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chapter 1 CPU

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5 views

chapter 1 CPU

Uploaded by

अनिल लामिछाने
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A CPU is brain of a computer. It is responsible for all functions and processes.


Regarding computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer
system.

The main functions of the central processing unit are:

1. Fetch: It carry out the instructions either from input device or memory device. Each
instruction is stored in memory and has its own address. The processor takes this address
number from the program counter, which is responsible for tracking which instructions
the CPU should execute next.
2. Decode: All programs to be executed are translated to into Assembly instructions.
Assembly code must be decoded into binary instructions, which are understandable to
your CPU. This step is called decoding.
3. Execute: While executing instructions the CPU can do one of three things: Do
calculations with its ALU, move data from one memory location to another, or jump to a
different address.
4. Store: The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction and the output data
is written to the memory.

The CPU is comprised of three main parts:

A. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical operations.
Arithmetic calculations like as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical
operation like compare numbers, letters, or special characters. Logical operation
computes logic AND, logic OR, logic NOT etc.
B. Control Unit (CU): A control unit or CU is circuitry that directs operations within a
computer's processor. It lets the computer's logic unit, memory, as well as
both input and output devices know how to respond to instructions received from a
program. Examples of devices that utilize control units include CPUs and GPUs.
A control unit works by receiving input information that it converts into control signals,
which are then sent to the central processor. The computer's processor then tells the
attached hardware what operations to carry out. The functions that a control unit
performs are dependent on the type of CPU, due to the variance of architecture between
different manufacturers. Some of the functions of the control unit are as follows

1. Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.


2. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
3. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory.
4. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
5. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the
hardware to perform the requested operation.
The following diagram illustrates how instructions from a program are processed.

C. Registers: Stores the data that is to be executed next, "very fast storage area". A
processor register (CPU register) is one of a small set of data holding places that are part
of the computer processor. A register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any
kind of data (such as a bit sequence or individual characters). Some instructions
specify registers as part of the instruction. Some of the types of register are as follows:

1. Memory Address Register (MAR):


This register holds the address of memory where CPU wants to read or write data.
2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR):
This register holds the contents of data or instruction read from, or written in memory.
3. I/O Address Register (I/O AR):
I/O Address register is used to specify the address of a particular I/O device.
4. I/O Buffer Register (I/O BR):
I/O Buffer Register is used for exchanging data between the I/O module and the
processor.
5. Program Counter (PC):
Program Counter register is also known as Instruction Pointer Register. This register
is used to store the address of the next instruction to be fetched for execution.
6. Instruction Register (IR):
Once an instruction is fetched from main memory, it is stored in the Instruction
Register.
7. Accumulator Register (AC):
The accumulator register is located inside the ALU; it is used during arithmetic &
logical operations of ALU.
8. Data Register (DR):
A register used in microcomputers to temporarily store data being transmitted to or
from a peripheral device.

Microprocessor:
A microprocessor, sometimes called a logic chip, is a computer processor on a
microchip. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing
millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work
together.
In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor and CPU are used
interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most workstations sits a
microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from
clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.

Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.

Clock speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute.

Computer Bus:
The electrically conducting path along which data is transmitted inside any digital
electronic device. A Computer bus consists of a set of parallel conductors, which may be
conventional wires, copper tracks on a PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD, or microscopic
aluminum trails on the surface of a silicon chip. Each wire carries just one bit, so the
number of wires determines the largest data WORD the bus can transmit: a bus with eight
wires can carry only 8-bit data words, and hence defines the device as an 8-bit device.
A computer bus normally has a single word memory circuit called a LATCH attached to
either end, which briefly stores the word being transmitted and ensures that each bit has
settled to its intended state before its value is transmitted.

Types of Computer Bus


There are a variety of buses found inside the computer.
Data Bus: The data bus allows data to travel back and forth between the microprocessor
(CPU) and memory (RAM). It is used to transfer data within Microprocessor and
Memory/Input or Output devices. It is bidirectional as Microprocessor requires sending or
receiving data. The data bus also works as address bus when multiplexed with lower order
address bus. For e.g.: Data bus is 8 Bits long. The word length of a processor depends on
data bus, that’s why Intel 8085 is called 8 bit Microprocessor because it have an 8 bit data
bus.
Address Bus: The address bus carries information about the location of data in memory.
It is a group of wires or lines that are used to transfer the addresses of Memory or I/O
devices. It is unidirectional. In Intel 8085 microprocessor, Address bus was of 16 bits.
This means that Microprocessor 8085 can transfer maximum 16 bit address which means
it can address 65,536 different memory locations.
Control Bus: The control bus carries the control signals that make sure everything is
flowing smoothly from place to place. Microprocessor uses control bus to process data
that is what does with the selected memory location. Some control signals are Read, Write
and Opcode fetch etc. Various operations are performed by microprocessor with the help
of control bus. This is a dedicated bus, because all timing signals are generated according
to control signal.

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