks]

Question: An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100V. What is the de-Broglie wavelength
associated with it? To which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does this value of wavelength correspond? [2 marks]

50
 CHAPTER - 12

ATOMS

Rutherford α-particle scattering Experiment

Observations:

● Most of the α-particle passed undeviated.

● Very few retraced their path.
● Few α-particles scattered at larger angle θ

RUTHERFORD'S MODEL OF ATOM (1909):

12. Most of the space in the atom is empty.

13. The central core is positively charged called the nucleus (10-15 m).
14. Electron revolves around the nucleus & radius of orbit increases due to increase in energy.

Distance of closest approach: The point at which the alpha particles’ kinetic energy gets converted into
potential energy

Impact parameter:

51
 9. Definition: It is the perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the α-particle from centre of the
nucleus, when it is far away from the atom.
10. Formula:

a. Smaller is b, larger is angle of scattering θ

b. cot θ/2 = 2b/r₀
c. For θ = 180° (rebounds), b = 0

BOHR'S MODEL (1913): Postulates

6. Electron revolves around the nucleus in closed circular orbits. The centripetal force necessary to revolve in
circular orbit is provided by the electrostatic force between the electron and the nucleus.

7. Bohr’s quantization condition: Only those orbits are allowed for which the angular momentum (mvr) is
integral multiple of h/2π.

8. Bohr’s frequency condition: If the electron goes from orbit of lower energy E1 to other orbit of higher
energy E₂ then a photon of energy hν is radiated such that:

hν = E₂-E₁

Radius of Bohr orbit:

ENERGY OF BOHR ORBITS:

52
HYDROGEN SPECTRUM:

Hydrogen spectrum consist of group of radiation emitted by a H-atom whose wavelength is given as:

Spectral Series:

9. Lyman Series
a. Electron jumps from higher orbit to first orbit
b. Lies in UV region (912-1215 Å)

53
 c. n₁=1, n₂ = 2, 3, 4.......
d. 1/λ = R [1/1² - 1/n₂²]
10. Balmer Series
a. Electron jumps from higher orbit to second orbit
b. Lies in visible region (3646-6563Å)
c. n₁=2, n₂ = 3, 4, 5.....
d. 1/λ = R [1/2² - 1/n₂²]
11. Paschen Series
a. Electron jumps from higher to third level
b. Lies in infrared region (8264-1875Å)
c. n₁=3, n₂ = 4, 5, 6....
d. 1/λ = R [1/3² - 1/n₂²]
12. Brackett Series
a. Electron jumps from higher to fourth level
b. Lies in infrared region
c. n₁=4, n₂= 5, 6, 7....
d. 1/λ = R [1/4² - 1/n₂²]
13. Pfund Series
a. Electron jumps from higher to fifth level
b. Lies in infrared region
c. n₁=5, n₂= 6, 7...
d. 1/λ = R [1/5² - 1/n₂²]

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q1. Define distance of closest approach. (1 mark)

Ans: The minimum distance up to which an α-particle can approach the nucleus just before retracing its path, is
known as distance of closest approach.

r₀ = 1/4πε₀. (2Ze²)/E

= 2.5 X 10-14 m

Q2: (i) What is Impact parameter? (ii) What is the significance of the impact parameter? ( 2 marks)

Ans: (i) It is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of the α-particle from the nucleus (ii) It gives an
estimate of the size of the nucleus.

Q3: The trajectories, traced by different alpha particles, in the Geiger-Marsden experiment were observed as shown
in figure. (a) What names are given to the symbols 'b' and ' θ’' shown here ? (b) What can we say about values of b
for (i) θ = 0° (ii) θ = π radians ? ( 2 marks)

54
Ans: (a) 'b' represents impact parameter and 'θ' represents scattering angle (b) b = Ze² cot θ/2 / 4πε₀(1/2mu²) (i)
when θ = 0°, b is maximum & represents atomic size (ii) When θ = π radians, b is minimum & represent nuclear size

Q4: The ground state energy of the hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV. What are the kinetic and potential energies of
electrons in this state? (2 marks)

Ans: K.E. = +13.6 eV

P.E. = 2 X (-13.6) = -27.2 eV [ K.E. = + T.E, P.E = 2 T.E.]

Q5: The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of a hydrogen atom is -3.4 eV. What is the kinetic and
potential energy of electron in this state? (2 marks)

Ans: K.E. = +3.4 eV (First excited state n = 2, I.e.,+1 more than the permitted state)

P.E. = 2 X (-3.4) = -6.8 eV

Q6: Given the value of ground state energy of the hydrogen atom as -13.6 eV. Find out its kinetic and potential
energy in the ground and second excited states. (3 marks)

Ans: Eₙ = -13.6/n² eV

For ground state (n = 1):

8. E₁ = -13.6 eV
9. K.E. = +13.6 eV
10. P.E. = 2X(-13.6) = -27.2 eV

For II excited state (n = 3):

11. E₃ = -13.6/9 = -1.51 eV

12. K.E. = +1.51 eV
13. P.E. = 2X(-1.51) = -3.02 eV

Q7: The value of ground state energy of the hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV. (i) What does the negative sign signify? (ii)
How much energy is required to take an electron in this atom from the ground state to the first excited state? ( 2
marks)

Ans: (i) Negative sign shows that electron is bound with the nucleus by electrostatic force (ii) Eₙ = -
13.6/n² eV & For ground state n=1 and for first excited state n=2 ⇒ ΔE = E₂ - E₁ = -13.6/4 - (-13.6)
= -3.4 + 13.6 = 10.2 eV

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Q8: In the ground state of hydrogen atom, its Bohr radius is given as 5.3 X 10-11 m. The atom is excited such that the
radius becomes 21.2X 10-11m. Find: (i) the value of principal quantum number and (ii) the total energy of the atom
in this excited state. ( 2 marks)

Ans: (i) r = n² r₀ ⇒ n² = r/r₀ ⇒ n² = 21.2X10-11/5.3X10-11 = 4 ⇒ n = 2

(ii) Eₙ = -13.6/n² ⇒ E = -13.6/2² = -3.4 eV

Q9: Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of the electron orbiting in the n = 2 state of a hydrogen atom. (2 marks)

Ans: K.E. = 13.6eV/n² = 13.6/2² = 3.4 eV = 3.4X1.6 X 10-19J

de-Broglie wavelength, λ = h/√2mE = 6.6X10-34/√2X9.1X10-31X3.4X1.6X10-19 = 6 X 10-10 m.

12 𝑥 10−10 12 𝐴°
[Trick : Remember the shortcut λ = √𝐸 (𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑉) = √𝐸 (𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑉) ]

Q10: What is the ratio of radii of the orbits corresponding to first excited state and ground state in a hydrogen
atom? ( 1 mark)

Ans: 4:1 as r ∝ n²

Q11: The radius of innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is 5.3 X 10-11 m. What is the radius of orbit in the
second excited state? ( 1 mark)

Ans: For II excited state n = 3, r = n² r₀ = 3² X 5.3 X 10-11 = 47.7 X 10-11 m

Q12: Find out the wavelength of the electron orbiting in the ground state of hydrogen atom. ( 2 marks)

Ans: r₀ = 0.53 A° & For ground state n = 1 By the de-Broglie relation, 2πr = nλ ⇒ 2 X 3.14 X 0.53 X
10⁻¹⁰ = 1Xλ ⇒ λ = 3.32 X 10⁻¹⁰m = 3.32A°

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. (i) Draw a schematic arrangement of the Geiger-Marsden experiment showing the scattering of α-
particles by a thin foil of gold.

(ii) Why is it that most of the α-particles go right through the foil and only a small fraction gets scattered at
large angles?

(iii) Draw the trajectory of the α-particle in the coulomb field of a nucleus.

(iv) What is the significance of the impact parameter and what information can be obtained regarding the
size of the nucleus? ( 5 marks)

2. Estimate the distance of closest approach to the nucleus (Z=79) if a 7.7 MeV α-particle before it comes
momentarily to rest and reverses its direction. ( 2 marks)

3. State Bohr's quantization condition for defining stationary orbit.

(a) Explain the origin of spectral series/lines of hydrogen atom using Bohr's atomic model.

56
 (b) Draw the energy level diagram showing how the line spectra corresponding to Lyman, Balmer series
occur due to transition between energy levels in a hydrogen atom. (3 marks)

Chapter 13: Nuclei

Topic 1: Radius of nucleus: Formula…………………………..(1Mark)

Radius of nucleus R = R0 A1/3, where R0 is constant and A is mass

number

Question 1. The radius of 13Al27 nucleus (R0 =1.2× 10−15 m) will be

(a) 3.6×10−15 m (b) 2.7×10−15 m (c) 10.8×10−15 m (d) 4×10−15 m

Question 2. The ratio of nuclear radii of two nuclei of mass number 27 and 64 is
9 27 3 3
(a) (b) (c) (d) √
289 64 4 17

Question 3. The radius of 13X27nucleus is R. What will be the radius of 53Y125nucleus?

Topic 2: Ratio of density of two nuclei…………………………(1 Marks)

Formula of nuclear density is

The density of nuclear matter for all the elements is approximately 2.3 × 1017
kg m–3. Thus nuclear density for all the elements remains same.

Question 1. The ratio of mass densities of 20Ca40 and 8O16 is

(a) 5:2 (b) 2:5 (c) 1:1 (d) none of these

Question 2. The ratio of nuclear densities of two nuclei having mass numbers 64 and 125 is-
64 4 5
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
125 5 4

Question 3. Prove that mass density of any nucleus is independent of its mass number.

Topic 3: Mass defect and binding energy………………………(3 Marks)

Sum of masses of all the nucleons > Mass of nucleus

This difference of mass is called as mass defect (Δm)
Δm = Z. mp + (A-Z).mn – M
Where,
Z is the atomic number
A is the mass number
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 mp is the mass of 1 proton
mn is the mass of 1 neutron and
M is the mass of nucleus
Binding energy: Energy corresponds to mass defect is called binding energy.
Binding energy = 931.5 x Δm, unit is MeV

Question 1. Calculate the binding energy of an alpha particle in MeV. Given

Mass of a proton = 1.007825 u

Mass of a Neutron = 1.008665 u
Mass of He nucleus = 4.002800 u

Question 2. Calculate the energy released in following fusion reaction-

2 2 3
1H + 1H --------→ 2He
Where binding energy of 1H2 = 2.23 MeV and of 2He3 = 7.73 MeV

Question 3. (a) Define mass defect and binding energy?

(b) Calculate the energy required to dissociate a deuteron into its constituent particles (a
proton and a neutron).
Given: mass of deuteron = 2.014102 u, mass of proton = 1.007825 u, mass of neutron
= 1.008665 u.

Topic 4: Nuclear force and its properties…………………….(2 Marks)

Nuclear force: The nuclear force is a force that acts between the protons and
neutrons of atoms. The nuclear force is the force that binds the protons and
neutrons in a nucleus together. This force can exist between protons and
protons, neutrons and protons or neutrons and neutrons. This force is what
holds the nucleus together.

Properties:
1. Strongest natural force
2. Charge independent force
3. Short ranged force
4. Graph between nuclear force and distance between nucleon

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Question 1. Assertion: Nuclear force between neutron – neutron, proton – neutron and
proton -proton is approximately the same.

Reason: The nuclear force does not depend on the electric charge.

Question 2. Draw a graph between nuclear force and distance between nucleons. Also
mention the regions of attractive and repulsive nature.

Question 3. Two nucleons are at a separation of 1 fm. The net nuclear force between them is
F1 if both are protons, F2 if both are neutrons and F3 if one is proton and another is neutron
then-

(a) F1 > F2 > F3 (b) F1 = F2 > F3 (c) F1 < F2 < F3 (d) F1 = F2 = F3

Topic 5: Graph between BE per nucleon and mass number and Nuclear fusion &
fission using this graph………………………………..(2 Marks)

Nuclear fission: When a heavy nucleus breaks into two medium sized nuclei
then binding energy per nucleon increases which results in release of energy.

Nuclear fusion: When two lighter nuclei combine to form a comparatively

heavier nucleus then binding energy per nucleon increases which results in
release of energy.

Question 1. Draw a curve between binding energy per nucleon versus mass number and
hence explain release of energy during nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

Question 2. Binding energy per nucleon versus mass number for nuclei is shown in figure,
W,X,Y and Z are four nuclei indicated on the curve. Identify which of the four nuclei will
most likely undergo for-
(a) Nuclear fusion (b) Nuclear fission

59
 Chapter 14: Electronic Devices

Topic 1: Conversion of intrinsic semiconductor into extrinsic

semiconductor……………………………………………(1 Mark)

Intrinsic Semiconductor: They are group-14 elements and don’t have any
free charge carrier to conduct the current through them.

Extrinsic Semiconductor: When group-13 and group-15 elements are

dopped as an impurity into intrinsic semiconductor, it becomes extrinsic
semiconductor.

P-type Semiconductor: When group-13 elements are dopped as an impurity

into intrinsic semiconductor.

Majority: holes Minority: free electrons

N- -type Semiconductor: When group-15 elements are dopped as an

impurity into intrinsic semiconductor.

Majority: free electrons Majority: holes

Question 1. What type of impurity is dopped to obtain an n-type semiconductor?

Question 2. What is the ration of number of holes and the number of conduction electrons in
an intrinsic semiconductor?

Question 3. Which of the following is correct regarding p-type semiconductor?

(a) It is an intrinsic semiconductor (b) It has pentavalent impurity
(c) It has tetravalent impurity (d) None of these

Topic 2: Formation of depletion layer and potential barrier …(2 Marks)

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 Depletion layer: When free electrons of n-type and holes of p-type drift
towards each other and diffuse, a neutral region near the junction is
formed. This region is called as depletion region.

Potential barrier: The potential barrier is defined as the potential difference

that exists across a PN junction due to the diffusion of charge carriers
(electrons and holes).

Question 1. Write the names of two important processes which occur on formation of p-n
junction.

Question 2. Define the 'depletion region' and 'potential barrier' in it.

Topic 3: p-n junction in forward & reverse bis and V-I characteristic
curves…………………………………………………………. (2 Marks)

p-n junction in forward bias: A PN junction is forward biased when the

positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-type side of a
semiconductor diode, and the negative terminal is connected to the n-type
side.

Circuit:

V-I characteristic curve:

p-n junction in reverse bias: A PN junction is forward biased when the

negative terminal of a battery is connected to the p-type side of a
semiconductor diode, and the positive terminal is connected to the n-type side.

Circuit:

61
 V-I characteristic curve:

Question 1. In the following diagram, which bulb out of B1 and B2 will glow and which
will not glow? Justify your answer in each case.

Question 2. Draw I-V characteristic curves of a p-n junction diode using proper circuit
diagram in-

(a) Forward bias (b) Reverse bias

Question 3. Explain the following terms-

(a) Knee voltage (b) Break down voltage

Topic 4: Variation of width of depletion layer, height of potential barrier and

resistance of diode..(1 Mark)

Variation of width of depletion layer

In Forward bias ------------It decreases
In reverse bias -------------It increases
Variation of height of potential barrier
In Forward bias ------------It decreases
In reverse bias -------------It increases
Variation of resistance of diode
In Forward bias ------------It decreases / Low
In reverse bias -------------It increases / High
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Topic 5. Rectifiers

Principle: p-n junction conducts only in forward bias.

(Half wave rectifier)
Circuit: Working:

1. The input ac changes its polarity after

every half cycle.

2. In positive half cycle, A becomes positive

with respect to B and diode D becomes
forward biased. And it conducts current.

3. In negative half cycle, A becomes

negative with respect to B and diode D
becomes reverse biased. And it does not
conduct current.

4. Thus diode conducts only in half cycles.

The output current flows only in one
direction through load. Hence output is DC.

Principle: p-n junction conducts only in forward bias.

(Full wave rectifier)
Circuit: Working:

1. During first half cycle of input ac, terminal

S1 is positive and S2 is negative with respect to
T. During this cycle D1 becomes forward
biased and conducts while diode D2 is reverse
biased and does not conduct any current.

2. In the next half cycle of input ac, terminal S1

is negative and S2 is positive with respect to T.
During this cycle D1 becomes reverse biased
and does not conduct while diode D2 is
forward biased and conducts the current.

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 3. In every half cycle output current is
unidirectional as shown in circuit hence DC.

Question 1. Using proper circuit diagram explain the working of half wave rectifier. Also
draw input / output waveforms.

Question 2. Using proper circuit diagram explain the working of full wave rectifier. Also
draw input / output waveforms.

14: Electronic Devices

Topic 1: Conversion of intrinsic semiconductor into extrinsic

semiconductor……………………………………………(1 Mark)

Intrinsic Semiconductor: They are group-14 elements and don’t have any
free charge carrier to conduct the current through them.

Extrinsic Semiconductor: When group-13 and group-15 elements are

dopped as an impurity into intrinsic semiconductor, it becomes extrinsic
semiconductor.

P-type Semiconductor: When group-13 elements are dopped as an impurity

into intrinsic semiconductor.

Majority: holes Minority: free electrons

N- -type Semiconductor: When group-15 elements are dopped as an

impurity into intrinsic semiconductor.

Majority: free electrons Majority: holes

Question 1. What type of impurity is dopped to obtain an n-type semiconductor?

Question 2. What is the ration of number of holes and the number of conduction electrons in
an intrinsic semiconductor?

Question 3. Which of the following is correct regarding p-type semiconductor?

(a) It is an intrinsic semiconductor (b) It has pentavalent impurity
64
(c) It has tetravalent impurity (d) None of these

Topic 2: Formation of depletion layer and potential barrier …(2 Marks)

Depletion layer: When free electrons of n-type and holes of p-type drift
towards each other and diffuse, a neutral region near the junction is
formed. This region is called as depletion region.

Potential barrier: The potential barrier is defined as the potential difference

that exists across a PN junction due to the diffusion of charge carriers
(electrons and holes).

Question 1. Write the names of two important processes which occur on formation of p-n
junction.

Question 2. Define the 'depletion region' and 'potential barrier' in it.

Topic 3: p-n junction in forward & reverse bias and V-I characteristic
curves…………………………………………………………. (2 Marks)

p-n junction in forward bias: A PN junction is forward biased when the

positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-type side of a
semiconductor diode, and the negative terminal is connected to the n-type
side.

Circuit:

V-I characteristic curve:

65
 p-n junction in reverse bias: A PN junction is forward biased when the
negative terminal of a battery is connected to the p-type side of a
semiconductor diode, and the positive terminal is connected to the n-type side.

Circuit:

V-I characteristic curve:

Question 1. In the following diagram, which bulb out of B1 and B2 will glow and which
will not glow? Justify your answer in each case.

Question 2. Draw I-V characteristic curves of a p-n junction diode using proper circuit
diagram in-

(a) Forward bias (b) Reverse bias

Question 3. Explain the following terms-

(a) Knee voltage (b) Break down voltage

Topic 4: Variation of width of depletion layer, height of potential barrier and

resistance of diode..(1 Mark)

Variation of width of depletion layer

In Forward bias ------------It decreases
In reverse bias -------------It increases

66
 Variation of height of potential barrier
In Forward bias ------------It decreases
In reverse bias -------------It increases
Variation of resistance of diode
In Forward bias ------------It decreases / Low
In reverse bias -------------It increases / High

Topic 5. Rectifiers

Principle: p-n junction conducts only in forward bias.

(Half wave rectifier)
Circuit: Working:

1. The input ac changes its polarity after

every half cycle.

2. In positive half cycle, A becomes positive

with respect to B and diode D becomes
forward biased. And it conducts current.

3. In negative half cycle, A becomes

negative with respect to B and diode D
becomes reverse biased. And it does not
conduct current.

4. Thus diode conducts only in half cycles.

The output current flows only in one
direction through load. Hence output is DC.

Principle: p-n junction conducts only in forward bias.

(Full wave rectifier)
Circuit: Working:

1. During first half cycle of input ac, terminal

S1 is positive and S2 is negative with respect to
T. During this cycle D1 becomes forward

67
 biased and conducts while diode D2 is reverse
biased and does not conduct any current.

2. In the next half cycle of input ac, terminal S1

is negative and S2 is positive with respect to T.
During this cycle D1 becomes reverse biased
and does not conduct while diode D2 is
forward biased and conducts the current.

3. In every half cycle output current is

unidirectional as shown in circuit hence DC.

Question 1. Using proper circuit diagram explain the working of half wave rectifier. Also
draw input / output waveforms.

Question 2. Using proper circuit diagram explain the working of full wave rectifier. Also
draw input / output waveforms.

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