Module 1 : Database Management Systems

Lect 1: Introduc on to Database

 Data: known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning.
o Eg: Text- names, telephone nos, address,
o Image, Video, audio etc
o Flipkart, Amazon, Uber etc contains data

:
 Database Collection of related data

◦ Eg : Student database which contains

Roll No Name Dept Marks
Eg 2 :
Roll No Grocery Price Car Model

These are data but not database since they are not related data
 Type of Database

 Tradi onal Database: informa on is stored and accessed is either textual or numeric.
 Mul media databases: store images, audio clips, and video streams digitally
 Geographic informa on systems (GIS) : store and analyze maps, weather data, and
satellite images.
 Database management system (DBMS) is a collec on of programs that enables users
to create and maintain a database.

 DBMS is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of defining,

constructing, manipulating, and sharing databases among various users and applications.

◦ Defining a database involves specifying the data types, structures, and

constraints of the data to be stored in the database

Eg: Student database having foll attributes.

Roll no – String
Name – String Roll no Name Marks
Marks - Float

The database definition or descriptive information is also stored by the DBMS in the
form of a database catalog or dictionary; it is called meta-data
 ◦ Constructing the database is the process of storing the data on some storage
medium

eg
Roll no Name Marks

1 Akhil 34

2 Sajan 42

3 Vivek 21

 Manipula ng a database includes func ons such as querying the database to
retrieve specific data, upda ng the database.

 Sharing a database allows mul ple users and programs to access the database
simultaneously.

 An applica on program accesses the database by sending queries or requests for

data to the DBMS.

 DBMS include protec ng the database and maintaining it over a long period of me

Database System Environment

 Characteristics of the Database Approach
 Self-describing nature of a database system

 Insulation between programs and data, and data abstraction

 Support of multiple views of the data

 Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing

1. Self-describing nature of a database system

 Database system contains not only the database itself but also a complete
definition or description of the database structure and constraints.
 This definition is stored in the DBMS catalog
 information stored in the catalog is called meta-data and it describes the
structure of the primary database.

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2. Insula on between programs and data, and data abstrac on

 The structure of database is stored in the DBMS catalog separately from the
access programs.
 This property is called program-data independence.
 Eg: in Student db

Roll no Name Marks

1 Akhil 34
2 Sajan 42
3 Vivek 21

If we wish to add a new a ribute DOB we can do without affec ng the data

Roll Name Marks DOB

no

1 Akhil 34
2 Sajan 42
3 Vivek 21

This is known an program-data independence

 Users can define operations on data.
 Operations (also called a function or method) is specified in two parts
 The interface (or signature) of an operation includes the operation
name and the data types of its arguments.
 The implementation (or method) of the operation is specified separately
and can be changed without affecting the interface.
 User application programs can operate on the data by invoking these
operations through their names and arguments, regardless of how the
operations are implemented.
 This is termed program-operation independence
  The characteristic that allows program-data independence and program-operation
independence is called data abstraction

3. Support of multiple views of the data

 A database typically has many users, each of whom may require a different
perspective or view of the database.
 A view may be a subset of the database or it may contain virtual data that is
derived from the database files but is not explicitly stored

Roll no Name Marks

1 Akhil 34
2 Sajan 42
3 Vivek 21

Student database

Name
Akhil
View 1: Name of the students
Sajan
Vivek
--
Roll no Name Marks

2 Sajan 42
View 2: Details of the students with highest mark

4. Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing

 The DBMS must include concurrency control software

o to ensure that several users trying to update the same data do so in a
controlled manner so that the result of the updates is correct
 For example, when several reservation agents try to assign a seat on an airline flight,
the DBMS should ensure that each seat can be accessed by only one agent at a time
for assignment to a passenger.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of DBMS

Advantages of DBMS

1.Controlling Redundancy
o In traditional file processing every user maintains the copy of same file
o But in DBMS same copy can be shared among many users, thus redundancy can be
avoided

2. Restricting Unauthorized Access

◦ When multiple users share a large database, it is likely that most users will not be
authorized to access all information in the database
◦ Eg: Financial data is confidential, and only authorized persons are allowed to access
such data.
3. Providing Storage Structures for Efficient Query Processing
o DBMS provide specialized data structures and search techniques to speed up
disk search for the desired records.
o indexes are used for this purpose.
o In order to process the database records needed by a particular query, those
records must be copied from disk to main memory. DBMS often has a
buffering or caching module that maintains parts of the database.

Indexing technique

Buffered storage

4. Providing Backup and Recovery

o DBMS provide facilities for recovering from hardware or software failures.
o backup and recovery subsystem of the
o DBMS is responsible for recovery.
o For example, if the computer system fails in the middle of a complex update
transaction, the recovery subsystem is responsible for making sure that the database
is restored to the state it was in before the transaction started executing
5. Providing Multiple User Interfaces

o DBMS provide a variety of user interfaces.

o These include
 query languages for casual users,
 programming language interfaces for programmers,
 menu-driven interfaces for standalone users known as graphical user
interfaces (GUIs).
 Form based interfaces.
6. Enforcing Integrity Constraints

o Most database applications have certain integrity constraints that must hold for the
data
o specifying a data type for each data item is an integrity constraint
o referential integrity constraint : A more complex type of constraint that frequently
occurs involves specifying that a record in one file must be related to records in other
files.
o key or uniqueness constraint :
o This constraint specifies uniqueness on data item values,
 Actors on the Scene
 Database Administrators
 Database Designers
 End Users
o Casual end users
o Naive or parametric end users
o Sophisticated end users
o Standalone users
 System Analysts and Application Programmers
I . Database Administrators
 A person who has such central control over the system is called a database
administrator (DBA).
 Role of DBA

 Schema definition.
o The DBA creates the original database schema by executing a set of
data definition statements in the DDL
 Storage structure and access-method definition.
o The DBA may specify some parameters pertaining to the physical
organization of the data and the indices to be created.
 Schema and physical-organization modification
o The DBA carries out changes to the schema and physical organization
to reflect the changing needs of the organization
 Granting of authorization for data access.
o By granting different types of authorization, DBA can regulate which
parts of the database various users can access
 Routine Maintenance:
o Routine maintenance activities of DBA are
o Periodically backing up the database
o Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for normal operation
o Monitoring jobs running on the database and ensuring that performance
is not degraded by expensive tasks submitted by some users

II Database Designers

 Responsible for
 identifying the data to be stored in the database
 choosing appropriate structures to represent and store this data
 communicate with all database users in order to understand their
requirements and to create a design that meets these requirements
III End Users

 They are the people, whose jobs are to access the database for querying,
updating, and generating reports
 Categories of end users
1. Casual end users occasionally access the database, but they may
need different information each time.
They use a sophisticated database query language to specify their
requests
2. Naive or parametric end users
 constantly query and update the database, using standard
types of queries and updates

The tasks that such users perform are
a. Bank tellers check account balances and post withdrawals
and deposits
b. Reservation agents for airlines, hotels, and car rental
companies check availability for a given request and make
reservations
3. Sophisticated end users
 They include engineers, scientists, business analysts, and others
They familiarize themselves with the facilities of the DBMS in
order to implement their own applications
4. Standalone users
 maintain personal databases by using ready-made program
packages that provide easy-to-use menu-based or graphics-based
interfaces
 An example is the user of a tax package that stores a variety of
personal financial data for tax purposes
IV System Analysts and Application Programmers (Software Engineers)
 System analysts determine the requirements of end users and develop
specifications that meet these requirements.
 Application programmers implement these specifications as programs;
then they test, debug, document, and maintain these system.
 Such analysts and programmers—commonly referred to as software
developers or software engineers
 Workers behind the Scene

These are people who work to maintain the database system environment, and they are
not interested in the database content
1. DBMS system designers and implementers
2. Tool developers
3. Operators and maintenance personnel

1. DBMS system designers and implementers

 They design and implement the DBMS modules and interfaces as a software
package
 DBMS modules include
 Module for implementing the catalog
 query language processing
 Interface processing
 accessing and buffering data
 controlling concurrency
 handling data recovery and security

2. Tool developers
 Tools are optional packages that are often purchased separately.
 They include

o packages for database design

o performance monitoring
o natural language or graphical interfaces
o Prototyping
o Simulation, and test data generation.
 In many cases, independent software vendors develop and market these tools.

3. Operators and maintenance personnel

◦ responsible for the actual running and maintenance of the hardware and
software environment for the database system
 Structured, Semi Structured & Unstructured data and
DATA MODELS

Data can be classified into three types:

o Structured Data
o Semi-structured Data
o Unstructured Data

Structured Data
o The data is well organized either in the form of tables or some other way
o Searching & accessing information from such data is very easy
o Eg Relational Database (data stored in tables), spreadsheets
Semi - structured data
o Semi-structured data is information that doesn’t reside in a relational
database but have some organizational properties that make it easier to
analyze.
o It is difficult to store and retrieve
o These data can be stored in a database after processing it
o For example, CSV, XML and web data such as JSON

Unstructured data
o Data which is not organized in a predefined manner
o It is not fit for relational database
o It includes text and multimedia content. For example, e-mail messages, word
processing documents, videos, photos, audio files, presentations, web pages
 DATA MODELS
 Collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of a database
 Structure of a database we mean the data types, relationships, and constraints
that should hold on the data
 Most data models also include a set of basic operations for specifying retrievals
and updates on the database

Categories of Data Model

 Every database and DBMS is based on a particular data model.

 There are mainly three categories of data model
1. High-level or conceptual data models
2. Low-level or physical data models
3. Representational (or implementation) data models
 Hierarchical data model
 Relational data model
 Network Data model
I. High-level or conceptual data models

 It provides concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data.
 Conceptual data models use concepts such as
◦ Entities
◦ Attributes, and
◦ Relationships
o An entity represents a real-world object or concept, such as an employee or a project
from the miniworld that is described in the database.
 o An attribute represents some property of interest that describes an entity, such as
the employee’s name or salary.
o A relationship among two or more entities represents an association among the
entities, for example, a works-on relationship between an employee and a project

II. Representational (or implementation) data models

 It provide concepts that may be understood by end users but hides the
way data is organized within the computer
 It hides some details of data storage but can be implemented on a computer
system
 These are again classified into three types.
◦ Hierarchical data model
◦ Relational data model
◦ Network Data model

A. Hierarchical Model

 Here data is organized in a tree-like structure, where nodes represent the

records and relationship is provided using edges.
 One of the rules of a hierarchical database is that a parent can have multiple
children, but a child can only have one parent.
 For example consider the database which represents an institutional department.
A department has courses and students, each course has professors
B. Network model
 Every data is represented as collection of records.
 The database structure is like a graph.
 This is similar to the hierarchical model and also provides a tree-like structure.
However, a child is allowed to have more than one parent.

C. Relational Model
 Data is organized in two-dimensional tables called relations.
 The tables or relation are related to each other.
 Each row represents a record, also referred to as an entity.
 Each column represents a field, also referred to as an attribute.
 A relational DBMS uses multiple tables to organize the data.
 Relationships are used to link the various tables together.
 Relationships are created using a field that uniquely identifies each record
3. Low-level or physical data models
 It provides concepts that describe the details of how data is stored in the
computer
 Data models are generally meant for computer specialists, not for typical end
users
 It describe how data is stored as files in the computer by representing
information such as
 record formats

 record orderings and

 access paths
 An access path is a structure that makes the search for particular database
records efficient

THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE
Schema, Instances and Database State

 The description of a database is called the Database schema, which is

specified during database design and is not expected to change frequently

 A Schema is represented in a Schema Digram

 The data in the database at a particular moment in time is called a database

state or snapshot
 Instance is the snapshot of a database at a particular moment.
 THREE SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE

 This architecture is proposed to

achieve the characteristics of
database approach
 The goal of the three-schema
architecture is to separate the
user applications and the
physical database
 In this architecture, schemas can
be defined at the following three
levels
o External Level
o Conceptual Level
o Internal Level

INTERNAL LEVEL

 It uses low level /physical data

model
 It has an internal schema, which
describes the physical storage
structure of the database
 This level describes how data is
stored in the database.
 It deals with the data structures and
the file organizations used to store
data on storage device
 This level is concerned with things
such as
  Storage space allocation for data and indexes
 Record description for storage
 Record Placement
 Data encryption and data decryption

CONCEPTUAL LEVEL
 It uses representational/Implementational data model
 The conceptual level has a conceptual schema, which describes the
structure of the whole database for users
 hides the details of physical storage structures and concentrates on describing
entities, data types, relationships, user operations, and constraints
 describes what data is stored in the database and the relationships
among the data.
 The conceptual level represents
 All entities, their attributes
and their relationships
 The constraints on the data
 Semantic information about
the data
 Security and integrity
information

EXTERNAL OR VIEW LEVEL

 It uses HighLevel/Conceptual data Model

 Describes the part of the database that a particular user group is interested in and
hides the rest of the database from
that user group
 DBMS must transform a request
specified on an external schema
into a request against the
conceptual schema, and then
into a request on the internal
schema for processing over the
stored database
 If the request is a database retrieval,
the data extracted from the stored
database must be reformatted to
match the user’s external view.
Mappings
 The processes of transforming requests and results between levels are called
mappings
 These mappings may be time-consuming

DATA INDEPENDENCE
 Data independence is the capacity to change the schema at one level of a
database system without having to change the schema at the next higher
level.
 There are two types of data independence.
i. Logical data independence
ii. Physical data independence

1. Logical Data Independence

 The capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to
change external schemas or application programs
 Refers to the immunity of external schemas to changes made in the
conceptual schema.

 Eg: We may change the conceptual schema to expand the database (by adding a
record type or data item), or to reduce the database (by removing a record type
or data item).
 After the conceptual schema undergoes a logical reorganization, application
programs that reference the external schema constructs must work as before

2. Physical Data Independence

 It is the capacity to change the internal schema without having to
change the conceptual schema or
 it refers to the immunity of conceptual schemas to the changes of
internal schema
 Eg : for example, by creating additional access structures—to improve the
performance of retrieval or update.
  If the same data as before remains in the database, we should not have to change
the conceptual schema

Database Architectures
DBMS architecture are of different types
 Centralized DBMSs Architecture
 Basic Client/Server Architectures
 Two-Tier Client/Server Architectures
 Three-Tier and n-Tier Architectures

1. Centralized DBMSs Architecture

 All the DBMS functionality, application program execution, and user interface
processing were carried out on one machine
 A centralized database is stored at a single location such as a mainframe
computer.
 It is maintained and modified from that location only and usually accessed
using an internet connection such as a LAN or WAN.
 The centralized database is used by organizations such as colleges, companies,
banks etc.
2. Basic Client/Server Architectures

 The client/server architecture was developed to deal with computing

environments in which a large number of PCs, workstations, file servers, printers,
database servers, Web servers, e-mail servers, and other software and equipment
are connected via a network
 The idea is to define specialized servers with specific functionalities
 The resources provided by specialized servers can be accessed by many client
machines.
 Eg
o file server maintains the files of the client machines.
o printer server is connected to various printers
 The client machines provide the user with the appropriate interfaces to utilize
these servers

 A client is typically a user machine that provides user interface capabilities

and local processing.
 When a client requires access to additional functionality— such as database
access— that does not exist at that machine, it connects to a server that
provides the needed functionality.
 A server is a system containing both hardware and software that can provide
services to the client machines
Two-Tier Client/Server Architectures
 Multiple clients are connected to a database server
 The user interface programs and application programs can run on the client side
 Query provided in the client side is processed by the database server
 When DBMS access is required, the program establishes a connection to the
DBMS
 A standard called Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) allows client-side
programs to communicate with DBMS,.
 Most DBMS vendors provide ODBC drivers for their systems
 This architecture is called Two tier because software components are distributed
over two systems: Client &
Server
Three-Tier and n-Tier Architectures
 It adds an intermediate layer between the client and the database
server.
 This intermediate layer or middle tier is called the application server or the
Web server, depending on the application.
 Web server plays an intermediary role by running application programs and
storing business rules (procedures or constraints) that are used to access data
from the database server.
 It can also improve database security by checking a client’s credentials before
forwarding a request to the database server

 Clients contain GUI interfaces and some additional application-specific business

rules.
 The Application server accepts requests from the client, processes the request
and sends database queries and commands to the database server,
 Response from the database is partially processed by database server which
is passed to the clients, where it may be processed further and filtered to be
presented to users in GUI format
 CLASSIFICATION OF DBMS

DBMS can be classified based on several criteria .

1. Based on Data Model
2. Based on number of users
3. Based on Database distribution
4. Based on cost
5. Based on access path
6. Based on purpose

1. Based on Data Model

 Relational DBMS: It is most commonly used commercial DBMS.
 Object DBMS: The object data model has been implemented in some commercial
systems using object- oriented concepts.
 Hierarchical DBMS: Many legacy applications still run on database systems based
on the hierarchical data models. Examples of hierarchical DBMSs include IMS
(IBM)
 Network DBMS: The network data model was used by many vendors and by the
products like IDMS, DMS 1100
2. Based on Number of Users
 Single-user systems support only one user at a time and are mostly used with
PCs.
 Multiuser systems, which include the majority of DBMSs, support concurrent
multiple users
3. Based on Database distribution
 Centralized DBMS: Centralized DBMS can support multiple users, but the DBMS
and the database reside totally at a single computer site.
 Distributed DBMS: A distributed DBMS (DDBMS) can have the actual database
and DBMS software distributed over many sites, connected by a computer
network.
 Homogeneous DDBMSs use the same DBMS software at all the sites, whereas
heterogeneous DDBMSs can use different DBMS software at each site
4. Based on cost
 Open Source (Free) DBMS products like MySQL and PostgreSQL that are
supported by third-party vendors with additional services.
 RDBMS products are available as free examination 30-day copy versions as well
as personal versions, which may cost under $100 and allow a fair amount of
functionality.
 5. Based on access path

 DBMS can be classified based on the types of access path options for storing
files.
 Access paths are the alternative ways for retrieving specific record from a
relation/table
 One well-known family of DBMSs is based on inverted file structures.
6. Based on purpose
 DBMS can be general purpose or special purpose.
 When performance is a primary consideration, a special-purpose DBMS can
be designed and built for a specific application
 such a system cannot be used for other applications without major changes.
 Many airline reservations and telephone directory systems are special-
purpose DBMSs. These fall into the category of online transaction processing
(OLTP) systems

Database Languages

Database languages can be classified into three categories.

1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
3. Data Control Language (DCL)

1. Data definition language (DDL)

 A database schema can be specified by a by a special language called a data

definition language
 DDL is a set of commands to create, modify and delete database
structure but not data
 When data values are stored in a database, it must satisfy certain consistency
constraints. DDL provides facilities to specify such constraints
 Domain constraints, integrity constraints, authorization etc. are different
constraints.
 It is used by the DBA and by database designers to define both conceptual
and internal schemas
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

 DML is a language that enables users to access or manipulate data

 Through DML we can
o Insert new data in the database
o Modify the data already stored in the database
o Delete data
o Retrieve the information
 There are two main types of DMLs.
o Procedural DML
o Non procedural DML

i. Low level or Procedural DML

 Require a user to specify what data are needed and how to get those
data.
 It requires writing procedures or methods to specify what data is needed.
 A lowlevel or procedural DML must be embedded in a general-purpose
programming language

ii. High level or Non Procedural DML

 Requires a user to specify what data are needed without specifying how to get
those data.
 A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information.
 Highlevel DMLs, such as SQL, can specify and retrieve many records in a single
DML statement;
 therefore, they are called set-at-a-time or set-oriented DMLs

3. Data Control language (DCL)

 It is the language that controls access to the data and to the database.
 DCL statements are grouped with the DML statements.
 Through DCL we can
o Commit: Save work done
o Rollback: restore database to original since the last commit
 ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL

 Entity-Relationship (ER) model is a popular high-level conceptual data model

 Diagrammatic notation associated with an E-R model is known as E-R Diagram
 The E-R model describes data as Entities, Attributes and Relationships.

Entity Relationship Diagram (E-R Diagram)

 It is not a technical method
 It is used for designing a database
 Diagrammatic representation and easy to understand for non technical users
 Collection of entities and their properties called attributes and
relationship between them
 Diagrammatic representation and easy to understand for non technical users

Entity
 Entity is a thing in the real world with an independent existence.
 for example, a particular person, car, house or employee
 For example, if we say that a customer buys goods, it means customers and
goods are entities.
 In E-R diagrams, entities are represented using rectangles

CUSTOMER GOODS

Attributes
 Each entity has attributes—the particular properties that describe it.
 For example, an EMPLOYEE entity may be described by the employee’s name,
age, address, salary, and job.
 In E-R diagrams attributes are drawn in elliptical shapes along with the entity
rectangles
 Derived attributes are represented by dotted attributes

Complex Attributes
 It is a combination of composite and multi-valued attribute.
 Group components of a composite attribute between parentheses () and
separating the components with commas, and by displaying multivalued attributes
between braces { }.
 Eg :
Address_phone({phone_no},{Address(Flat no,city,state)})

Entity Types and Entity Sets

 An entity type defines a collection of entities that have the same attributes or
properties.

 Each entity type in the database is described by its name and attributes.

 Entity Set is the collection of same type of entities, i.e their attributes are
same is called entity set
Key Attributes of an Entity

 An entity type usually has one or more attributes whose values are
distinct for each individual entity in the entity set.
 Such an attribute is called a key attribute, and its values can be used to identify
each entity uniquely

Roll no Name Age

1 Akhil S 21
2 Akhil 20
3 Anand 21

In ER diagrammatic notation, each key attribute has its name underlined inside the
oval
 Value Sets (Domains) of Attributes

 Each simple attribute of an entity type is associated with a value set (or domain of
values), which specifies the set of values that may be assigned to that attribute for each
individual entity.
 For example, if the range of ages allowed for employees is between 16 and 70, we can
specify the value set of the Age attribute of EMPLOYEE to be the set of integer
numbers between 16 and 70.

Emp No Ename Age

E101 Rahul 17
E102 Ramesh 23
E103 Samuel 14 (Error)

 Consider a database application COMPANY which keeps track of a company’s

employees, departments, and projects. Suppose that after the requirements collection
and analysis phase, the database designers provide the following description.

1. The company is organized into departments. Each department has a unique name,
a unique number, and a particular employee who manages the department. We
keep track of the start date when that employee began managing the department.
A department may have several locations.

2. A department controls a number of projects, each of which has a unique name, a unique
number, and a single location.
  We store each employee’s name, Social Security number, address, salary, sex
(gender), and birth date. An employee is assigned to one department, but may work
on several projects, which are not necessarily controlled by the same department. We
keep track of the current number of hours per week that an employee works on each
project. We also keep track of the direct supervisor of each employee (who is
another employee).

We want to keep track of the dependents of each employee for insurance purposes. We
keep each dependent’s first name, sex, birth date, and relationship to the employee

Relationship in DBMS
 Whenever an attribute of one entity type refers to another entity type, some
relationship exists.
 the attribute Department of EMPLOYEE refers to the department for which
the employee works
 RELATIONSHIP
Relationship is the association among several entities.

In ER diagram Relationship is represented in diamond

Eg1

Eg2

Relationship Type
The relationship which is associating with different entities
Relationship Set
A relationship set is a set of relationships of the same type.

Degree of a Relationship Type

 The degree of a relationship type is the number of participating entity types.

 3 Types
o Unary relationship
o Binary relationship
o Ternary Relationship

Unary relationship
 Association is maintained within a single entity.
 Binary relationship
 Association is maintained within two entities.

Ternary Relationship
 Association is maintained within three entities

Constraints on Binary Relationship Types

 Relationship types have certain constraints that limit the possible combinations
of entities that may participate in the corresponding relationship set.
 We can distinguish two main types of binary relationship constraints:
o cardinality ratio
o Participation constraint

Cardinality ratio
 The cardinality ratio for a binary relationship specifies the maximum number
of relationship instances to which an entity can take part in it.
 The no of entities to which another entity can be associated via a relationship set
 The possible cardinality ratios for a binary relationship types are
o One to one (1:1)
o One to many (1:N)
o Many to one (N:1)
o Many to many (M:N)
1. One to one:
 An entity A is associated with atmost one entity in B and an entity in B is
associated with atmost one entity in A.

 A customer can borrow a single loan,

 A single loan can be borrowed by a customer

2. One to Many:
 An entity A is associated with any no of entities in B and an entity in B can be
associated with atmost one entity in A.
3. Many to one:

 An entity in A is associated with atmost one entity in B. An entity in B can be

associated with any no of entities in A.
4. Many to Many:
 An entity in A is associated with any no of entities in B and an entity in B is
associated with any no of entities in A.
 PARTICIPATION CONSTRAINTS
 This constraint specifies the minimum number of relationship instances that
each entity can participate in,
 Also called the minimum cardinality constraint.
 There are two types of participation constraints—total and partial.

 Total Participation:
o if every entity in the entity type participates in at least one relationship in the
relationship type
o Represented by double lines in ER Diagram
 Partial Participation :
o Some entities may not participate in any relationship in the relationship type
o Represented by single line in ER Diagram
Eg1

 Entity Project should have atlease one department, So Project has Total
Participation
 There can be no Department which is assigned any project , So Department has
Partial Participation

 In ER diagrams, total participation is displayed as a double line connecting the

participating entity type to the relationship, whereas partial participation is
represented by a single line.

 Eg2

 Entity Department should have atlease one Employee as Manager, So Department

has Total Participation
 Not all Employee Manages a department. So Employee has Partial Participation
E-R Diagram Construction
 Example 1
The company database keeps track of company’s employee, department and projects We
store Employee’s name, ssn,address,salary,gender,date of birth, age. An employee is
assigned to one department, but may work on several projects which are not necessarily
controlled by the same department. A particular employee manages the department. Each
department has a unique name, unique number and several locations. The department
controls number of projects each of which has a unique name, unique number and a single
location. We want to keep track of the dependents of each employee for insurance
purpose. We keep each dependent’s first name, sex,birth date and relationship to employee
Example 2
A company has the following scenario: There are a set of salespersons. Some of them
manage other salespersons. However, a salesperson cannot have more than one manager.
A salesperson can be an agent for many customers. A customer is managed by exactly one
salesperson. A customer can place any number of orders. An order can be placed by
exactly one customer. Each order lists one or more items. An item may be listed in many
orders. An item is assembled from different parts and parts can be common for many
items. One or more employees assemble an item from parts. A supplier can supply different
parts in certain quantities. A part may be supplied by different suppliers.
Alternative Notations for ER Diagrams
 One alternative ER notation for specifying structural constraints on relationships,
which replaces the cardinality ratio (1:1, 1:N, M:N) with (min,max) notation
 The minimum number of times an entity can appear in a relation is represented by
min
 The maximum time it an entity can appear in a relation is max.
 If m = 0 it denotes partial participation,
 if m >0 it denotes total participation of the entity.

From the above E R diagram using min-max notation