MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

THE METRE RULES

The metre rule is graduated in centimetres and millimetres. The smallest graduation of the meter
rule is 1 mm or 0.1 cm.
This is its reading accuracy.
Measurement can be estimated up to half of this smallest graduation i.e. 0.5mm or 0.05cm. This is
its estimated uncertainty.

Method : The Procedure to be adopted when reading meter rule scale is as follow
(i) First check the zero error if there is any.
(ii) Place the zero mark of the metre rule at the beginning of the length to be measured.
(iii) Look vertically at the reading where the length terminated to avoid parallax error.
(iv) Record the reading in centimetre.

THE VENIER CALLIPERS

To measure small lengths such as thickness of a metre rule, the internal diameter of a tube or
diameter of a rod we use vernier calipers. It measures length more accurately than the metre rule.
Vernier calipers have two sets of jaws and two scales, the main scale M and the vernier scales V.
The vernier scale which slides on the main scale is smaller scale which enables us to measure
a fraction of the smallest division on the main scale. The main scale is graduated in centimetre and
millimetres. The vernier scale is constructed by dividing a 9mm length into 10 equal intervals such
that each vernier division has a length of 0.9 mm or 0.09 cm. The difference in length between a
vernier scale division and a main scale division is thus 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm. For any measurement,
the reading on both the main and the vernier scales are added together to obtain the total reading
of the length. It can measure to the accuracy of 0.01cm.
How to use vernier calipers
To check for zero error
(1) Adjust the two scales so that the zeros of M and N coincide. If they do not coincide, any
difference is noted as the zero error. This is added or subtracted in all subsequent readings as the
case may be.
(2) Place the object to be measured in between the two jaws (external diameter) and lock it.
(3) Find the reading on the main scale by looking for the last reading before the zero on the
vernier scale
(4) count the number of divisions on the vernier scale until a coincidence is found with the main
scale. Multiply the number by0.01cm to give the reading of the vernier scale record the
value of the coincide. Add it to the value already recorded from the main scale.
Main + vernier = answer.
Example.

Fig. 9
16mm + 0.9mm = 16.90mm or 1.6cm + 0.09cm = 1.69cm

Activity
Use venier calliper to measure the diameter of bob provided. Read and record the main scale
M1and venier scale hence determine the diameter of the bob by adding the two masses M1and M2

Result M1 = cm
M2 = cm
Diameter of the bob = M1 + M2

THE MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

 The Micrometer screw gauge is used for accurate measurements of still smaller lengths such
as the diameter of a wire, the diameter of as small ball e.g (pendulum bob), thickness of paper. It
can measure to an accuracy of 0.001cm.
Micrometer screw gauge is a precision instrument, it operates on the screw principle and its
accuracy depends on the thread of the screw. It is therefore important to note that on no account
should the screw be forced by closing the Jaws too tight.
The essential components are as shown in fig 10 below

Method: The procedure to be adopted in using micrometer screw gauge is as follows.

(1) Clean the two Jaws i.e the anvil and spindle
(2) Close the two Jaws to check if the zero on the vernier scale matches the datum or center
line on the sleeve, the difference is noted (zero error) and added or subtracted from the final
reading of the micrometer
(3) Open the Jaws and place the object between the two Jaws tighten the Jaws with ratchet until
the object is fitted between the Jaws.
(4) Note the readings on the main scale to the nearest graduation and record it.
(5) Then count the number of the divisions on the circular vernier scale where a coincide is
found with the center or datum line on main scale. Multiply the number by 0.001cm
(6) Add the readings on the two scales
If the instrument has any zero error, add or subtract as the case maybe. The addition of the
two readings is the answer.
Main scale reading plus vernier scale readings = answer.
Experiment using Micrometer screw gauge
Use the micrometer screw gauge to determine the mean diameter of a steel ball bearing, make
eight measurements. Find the mean compare with vernier caliper.
MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME

Measurement of Volume of Liquid using measuring cylinder

The Volume of liquids are measured with measuring. Cylinder, pipette, burrett and volumetric
Flask.

1a. Measuring Cylinder

It is a long graduate tube. The correct liquid level is read at the bottom of meniscus, or curved
surface of the liquid.

In c o rre c t

C o rre c t

In c o rre c t
P o sitio n s o f e y e

F ig 6 a

b. Experiment with Measuring Cylinder

Apparatus: a beaker, filled water, a measuring cylinder and funnel

Procedure:
Carefully transfer water from the beaker into the measuring cylinder, almost 3/4 of the
measuring cylinder.
Repeat the experiment to obtain three readings and find the mean.

MEASUREMENT OF TIME
 stop clock

Time is the interval between two events. Time measuring devices use regular vibrations of simple
pendulum, balance wheel and atoms of crystals to measure time.

Time is measured in seconds. For most laboratory experiments, stopwatches or stop clock are used.
Stop watches are more accurate and are recommended for use in the laboratory. Accuracy of stop
clock varies depending on the type, some can measure time correctly to 0.1, 0.2 and 0.5 seconds
respectively. Digital stop clocks or watches gives better results.
 MEASUREMENT OF MASS
THE BALANCE
The mass of a body can be measured with balance such as
- The chemical balance
- Beam balance
- Toploading lever balance
- Direct balance
- A dial balance
They are graduated in kilogram and sub-multiple of kilogram.

The Chemical balance: The simplified diagram of chemical balance is shown in diagram below.

The chemical balance operates with the principle of moment, the arm lengths between the
central, knife edge and the two outer knife edge are equal. This means that when the balance
beam is horizontal, the forces acting on the outer knife edges and the masses in the scale pan are
equal.
The Chemical balance is a delicate instrument. It can measure to an accuracy of 0.001g.

Measurement of mass using beam balance

Procedure: The pointer of the balance should swing freely about the pivot in the centre of the
beam. The mass of a body is usually measured by comparing it with standard masses. The object
is placed on the left hand scale of pan and standard masses are place on the right hand scale pan.
Standard masses are added until the pointer swings equal number of divisions on each side of the
central mark or pointer balances on the central mark of the scale. When this happens the masses
in the scale pan are equal. The masses of the object is then obtained by adding the standard mass
in the right scale pan.

The beam Balance

It works in similar way with chemical balance

A direct reading balance A le ve r b ala nc e A d ial b a la nc e

Fig 18
 MEASUREMENT OF WEIGHT

The weight of a body is measured using spring balance. It graduated in Newton (N).

Apparatus: Spring balance, object (Stone, bottle stopper or cork), tread.

Procedure: Tie the object with string/thread, suspend the object from the hook of balance as in
fig 18. The weight causes the spring of the balance to stretch hence moving the pointer read and
record the weight W of the object. Add or subtract the zero error of the instrument if there is any.
Results
W = W1 + W2 + W3 (N)
3
State two precautions taken to ensure accurate results
DETERMINATION OF THE VOLUME OF IRREGULAR SOLID
Method 1:
Using method of displacement
Apparatus: Beaker, Measuring cylinder thread, glass stopper or stone, liquid which the solid is
insoluble.

(i) Fill the measuring Cylinder to about 1/3 volume of its capacities with the liquid provide
and take the reading to be volume Vx take three further observation of this volume.
(ii) Tie the thread round the stopper or stone and gently immerse it into the liquid inside the
measuring cylinder, allow it to settle down

Record the new volume as Vy take three further observation find the mean of the value of
volume Vx and volume Vy. Take away Vx from Vy.

The volume of the object is Vy - Vx.

Volume of liquid before immersing object
Vx1cm3 Vx2cm3 Vx3 VxmeanCm3 Volume of liquid with object immersed

Vy1 Vy2 Vy3 Vymean

Volume of object = Vy mean – Vxmean.cm3

Method 2
Apparatus: beaker, measuring Cylinder, Eureka can liquid which the solid is insoluble glass
stopper or stone and thread using Eureka can.
Method
Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure above, fill the eureka can with liquid until the liquid
over flows. Place clean dry measuring cylinder below the eureka can.
Now gently lower the object (stone or stopper) into the liquid and collect the over flowing
liquid into the cylinder. Read and record volume VY of the liquid in the measuring cylinder.
Repeat the experiment two time and read the volume of the liquid in the measuring cylinder.
The volume of the liquid in the measuring cylinder is equal to the volume of the object.

Results
Vycm3 = Vy1cm3 + Vy2cm3 + Vy3cm3

PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

Apparatus: force board, drawing board, inextensible thread, pulley, drawing sheet, set of
masses (50, 70, 90, 100, 130)

A B C
clamped

y
Force board

P
Thread

m mo

METHOD
 (a) In the diagram above, a thread AC, fixed at pulley A passes over pulley C on a force board
and carries an unknown mass Mo. Retain this mass Mo throughout the experiment. Draw a
line along the direction of AC on the paper held behind the thread. Locate the mid-point B
of AC and mark its position of this line. Draw BP at right angles to AC. By means of a
loop of thread, suspend a mass M = 50g from AC and adjust the position of loop so that
the line of action of the weight of M lies along BP. Ensure that M and mo hand off the
force board. Measure BO = y and AO. Evaluate y/AO. Repeat the experiment for M=70,
90, 100 and 130g respectively. In each case, determine the corresponding values of y, AO
and y/AO.
(b) Tabulate tour readings.
RESULT & CALCULATION Mo = …

S/N Mg Y AO Y/AO

(c) Plot a graph of Y/AO

on the vertical axis and M on the horizontal axis. Determine the slope s of the graph. State
two precautions taken to ensure accurate results. [Attach your traces to your answer script].

(d) (i) Distinguish between the resultant and the equilibrant of forces.
(ii) State two conditions necessary for the equilibrium of three non parallel co-planar
forces.

PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

Apparatus: A force board, two pulleys, thread masses (30, 40 60)g hanger or scale pan, drawing
sheet, drawing pin, pencil and ruler.
 R
S P Q
Q
A B

O
Q

30g 40g
60g

Procedure: Attach a drawing sheet to the drawing board with drawing pin.
Set the draw board vertically as in fig above. Attach slots of weight of about 30g and 40g to the
end of a string over the pulleys PSQ as shown in fig aboveBy means of thread suspend a mass m
= 60g from PQ.
.
Allow the system string and weight to settle u
nder this settled or equilibrium condition make small pencil crosses on the paper as for apart as
possible to mark the positions of the threads. Remove the paper from the board and join the crosses
by pencil lines to represent the direction of the forces OP OQ, OC. Using convenient scale mark
off length OA, OB and OC to represent the forces 0.3N, 0.4N and 0.6N along the respective string
segment.
Complete the parallelogram OARB and draw its diagonal OR measure OR comment on your
result.

(a) State two precaution taken to ensure accurate result.

B (i) State the law of parallelogram of forces
(ii) State the condition necessary for equilibrium of three non-parallel co-
planer forces.

Theory: The experiment verifies the resultant of two or more forces. If the experiment was
proper carried out, OR will be found to be approximately equal to OC, which is the resultant of
the forces represented by OA and OB. This verifies parallelogram law of forces. weight of the
object. Add or subtract the zero error of the instrument if there is any.

VERIFICATION OF PARALLELOGRAM LAW

Method B:
State two precautions taken to ensure accurate result
Apparatus: 3 retort stands, 3 spring balances (0 - 500N), or slotted weights, 3 heavy weights,
drawing board, drawing paper, 4 drawing pins strong thread or inextensible
thread.

METHOD:
Pin the paper to the board. cut three pieces of thread, each about 20cm long, and knot together
securely one end of each in a common point O. Tie each of the tree loose ends securely to the
hooks of the three spring balances or weighted hanger of 40g, 50g 60g) and loop the ring of each
balance over the rod of a retort stand, weighted for stability and to prevent sliding. Arrange the
apparatus as shown in diagram (i) with each thread under a force of tension as registered by the
spring balance. Tap each balance gently to minimize errors due to sticking. Mark on the paper the
position of O and the directions of threads Ox, Oy and Oz. with the same scale mark off OA along
OX to represent P in magnitude and direction. with the same scale mark off OB to represent Q in
magnitude and direction. Construct the parallelogram OACB and draw the diagonal OC.

Record the forces P, Q and R as registered by the spring balances. Take the board and paper to one
side. Choose a suitable scale to represent N and on the paper mark off OA along Ox to represent
P in magnitude and direction.
a. Measure OC and convert the reading to Newton.
b. Mention two precautions taken to ensure accurate result.
c. State law of parallelograms of force.

Theory:
By the parallelogram of forces law OC represents, in magnitude and direction, the resultant of P
and Q. Since the system is in equilibrium then the force represented by OC ought to be equal in
magnitude to, opposite in direction to, and in the same line of action as R. If this is so the
parallelogram of forces law is verified.

COEFFICIENT OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC FRICTION

STATIC FRICTION
Apparatus: Wooden block, Inextensible thread, spring balance (0 - 50 N) or weighted hanger
or scale pan, big (Teacher’s) protractor, standard masses (100g, 200g, 500g, 700g). Tripple
beam balance, friction board (smooth base board) with light pulley fixed at one end.

Procedure: Weigh the wooden block on a beam balance and record its weight. set up the apparatus
as shown above by placing the wooden block on the base board. With the aid of thread passing
over the pulley, attach the wooden block to the scale pan / weighted hanger. place 100g mass on
the wooden block and record the total weight in Newton as the normal reaction, R (using N = Mg).
Gradually increase the weight on the scale pan or weighted hanger until the M JUST begin to slide.
Record the total weight on the hanger in Newton as Limiting Friction (F) between the board and
the wooden block. Repeat the Experiment using masses 200g, 300g, 400g and 500g.In each case
read and record the Normal reaction, R and the limiting friction F.

Tabulate your reading.

 M1 (kg) R (N) M2 (kg) F (N) m = F/R

Note: Limiting Friction (F)= Weight of the hanger + weight of the hanger in Newtons
Normal Reaction ® = weight of the wooden block B + added weight in Newtons
M1 = (Mass of wooden block + Mass added)
M2 = (Mass of weighted hanger + Mass added)
Plot the graph of F on the vertical axis and N on the horizontal axis.

Determine the m (coefficient of static friction). between the surfaces. (i.e The slope of the graph)
Compare the value of the slope with the average values of the F/N from your table.

m =F
R

Theory: As M2 Increases the horizontal force in M1 Increases. The frictional Force also increases
M1 slides when the limiting frictional force is equal to weight on M2 (weighted hanger).
Apparatus: as in A
Procedure:
1. Place the wooden block on the board raise one end of the plank gradually such that it turns
about the end; with the centre of protractor placed at this end until the wooden block just begin to
slide. Read and record the angle of inclination  of the board to the horizontal surface of the table
at that point, using protractor. Repeat the experiment for about four time and find the average (AV).
Calculate the tangent of A.
The coefficient of static friction is that tangent of OAV. Compare with the Value of the slope
of graph in experiment A.

Theory
The tangent of angle  = BC
AC

Question
1 State two precautions taken to ensure accurate result.
2 Define friction
3 List five advantages and disadvantages of Friction.
COEFFICIENT OF DYNAMIC FRICTION

APPARATUS: As in static friction

METHOD
With the apparatus shown in place a weight on S and give A a slight push towards C. Add
increasing weights to S, giving A a slight push each time. At some stage , A will be found to
continue moving with a steady, small velocity. Record the corresponding weight in the scale-pan
S. Now increase the reaction of B by adding weights to A, and repeat. Repeat for two more weights
on A, returning the block to its original place on B each time.
MEASUREMENT
 Weight of scale-pan = …N
Weight of scale-pan …N

Normal reaction Weight on scale-pan Frictional force

R/N on moving A/N F/N

CALCULATION
The frictional force, F = weight in scale-pan when A moves + weight of pan.
Normal reaction, R = weight of A + other weights on A

GRAPH
Plot F v.( R ) (Fig. 27).
The gradient, a/b = m = . . F

CONCLUSION a
The coefficient of dynamic friction is . . .
b
O R
DETERMINATION OF AN UNKNOWN MASS UDING PIVOTED METRE RULE
Apparatus: Knife edge retort stand meter rule, unknown mass X (50g), beam balance,
cellotape, set of masses, thread

Y
X M
D

Procedure: with cellotape, attach a small mass M to one end of the metre rule at 95cm mark. Hang
100g mass by mean of short Inextensible thread from the position X 5cm mark at the other end of
the metre rule and balance the rule on the knife edge (or retort stand at a point of distance Y from
the zero end.
Calculate the distance D between the point of attachment of the 100g mass and the knife edge. (or
suspending loop of thread) as shown above. record the values of X, Y and D. Repeat the
experiment for other positions of X along the rule 10cm, 20cm, 25cm, and 30cm and in each case
record the values of X, Y and D.

Tabulate your readings.

X(cm) Y(cm) D(cm)

THEORY: At equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moment about the same point.
Plot the graph of the values of X on the vertical axis against values of D on horizontal axis.

Determine the slope S of the graph

Find M = 1/s.

State two precautions you took to obtain accurate readings.

(b)i Explain moment of force about a point

ii list applications of couple.
iii A uniform metre rule balances of a knife edge at the 55cm mark when a mass
of 40g is hung from the 95cm mark Find the weight of the ruler.
VERIFICATION OF PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT
Apparatus: knife edge, metre rule set of masses, triple beam balance

B K
80cm

100g 100g

PROCEDURE
Measure and record the mass m of the metre rule balanced the metre rule horizontally on a knife
edge at a point K by suspecting a mass (m1=100g) at a point A = 80cm and another mass (m2 =
100g) at B = 10cm as shown in the figure above. Then measured and record the initial distances 1
and d. Repeat the experiment for five more times, keeping the position of the mass at A constant
while varying the positions of B = 15, 20, 25, 30 and K to obtain the corresponding values of l and
d.
Fig. 1(a) and Fig. 1(b) show the values of li and di respectively, where i= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
(i) Tabulate your readings.
RESULTS & CALCULATION
S/N K B=l d = K -l

(ii) Plot a graph of d on the vertical axis and the values of l on the horizontal axis. Starting
both axis from the origin (0,0).
(iii) Determine the slope, s, of the graph and the intercept, c, on the d axis.
(iv) If the relationship between s and m is given as s = 100, obtain a value for m.
200 + m
(v) State two precautions you would take if you were to perform this experiment in the
laboratory.
(vi) B(i) Define the centre of gravity of a body.
 (vii) (ii) A 120g mass is suspended 15cm from the zero end of a uniform metre rule. If the
metre rule is balanced horizontally, determine the mass of the metre rule, given that the
pivot is 20cm from the Centre of gravity of the metre rule.

DETERMINATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY USING SIMPLE

PENDULUM

Apparatus: Pendulum bob, inextensible thread, retort stand and clamp, 2 similar coins/ split
cork, metre rule, stopwatch, clock heavy weight.

Method
Hang the pendulum bob on one end of a 100-cm length of thread, and clamp the other end firmly
between two similar coins. Let the pendulum dangle over the edge of the bench. Place a heavy
weight on the base of the retort stand to make the support more rigid. Give the pendulum bob a
small displacement, and allow it to swing. Start the stopwatch and take time t for 50 complete
oscillations. Repeat for another 50 complete swings. Note the length l of the pendulum. Repeat the
above procedure for values of l of about 80 cm, 60 cm, 40 cm and 20 cm.
Tabulate your readings
Time for 50 swings Mean time Time for
2 2
l cm for 50 swings 1 swing T (s )
1 2 (s) (T s)

Calculations
Plot l on the vertical axis against T2on the horizontal axis. Choose any point P on the graph and
determine the slope of the graph.
Theory
If the length of the pendulum is l, and g is the acceleration due to gravity at the place where
the pendulum is used, then the time for one complete swing is given by

Conclusion
The acceleration due to gravity,
g= cms-2 = ms-2
T=2 l
g
l 2 l
2
T =4
2
g=4
g T2
where g = acceleration due to gravity

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION USING PENDULUM BOB

Apparatus: Two retort stand, stop watch/clock, light inextensible thread, meter rule and protractor

Split cork

qq
D
A B

Retort stand
clamp

S1 S2
C

bob
Bench

PROCEDURE
Fixed the end of a light inextensible thread, ACB at points A and B. suspended Simple pendulum
of length l at the mid-point, C of the threads so that AC = CB=L=0.5m. Measure and record angle
DCB = q Then set the bob into oscillations measure and record the time, t for 20 oscillations
Determine the period T of oscillation. Evaluate T2 and cos q.
Repeated the procedure for five more values by varying q. in each case determine the period T of
oscillation. Evaluate T2 and cos q. Tabulate your readings.
Results & Calculations
 qo t1(s) t2(s) tmean = t1 + t2 s T = tmean /2 T2 Cos q

Plot a graph of T2 against cos q, starting both axes from the origin, (0, 0). Determine the slope, s,
of the graph and record the value of T2 when cos q=0.
State two precautions taken to ensure accurate result.

B(i) Use your graph to determine the value of K, if T,L,I, and q are related by the equation
T2=4p2(L cos q+1)and K is a constant.
K
(ii) Explain what is meant when a body is said to be undergoing simple harmonic motion.
(iii) Explain why a spherical bob is preferred to bobs of other shapes for use in a simple
pendulum experiment.
Apparatus: Retort stand, stop watch/clock, light inextensible thread, meter rule and pendulum bob

DIAGRAM

H bob

floor

PROCEDURE
Suspend the simple pendulum from a distance h, from the floor as shown in the diagram above.
The centre of the bob is at a distance, h, from the floor. Set the bob into oscillation Measure and
record the time, t, for 20 complete oscillations. Determine the period T of oscillation. Evaluate T2
Repeated the procedure for five more values by varying h. in each case determine the period T of
oscillation and evaluate T2.
Tabulate your readings.
RESULTS & CALCULATIONS
hcm t1(s) t2(s) tmean = t1 + t2 s T = tmean /20 T2

Plot a graph of T2 on the vertical axis and the real values of h on the horizontal axis, starting both
axes from the origin (0,0).Determine the slope, s, of the graph. Read and record the value of T2
when h=0.
Taking p2 as 10, calculate.
(i) K1= 4p2 (ii) K2= T2
s s
State two precautions taken to ensure accurate results.
B(i) Differentiate oscillatory motion from rotational motion.
(ii) The bob of a simple pendulum oscillates with an amplitude of 2 x10 -2m and period 0.5 s.
Calculate the speed of the bob as it passes through the equilibrium position.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

DETERMINATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY (g)
Apparatus: retort stand, clamp and boss, a pendulum bob, a piece of thread, stop watch/clock

L = length of pendulum
H = the height of the point of
A suspension from the floor
h= the height of the bob from the
floor
L H = 150cm

TABLE bob
h
B FLOOR
 (a) Set up a simple pendulum of adjustable length, as shown above, on a retort stand that the
fixed point A is 150cm from the floor B. Adjust the length of the length of the pendulum
so that the bob is at a height h = 60cm above the floor. Give the bob a small displacement
and a measure the time for the 20- oscillations. Hence determine the periodic time T.
Repeat the procedure for four other increasing values of h. Tabulate your readings.
RESULTS & CALCULATIONS
S/N hcm t1(s) t2(s) tmean = t1 + t2 s T = tmean /20 T2

Plot a graph with T2 as ordinate and h as abscissa and determine its slope, S and its intercept, I on
the h-axis.
State two precautions you would took in performing the experiment.

(b)(i) State Newton’s law of universal gravitation.

(ii) An object is dropped from the top of a tower. Calculate the distance covered in 2s.
[Take g as 10ms2)
(iii) Assuming that the earth is a universal sphere of mass M and radius r. Show that the
acceleration of free fall due to gravity at the earth’s surface is given by g GM where G is
Newton’s gravitational constant. r
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION USING LOADED TEST TUBE
Apparatus: Test tube, tape of ruler, lead shot/sand, stop watch/clock, beaker, water, triple beam
balance

Test tube
Scale
Beaker
Water

Lead shots

PROCEDURE
Weighed an empty test tube and record its, mo, then loaded it with sufficient lead shots so that it
floats vertically in a beaker of water as shown in the diagram above. Immerse the test tube and
content in water, measured and recorded its depth d.
Take the test tube and content out of the water, weigh, read and record its mass ms. Determine and
record the mass m of the lead shot. Evaluate and record the quantity L = mi.
d
Return the test tube and its content into the water. Slightly depress the test tube vertically in the
water and released so that it performs vertically oscillations. Note and record the time t for 10
complete oscillations, repeat the procedure four times by increasing the mass mi, of the lead shot
in the test tube.
(i) Evaluate, in each case, the mass mi, of the lead shots and the period T of oscillation.
Also, evaluate T2 and Li = m
d
(ii) Tabulate your readings
RESULTS & CALCULATIONS Mo = …g, Q = …cm
S/N M = ms-mo L=m/d dcm t1(s) t2(s) tmean = t1 + t2 s T = tmean /20 T2

(iii) Determine the mean value Q of L

 (iv) Plot a graph of m on the vertical axis and T2 on the horizontal axis
(v) Determine the slope, s, of the graph and the intercept, C, on the vertical.
(vi) Evaluate k = 42s. Taking  as 22
Q 7
(vii) State two precautions taken to ensure accurate result.
B(i) List the forces on the loaded test-tube as it performs vertical oscillation in the water.
(iii) Explain why the amplitude of oscillation of a loaded test tube decreases with time.

VERIFICATION OF HOOKE’S LAW USING SPIRAL SPRING

Apparatus: Spiral spring, 2 retort stands and clamps, metre rule, slotted weight’s optical

pin, plasticine.

Procedure: attach one free end of the spiral spring to a rigid support suspend the hanger on the
other free end. Clamp a metre rule vertically in front of the spring with its 100cm mark down
Firmly attach a pointer to the lower end of the spring.

Note: The Initial pointer reading Po load the hanger with a mass of 100g and note the
corresponding pointer reading P1 Repeat the experiment with Masses M = 150g, 200g, 250g and
300g (by adding 50g in steps) Unload the hanger in steps of 50g and again note the corresponding
pointer reading P2. Hence, Find the mean pointer reading P.

Evaluate the extension X = P - PO

Tabulate your results as follows

PO =
Plot the graph of M against X and determine the slope L.
State two precautions taken to ensure accurate result.

THEORY:
A Loaded spiral spring obeys Hooke’s law up to the elastic limit according to the
equation
F = Ke. where, e = increase in length,
k = elastic constant or stiffness of the spring.
F = the load applied

b(i) State Hooke’s law

(ii) Sketch a graph of variation of load with extension. (show all the feature if and if not
elastic limit exceeded)

DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC CONSTANT AND VERIFICATION OF HOOKES

LAW USING SPIRAL SPRING
Apparatus: Spiral spring, metre rule, set of masses, complete retort stand, optical pin as pointer
stop watch

Rigid support

Spiral spring
Graduated Scale

Pointer
H
Mass m

PROCEDURE
Suspended a spiral spring on the boss of a retort stand. Note and record the position Ho on the
graduated scale near the pointer on the spring. Suspended a body of mass, m=50.0g is at the free
end of the spring as shown in the diagram above, note and record the new position, H, of the
pointer. Evaluate e = H – Ho. Set the body into vertical oscillations, measure and record the time,
t, for 20complete oscillations, repeat the procedure for various values of m = 100, 150, 200, 250
in each. Evaluate e = H – Ho. Read and record the corresponding time t.
Determine the period T of the oscillations and evaluate T2 in each case.
Tabulate your readings.
RESULTS & CALCULATIONS Ho = …cm
S/N Mg Hcm e =H-Hocm t1(s) t2 (cm) tmean = t1 + t2 s T = tmean /20 T2

Plot a graph of m on the vertical axis against e on the horizontal axis.

Determine the slope, si, of the graph.
On a separate sheet, plot a graph of T2 on the vertical axis against m on the horizontal axis.
Determine the slope, s2, of the graph.
(i) Evaluate k = 42 [Take  = 22/7]
S1S2
(ii) State two precautions taken to ensure a accurate result.

B(i) State four systems that can be made to perform simple harmonic motion.
(ii) The period of a loaded spiral spring is 2 s and its amplitude of oscillation is 5cm.
Determine the maximum speed of the motion. [ = 3.142]

BEFFILAR SUSPENSION
Apparatus: Tow metre rule, mass M = 100g, two retort stands, inextensible thread

h d h

10cm 90cm
METHOD
Place one of the rules on a knife edge and determine its centre of gravity C. Mark this position
with a piece of chalk. Measure and record the mass MR of the metre rule. Attach the mass M=100g
firmly to the rule AB at C using cellotape. Suspend the metre rule by two parallel thread of length
h = 40cm each at the 10cm and 90cm marks. Ensure that the graduated face of the metre rule is
facing upwards.
Set the rule AB into small angular oscillation about the vertical axis through its centre of gravity.
Determine the time t for 20 complete oscillations. Evaluate the period T and T2. Read and record
the value of d in metres.
Keeping d constant throughout the experiment, repeat the procedure for other values of h=50, 60,
70 and 80cm. In each case determine the corresponding values of t, T2 and T.
Tabulate your readings.
RESULTS & CALCULATIONS C = cm, d = …cm
hcm t1(s) t2(s) tmean = t1 + t2 s T = tmean /20 T2

Plot a graph of T2 on the vertical axis and on the horizontal axis.

Determine the slope s, of the graph. Evaluate k = s where a 2
Q 2Sd2
State two precautions taken to ensure accurate results.

(b)(i) Define the term couple as it relates to rotational oscillatory systems.

(ii) Give two practical applications of a couple in everyday life.
ACCELERATION OF FREE FALL DUE TO GRAVITY USING COMPOUND
PENDULUM
Apparatus: compound pendulum ( a meter rule with hole along its length) complete retort stand
steel needle to support pendulum to swing in vertical plane about its holes, stop
watch/clock, cork metre rule and knife edge.
Metre rule

Steel needle
Cork
P

G
A B

Bench

PROCEDURE
Determine the centre of gravity G of the pendulum by balancing it on the knife edge
Suspend the metre rule whose centre of gravity is at G from a steel needle at a point P As shown
the diagram above. Determine and recorde the distance h, between G and P Slightly displace the
metre rule sideways and released to set it into oscillations in the vertical plane. Determine and
record the time t for 20complete oscillations evaluate and record. the period T of oscillations and
the values for T2h and h2.
Repeat the experiment for four other values of h. In each case, determine and record t, T, T2h
and h2
Record your results in two separate tables one for the oscillations about holes on one side of the
centre of gravity and the other one for the oscillations about holes on the side
Tabulate your readings.
RESULTS & CALCULATIONS
S/N hcm t1(s) t2(s) tmean = t1 + t2 s T = tmean /20 T2 T2h h2

2
Plot a graph of T2h on the vertical axis and h2 on the horizontal axis, starting both axis from the
origin (0,0). Determine the slope, s, of the graph and its intercept, c, on the vertical axis

Evaluate (i) kl = 4p2; where = 22 (ii) k2= √c

S 7 ` s
State two precautions taken to ensure accurate results
b(i) Explain what is meant by the period of oscillation of a system.
(ii) Using your graph, determine the period T of oscillation for which the distance h =10
O10cm
(iii) In the experiment above, draw and label a force diagram to illustrate the forces acting on
the metre rule to keep it in static equilibrium when it is displaced with a horizontal force.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION USING CANTILEVER
Apparatus: Metre rule that can perform simple harmonic motion, retort stand, meter rule,
optical pin as pointer, G clamp, mass M = (100g), half meter rule

O -clamp
M

100m

Bench

Clamp the uniform meter rule supplied to the edge of the bench such that 90cm of the rule projects
from the edge and the rule is capable of performing vertical oscillation as shown above. With M =
50g fixed to the free end of the rule, deflect the rule so that it performs vertical oscillation and
determine the time for 20 oscillations. Calculate the period T of oscillation. Evaluate T2. Repeat
the experiment for values of M = 100, 150, 200 and 250g. Determine the corresponding values of
t, T and T2 in each case. Tabulate your readings.
Mg t1(s) t2 (s) Tmean t1 + t2 T = tmean T-2
 2 20

Plot a graph of T2 against M starting both axes from the origin (0,0). Determine the slope and the
intercept I of the graph. State two precautions you took to obtain accurate results.

(a) (i) Define the moment of a force about a point.

(ii) If R is the reaction from the bench m the mass of the meter rule and M the mass of
the attached load, draw a force-diagram of the arrangement when the rule is in
equilibrium and write down an equation relating R, m and M together. [Take g as
the acceleration due top gravity].
(ii) Explain what is meant by stating that a body is in stable equilibrium.

DEMONSTRATION OF EXISTENCE OF SURFACE TENSION

Apparatus: Steel needle with density greater than that of water, tissue paper/filter
paper, beaker, tap water.
Needle depresses
Surface tension the surface

Weight of needle

Fig. 41: Aneedle floating on water

Method:
Fill the already clean beaker to 3/4 of its volume with water. Allow the water to settle or be at rest
.

Fold the tissue paper, place the needle on the folded tissue paper and gently place the tissue and
the needle on the surface of the water inside beaker.

Result

What is your observation?