Debark University

College of Social Science

Department of Geography and Environmental Studies (GeES)

Course Name: Research Methods in Geography and Environmental Studies

Themes of the course: Spatial data acquisition, analysis and techniques

Prepared by: Abraham Dessie(M.A)

March, 2023

Debark, Ethiopia

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 1. Introduction

1.1. Nature & Definitions of Research

1.1.1. Meaning of Research

Research is most frequently used term in academic institutions and research institutions. It
involves discovering and learning new things and it is enjoyable as well as tough experiences. It
is the process of collecting the data based on which the researcher draws some conclusions.
Research is an art of scientific investigation. It is the systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data to generate knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a problem. In
general where there is a problem there is always research.

Nature of Research

 Logical and systematic- it should be reasonable and understood by other

 Systematic – ordered structure of inquiry creative-need to new solution, theory or
technology
 generalizable/ Reductive - investigates small sample which can be generalized to a large
population
 replicable-other can test the findings by repeating it
 Presentation- present to the other
 Empirical -collection of data (facts, experience, etc.) on which to base decisions

Why Undertake Research/Why Study Research?

 To investigate some existing situation or problem.

 To provide solutions to a problem.
 To explore and analyses more general issues.
 To construct or create a new procedure or system.
 To explain a new phenomenon.
 To generate new knowledge.
 A combination of two or more of any of the above.
Motivation in research

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 possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
Desire to face the challenge(fight) in solving the unsolved problems
Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
Desire to give service for society;

Scientific Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions.

Systematic- because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which you will follow. e.g.
observe the phenomena/issue again and again, collect data and on the basis of data draw some
conclusions.

Organized- in that there is a structure or method in going about doing research. It is a planned
procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused and limited to a specific scope.

Finding Answers- is the end of all research. Research is successful when we find answers.
Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer.

Questions- are central to research. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important
questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose. Desire to get
respectability.

Common Objectives of Research

Research can have the following common objectives

 To generate new knowledge, principle and scientific law

 To review and verify the validity of the previous work.
 To investigate some existing situation or problem
 To explain new phenomenon
 To examine the cause of the problem
 To examine the nature of the problem
 To provide solution to a problem
 To construct or create a new procedure and new system
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it

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  To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
1.2 Types of research
There are different ways of classifying research. However, for this course research can be
classified in different categories on the followings are:-
Classification of research based on the application& Goal of the research
Basic research
This is also called as “fundamental research” or “pure research.” It seeks to discover basic
truths or principles. Fundamental (Basic or Academic) Research: - Such research is aimed at
investigating or search for new principles and laws. It is mainly concerned with
generalization and formulation of a theory this type of research also verifies the validity of
old established theories, principles and laws. In general, fundamental research is concerned
with the theoretical aspect of science.
Example
 Theory of economic determinism
 Economies of externality
 Darwin Theory of Evolution
 Newton‟s Law of Motion

Applied research

It is also called Action research. A research aimed at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society, the outcome of such research would be used by decision makers
(individuals or groups).

Example,

 The improvement of safety in the working place

 The reduction of wastage in the working places

In General, Basic Research

 essential for the development of theory

 motivated by intellectual curiosity

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  no immediate practical utility
 The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied research

Applied /Action Research

 answer an immediate practical problem

 often apply the findings of basic research

Classification of Research by Fields of Study

Research can also be classified based on fields of study. Therefore, there are:

 natural science research,

 social science research,
 educational research,
 behavioral science research,
 Health science research, etc.

Classification of research based on the information sought/required

Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to

phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behavior, we quite often talk of „Motivation Research‟, an
important type of qualitative research. Such research is applicable for phenomenon that cannot
be expressed in terms of quantity. Things related to quality and kind. Research designed to find
out, how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is an example of
such research. Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioral sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such research we can
analyze the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which
make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative

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research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one
should seek guidance from expertise.

Criteria for Good Research

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:

1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the
use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the
process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise

3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity
to research results.

4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by

replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Significance of Research

The significance of research can be understood in the following points:

 To those students who are to write a master‟s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
 To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
 To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
 To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;
 To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.

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 Scientific Method

Moreover, there are different problems that cannot be solved without scientific approach People
increasingly searching for,

 truth or
 knowledge
 Through systematic study or what is commonly known as Scientific methods.
What is science?

Science: is an approach to generate knowledge. It relies on a mixture of

Empiricism (i.e., data/evidence) and

Rationalism (i.e., the use of reasoning and theory construction and testing)
Science is in general a way of generating knowledge and testing the truth of it

What is Scientific Method?

The philosophy common to all research methodology and technique is called Scientific methods

The steps in scientific methods are

1. Observation: It is a minute and careful observation of the subject matter of research.

2. Recording: It is a careful recording of all information (data) obtained in the first step,

3. Classification: This implies systematically arranging and organizing the recorded data on the
logical basis so that they will become viable for further analysis.

4. Generalization: It is an extension of general laws and principles on the basis of the pattern
exhibited by the classified material.

5. Verification: the scientific method does not stop only at the formulation of general law. The
general principle must also be verified. The validity of scientific principles can be confirmed by
examination.

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6. Empirical Approach is the scientific method with an evidence-based approach. Scientific
decisions are made based on the data.

Geography as a Research Discipline

Any research project has the following three components

 A subject matter (what is being studied?)

 Methodology or Approach (how it is being studied)
 Philosophical bases

A subject matter (what is being studied?)

Though various definitions exist, Geography can be regarded as a science concerned with the
rational development, and testing of theories that attempt to explain and predict the spatial
distribution and location of various characteristics on the surface of the earth. For geographers,
research is the process of trying to gain a better understanding of the r/n s/p between humans,
space, place and environment which lead them use scientific methods.

2. Methodology or Approach (how it is being studied)

Geography uses the approaches used in both natural sciences (the quantitative approach) and
social sciences (the qualitative approach). Moreover it uses the mixed methods approach.

Philosophical bases

Philosophy aims at the logical clarification of thoughts.

Ideology: the understanding of social or political reasons or purpose for seeking knowledge;

Epistemology: how knowledge is derived at; the assumptions about how we can know the
world (what can we know? How can we know it?)

Ontology: the set of specific assumptions underlying a theory or system of idea (what can be
known?)

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 Methodology: a coherent set of rules and procedures which can be used to investigate a
phenomenon or situation (within the framework dictated by epistemological and ontological
ideas).

Defining Geographic Problem

The selection of a suitable problem is not an easily task. Hence, the following are the main
sources to which one may proceed for suitable research problems.

 Own experience/ observation

 Various reports and Readings
 Deduction from theory
 Authorities, organizations,etc

When selecting a research problem/ topic there is a number of considerations to keep in mind.
These help to ensure that your study will be manageable and that you will remain motivated.

The following interwoven steps are crucial in formulating a research problem.

 Identifying a broad area of interest in your academic/ professional field

 Slice/a thin, broad piece cut off/ up the broad area into sub-categories
 Select a sub-area or areas in which you would like to conduct your research
 Raise questions that you would like to answer through your study
 Formulate objectives (General objective and specific objectives)
 Assess these objectives to ascertain the feasibility of attaining them in the light of the
time and resources.

Steps in Geographic Research

Research Processes in geography or others more or less consists of a number of inter-related

methodological steps that researchers follow as a guideline.

 Formulation of the research problem

 Extensive literature survey
 Formulation of hypotheses
 Preparing the research design

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  determining sample design
 Actual investigation/Data collection
 Data analysis
 hypothesis testing
 Generalizations and Interpretation of result
 Preparation of the report or presentation of the results

Formulation of the Research Problem

The first and most important step in the research process. Hence, you should examine it
thoroughly, carefully and critically.

Research problems can be obtained from:

 Various researches
 Works of other researchers in books and professional journals
 Certain awareness of specific trends in society
 Mass medias
 Professional courses and etc.
 The Choice of a research problem based on
 Interest and values of the researcher
 Current debates in the academic world
 Fund
 The power of the research subjects

Extensive Literature Survey

For this purpose, academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books, etc.
must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. A researcher should review an already
existing evidence for the following reasons: It might be that previous research has already
satisfactorily clarified the problem; the researcher can find answers to the following questions:

 Have previous researcher identify the same problem?

 How have they tried to resolve?
 What aspects of the problem has their research left unanalyzed?

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  To clarify the concepts, methods and

Development of Working Hypotheses or Research Question

Hypotheses is a tentative assumptions made regarding the possible end finding of a particular
research. It can also be written in question form. And alternatively social scientist used guiding
questions. The manner in which research hypotheses are developed is important because:

 It provides the focal point for the research

 It affects the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data, and
 Indirectly quality of data which is required for the analysis

Preparing the Research Design

State the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The function of a
research design is to collect relevant evidence with minimum expenditure of effort, time, and
money.

Research design usually consider the following

 The overall objective of the study

 Aspects of behavior to be analyzed
 The means of obtaining the information
 The skill of the researcher
 Time and financial factors

In short Research design constitutes the decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by
what means concerning a study.

Determining Sample Design

Sampling is a strategy used to select elements from a population. A sample is a portion of a

population. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly
known as the Sample Design. In other words, sample design is a definite plan determined before
any data are actually selected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Samples can be
either probability samples or non-probability samples.

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Examples of probability sampling include:

 Simple Random Sampling

 Systematic Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
 Multi-Stage Sampling

On the other hand, non-probability sampling can include sampling techniques like:

 Purposive Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
 Snow ball sampling

Collecting the Data

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data, based on context of money, time, and
others. Data collection tools can include:

 Observation;
 Personal Interview;
 Case Studies
 Document Analysis
 Questionnaire etc.

A researcher should consider the following factors while selecting the method of data
collection:

 Nature of the investigation

 Objectives and scope of the inquiry
 Financial resources
 Available time, and
 Desired degree of accuracy

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Analysis of Data

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. At this
stage, the crude/haphazard data should necessarily be condensed in to a few manageable groups
for analysis. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae.

Hypotheses Testing

After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if
any he/she had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary?

Generalizations and Interpretation

If hypotheses are tested several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its
ability to arrive at certain generalizations.

Preparation of the Report of the Research

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him/her. Writing of
report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

 The layout of the report should be as follows:

 The preliminary pages
 The main text, and
 The end matter

2. Research Design and Literature Review

2.1 Research Title

Selection of a Research Problem is the first step in any research, deciding what to study. Usually
start from the felt problems/ felt needs of the society. Research problem in a sense is a question
for which researchers seek to find answers. However, identifying feasible problem is the most
difficult step. Especially for the beginners-

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 Where do we get research ideas?

 Experience of others: Colleagues/advisors - We can share experiences from others with

personal or friendly discussions.
 Reading publications, such as books, journal articles, periodicals and bulletins. By
reading them some gaps could be identified..
 Conferences/seminars, television/radio programs
 Program priorities
 Funding agencies
 Training and Experience
 Observation in our work places, residential areas, and travelling, to strike our mind. As a
result, we may ask ourselves why this is happened. So, pick it up as a research topic.
Sources of Research Topic Identification

A research topic/idea can originate from a wide variety of sources, including:

 the Daily problems/ everyday life,

 researcher‟s interests,
 knowledge of social conditions
 practical issues,
 challenges that arise in one‟s professional practice,
 readings in other courses/ past research,

Considerations in selecting a research problem

 Relevance/Significance: How large or widespread is the problem? Who is affected?

How severe is the problem?, significant of the research to the present status of the
topic?
 Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether the topic has been researched
 Availability of data
 Feasibility of study, Consider the complexity of the problem and the resources you
will require to carry out the study. Can the problem be solved in the required time
frame?

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 • Applicability of results
• Interest to the researcher
• Ethical acceptability
Stating a Research Problem

Once the topic for research is selected, the problem to be studied should be clearly defined -
ready to clearly articulate the research problem. A research problem, in general, refers to some
difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

Information may need to be included in the statement of a problem: A brief description of

socioeconomic and cultural characteristics. A more detailed description of the nature of the
problem and the difference between what is and what should be. Its size, distribution, and
severity of the problem (who is affected, where, since when, etc.)An analysis of the major factors
that may influence the problem .A brief description of any solutions that have been tried in the
past.

Formulation of Objectives

• Objective of the study are the goals a researcher set out to attain/ achieve in his/her study
• Objectives should be listed under two headings:
• General objectives (aims);
• Specific -objectives.
• General objectives: aim of the study in general terms, an overall statement of the thrust of
your study.
• Example: the aim of this study is to assess the influence of land use planning on the
development of infrastructure in Debark Town.
• Specific objectives: are measurable statements for the specific questions to be answered.
• Specific objective guide the research processes. It indicates how and by what methods the
data will be collected, the variable to be examined and measured.
• Example:
• To find out the significance of land use planning for infrastructural development in Debark
Town,

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• To examine how absence of land use planning affect infrastructure development
• To identify the causes of imperfect land use planning

The statement of the objective is of basic importance because it determines the data which are to
be collected, the characteristics of the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored,

Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)

Avoid collection of data that are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the
identified problem

Organize the study in clearly defined parts

Formulation of Objectives

The objectives should start with words such as

 To describe - To find out

 to verify - to calculate
 to evaluate - to assess
 to determine - to compare
 To analyze - to establish etc.

Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as;

 to appreciate
 to understand
 to study
 to believe

A Research Question

Finding a research question is probably the most important task in the research process because
the question becomes the driving force behind the research-from beginning to end.

 A research question is always stated in question form.

 Mostly the question form of research objectives

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It is important to choose a research question that satisfies certain criteria:

 It must not be too broad or general.

 It shouldn't have already been answered by previous research
 It ought to be a question that needs to be answered.
 It must be a question that can be answered through empirical means.

Some sources of research questions

 Personal experience
 Professional books
 Articles in professional periodicals etc.

Formulation of Research Hypothesis

The term derives from the ancient Greek, hyposthenia meaning "to put under" or "to suppose".

Working hypothesis is tentative reasonable assumption made or prediction in order to draw out
and test its logical or empirical consequences.

E.g.1 children from literate family are more achiever in their education than illiterate family

E.g.2.good governance can minimized observed

socio-economic problems in urban areas

At last stage hypothesis will be tested based on collected information to give explanation of the
associated phenomenon or event and this will enable you to conclude if your hunch was right
e.g.. Experimental and survey research.

Type of hypothesis

There are two types of hypotheses, null and alternative

A null hypothesis generally asserts that there is no meaningful relationship between two
observed phenomena. Example. There is no relationship between high rate of urban population
growth and unemployment.

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The researcher then seeks to conduct research that will either prove or disprove the null
hypothesis.

When (and only when) this null hypothesis is disproved or falsified, the researcher may then
accept a logically "alternate" hypothesis. Without this process of verification, you cannot
conclude anything about the validity of your assumption.

The functions of hypotheses:

 provides a study with focus

 Tells you what specific aspects of a research problem to investigate.
 Tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby provide focus to the study.
 As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study.
 May enable you to add to the formulation of a theory.
 Enables you to specifically conclude what is true or what is false.
 The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research
and to keep him on the right track.
Reviewing Related Literature

Literature survey is a collection of research publications, books and other documents related to
the defined problem. It is a systematic method for identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the
existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and
practitioners. Because no research shall be complete without the use of the knowledge available
in books, journals and internet.

 Indicate how the current study moves beyond the past study.
 Mention current research
 Review original work (do not use outdate sources)
 Select only relevant literature with related to our topic.

The purpose of the literature review is to situate your research in the context of what is already
known about a topic. It need not be exhaustive; it needs to show how your work will benefit the
whole. It should provide the theoretical basis for your work, show what has been done in the area

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by others, and set the stage for your work. It should probably move from the more general to the
more focused studies, but need not be exhaustive, only relevant.

The literature review serves several important functions:

 Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
 Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
 Demonstrate & discuss the Conceptual, Theoretical & Empirical framework of related
issues on your research & to your research question.
 Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
 Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
 Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework
for your research.
 Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial
contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a
major gap in the literature).
Advantages

More specifically: a review of the literature

 Will bring clarity and focus to your research problem/; delimiting the research problem,
 Will tell you whether the problem you have identified has already been
researched/already been solved.
 Will you to discover important variables relevant to the topic,
 Will broaden your knowledge; It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in
which you intend to conduct your research study.
 Will help to acquire an understanding of your topic, of what has already been done on it,
how it has been researched, and what the key issues are.
 Will assist you in forming your research questions.
 Might give your ideas as to how to proceed with and design the study so that you can
obtain an answer to your research question(s).
 Can point out methodological problems specific to the research question(s) you are
studying.

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  Can identify appropriate data-collection instruments.
 Will also help frame and focus your question and move you closer to the hypothesis or
focused question.

Relevant sources of literature review:

 books (monographs, text books, ref books);

 articles from journals, whether print or electronic
 newspaper articles;
 historical records;
 commercial reports and statistical information;
 government reports and statistical information;
 theses and dissertations;
 Other types of information which may be relevant to your particular discipline(
proceedings of conferences, workshops, Internet.)
 The library is the most likely physical location for the research literature.
 Within library there is access to books, periodicals, technical reports, and academic
thesis.
 Nowadays internet service has made world wide access of information.
 They are comprehensive, fast and cost effective.
 Irrespective of the sources of the literature, ethics of research that the source is
acknowledged through a clear system of reference (avoid plagiarism).

Most literature reviews suffer from the following problems:

 Lacking organization and structure

 Lacking focus, unity and coherence
 Being repetitive and verbose
 Failing to cite influential papers
 Failing to keep up with recent developments
 Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
 Citing irrelevant or trivial references
 Depending too much on secondary sources

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 3. Research Design

Meaning of Research Design

Research Design refers to the plan, structure, and framework of the research and strategy of
research--the blueprint that will guide the research process. The blueprint/roadmap that will
guide the research. A study design is the process that guides researchers on how to collect,
analyze and interpret observations. In other word, decisions regarding what, where, when, how
much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. A
research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data. It constitutes
the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an
outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final analysis of data.

Design of a study is the investigators plan of action for answering the research question/s. The
goal is to select a study design that will give confidence in answering the research question.
While identifying a study design, there is often a trade-off between complexity (cost) and
confidence (validity)-that are true and accurate. Selecting a good research design involves a
careful consideration of ethical issues and a balancing of technical issues against practical and
administrative issues. Ethical issues: If a research design results in unethical procedures
(violation of people‟s rights and dignity, denial of service that otherwise would be available), the
design should be modified or abandoned.

Practical and Administrative: time, fund, personnel etc. must be considered before selecting a
particular study design.

Designing a geographic Research

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to
effectively address the research problem as unambiguously as possible. In social sciences
research, obtaining evidence relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the
type of evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe a
phenomenon.

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Given this, the length and complexity of research designs can vary considerably, but any sound
design will do the following things:

 Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,

 Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,
 Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem
selected,
 Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the
hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained, and
 Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining
whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.

More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:

 What type of data is required?

 Where can the required data are found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may split the overall research design into
the following parts:

Features of a good Research Design

A good design is often characterized by its flexibility, appropriateness/suitability,

efficiency, and economical and so on more specifically, features of good research design
is:
The design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and
analyzed the data.
The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design
in many investigations.

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 a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering
many different aspects of a problem

A good research design is one that:

Does not violate people‟s rights and dignity

Does not deny services that otherwise would be available
Is capable of obtaining the most reliable and valid data possible given the constraints of
funds, time, personnel and equipment
Is capable of measuring whatever that happens in a field setting
Help an investigator avoid making mistaken conclusions.

Research design

 Cross-Sectional Design
 Longitudinal Design
 Time Series Design

Cross-sectional designs

A cross-sectional design is used for research that collects data on relevant variables one time
only from a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena. A cross-sectional design provides a
snapshot of the variables included in the study, at one particular point in time. Cross-sectional
designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, for example, Census.

Longitudinal design

A longitudinal design collects data over long periods of time. Measurements are taken on each
variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in
variables over time. E.g. experimental research.

Time Series Design

A Time Series Design collects data on the same variable at regular intervals in the form of
aggregate measures of a population. Time series designs are useful for:

 establishing a baseline measure

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  describing changes over time
 keeping track of trends
 forecasting future (short term) trends
 E.g. Economic growth, trade, production, population, land use change etc.

3. Sampling Technique

Sampling Terminology

The following are some of the term and concept of sampling

Population: The word population is defined as the aggregate of units from which a sample is
chosen.

Sampling units: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample.
Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a construction
unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may
be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that he has to
select for his study.

Sampling frame: A list of sampling units will be called a „frame‟. A list identifying each
subject in the population under investigation.

Size of sample: is a number of sampling units which are selected from a population by a random
method. Sampling error on the other hand is the difference between the population and sample
statistics.

Sampling strategy: refers to a technique which permits to screen out sample from the whole
population. It is a method of drawing sample from the whole population.

Sample: A sample is a subset or some part of a larger population. The purpose of sampling is to
enable one to estimate some unknown characteristic of the population. For example if you select
five students from a class of 40 students, five selected students constitute a sample. OR

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Sampling: is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (population) to
become the basis for estimating or predicting a fact, situation or outcome regarding the bigger
group.

Sample population: Are the respondents taking part in the study.

Population element/ sampling unit: the term population element refers to an individual
member of the population. The population may be regarded as consisting of units which are to be
used for the purpose of sampling. Each unit is regarded as individual and indivisible when the
selection is made.

Sampling Frame/: convenient list of all the units in the population is known as a frame. This list
of elements or objects from which a sample may be drawn is also called working population.

E.g. If you want to study the household monthly income of a certain kebele, name list of all the
households dwelling in that kebele constitute your sampling frame.

Census survey: An investigation of all the individual elements that make up the population- a
total enumeration rather than a sample.

Target Population is the collection of all individuals, families, groups, organizations or events
that we are interested in finding out about.

A population (universe) is the collection of things under consideration.

Is the population to which the researcher would like to generalize the results? The first question
concerns identifying the target population. What is the relevant population?

For example, all adults‟ population of Debark town aged 65 or older.

Sampling

Following are some of the factors that need to be considered while deciding sample size.

 Population size: the larger the population the larger would be the sample.
 Availability of resources: resources like time, budget, material etc. largely influence the
sample size to be used.

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  The degree of accuracy desired: degree of accuracy is proportional to sample size.
 Nature of investigation: intensive studies usually need small sample sizes.
 Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the study population:
 Sampling techniques to be used: in simple random sampling, a bigger sample will be
needed. But in a properly drawn stratified sampling, even a small sample may give better
results.
The following are the major advantages of sampling:
 It is an economical technique: dealing with the entire population incurs a big sum of money
so that it is feasible to deal with a smaller group (sample population).
 It has high speed for generalization: dealing with smaller group of the entire study
population saves time for the researcher.
 It has a greater precision and accuracy in the observation.
 It has a greater scope in the field of research: reducing the larger population into smaller
group helps researchers to consider a wide range of information.
 Practicability: taking a small part of a larger population increases the possibility of
conducting the research.
 Greater accuracy in observation: sampling increases the accuracy of the data collected.
Why Sampling?
It is costly or impossible to cover all the relevant population. The sample taken should enable
generalizations about the relevant population inferential statistics.

Meaning of Sampling Design/ Sampling Technique:

 A sampling design or sampling technique is a definite plan for obtaining a sample
from study population.
 It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would like to employ to
select sample.
 The sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

What are the major characteristics of a good sample design?

 It should be truly representative of the population

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  It should be resulted in small sampling error
 It should be economical in time, money and energy
 Systematic bias should be controlled in a better way.
 Note: systematic bias results from wrong way of selecting samples.
 Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence. Sample .i.e., the sample size.

Types of Sampling Design/sampling Technique

Several techniques have been devised to select representative samples.

There are two main sampling techniques:

Probability sampling /Random sampling Technique and

Non-probability sampling/ purposive Sampling Technique

Probability Sampling Methods/Technique

Probability sampling is also called as random sampling or representative sampling. Each

element of the study population has an equal and known chance of being selected for inclusion in
the sample. In probability sampling every member of the population has a known (non- zero).

Characteristics of Probability Sampling Techniques

 It is the procedure which allows equal chance for each item or individual in the
population being studied to be incorporated in the sample.
 In probability sampling we refer from the sample as well as the population.
 In probability sampling every individual of the population has equal probability to be
taken into the sample.
 Probability sample may be representative of the population.
 The observations (data) of the probability sample are used for the inferential purpose.
 Probability sample has not from distribution for any variable
 Inferential or parametric statistics are used for probability sampling.

Probability sampling using random selection so that each unit has a chance of being selected
into the sample

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  all choices are independent of one another
 random selection minimizes human bias
 The probability is comprehensive.
 Representativeness refers to characteristic.
 Comprehensiveness refers to size and area.

Probability Sampling Techniques

Advantages:

 This sampling technique reduces the chance of systematic errors.

 The methods minimize the chance of sampling biases.
 A better representative sample is produced using probability sampling techniques.
 Inferences drawn from sample are generalizable to the population.

Disadvantages:

 The techniques need a lot of efforts

 A lot of time is consumed.
 They are expensive.

Types of Probability Sampling Techniques:-

Simple random sampling.

Systematic sampling.
Stratified sampling.
Cluster sampling
Multi-stage sampling etc.
1) Simple random sampling.

In this type of sampling each and every element of the population has an equal chance of being
selected in the sample. The population must contain a finite number of elements that can be
listed or mapped. Every element must be mutually exclusive i.e. able to distinguish from one
another and does not have any overlapping characteristics. The population must be homogenous
i.e. every element contains same kind of characteristics that meets the described criteria of target

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population. All members of the population have an equal and independent chance of being
included in the random sample. The units in the population are numbered 1 to N.each element of
the population has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample
selected by randomization method is known as simple-random sample and this technique is
simple random-sampling. To use this method or technique:

A. Get organized the sampling frame

B. Assign a number to each item in the list
C. Select a simple random sample using the following mechanisms
 Lottery system
 Random number method/tables/
 Tossing a coin.
 Throwing a dice.

Systematic Random Sampling

This type of sampling is also used for homogenous population. It is a bit different from simple
random sampling. Unlike simple random sampling, there is not an equal probability of every
element been included. In this type of sampling the elements are selected at a regular interval. In
the case of systematic sampling, the first unit is selected on a random basis and then additional
sample units are selected at an evenly spaced interval until all desired units are selected. The
various steps to achieve a systematic random sample are: Number the units in the population
from 1 to Decide on the n (sample size) that you want where I or k = N/n = the interval size.
Randomly select an integer between 1 to I or k Select every i-th unit.

Multistage Sampling

Multi-stage sampling is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling. It is a

sampling technique where two or more probability techniques are combined. It is used when the
elements of population are spread over a wide geographical region and it is not possible to obtain
a representative sample with only one aforementioned technique. It can be described as sampling
within the sample. The final unit or element of population which is used in investigation is
obtained after sampling at several stages. Multi-stage sampling, as the name suggests, involves
the selection of units at more than one stage. The number of stages in a multi-stage sampling

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strategy varies depending on convenience and availability of suitable sampling frames at
different stages.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

 Probability sampling is also called as judgment or non-random sampling.

 Every unit of population does not get an equal chance of participation in the
investigation.
 no random selection is made
 The selection of the sample is made on the basis of subjective judgment of the
investigator.
 These techniques need not population to be very precisely defined.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Advantages:

 The techniques need less effort.

 These techniques need less time to finish up.
 They are not much costly.

Disadvantages:

 The sampling techniques are prone to encounter with systematic errors and sampling
biases.
 The sample cannot be claimed to be a good representative of the population.
 Inferences drawn from sample are not generalizable to the population.

Non-probability sampling

 Purposive/Judgmental sampling
 Convince sampling
 Quota sampling
 Snowball sampling etc.

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4. Data Collection Methods/ Tools /Instruments in Geography Research

4.1: Sources of Geographic Data and Major Data Gathering Tools

4.1.1: Meaning and Types of Geographical Data

 Data means observations or evidences.

 Data can be defined as information that can be gathered with the help of different
instruments for the purpose of research.
 Data are both qualitative and quantitative in nature.
 Geographical data are broadly classified into two: spatial and non-spatial data.
 The Spatial data also known as geographical data are data that are directly or indirectly
referenced to a location on the surface of the earth while
 Non-spatial data refers to socio-economic data that are gathered using questionnaire,
observation and interview.

Different geographical data are obtained from both primary (hence primary data), and secondary
sources (hence secondary data). Primary data are original data that are collected and used for
the first time by the researcher collecting them. Examples of secondary sources include the use
of: Census data to obtain information on the age-sex structure of a population Hospital records to
find out the morbidity and mortality patterns of a community an organization‟s records to
ascertain its activities. The collection of data from sources such as articles, journals, magazines,
books to obtain information.

Advantages of Secondary Data

 It can be found more cheaply and quickly

 It can provide relevant information which could not be obtained from primary sources
like: past events
 The information could not be modified by the researcher

Limitations of Secondary Data

 Accuracy problem
 Relevancy problem

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  Out datedness problem
 Credibility problem

The types of data collection methods used to collect first-hand information can include: The
major data gathering tools include:

 The Questionnaire
 Interviewing
 Focus group discussion
 Observation

Types of Questionnaire:

The way questionnaires are designed and questions are worded will affect the answers
respondents give. Therefore it is important to think carefully about what kind of questions you
want to ask. There are three basic types of questions. These are:

o closed-ended questions,
o open-ended questions or
o A combination of both.

II. Interview

 Interviewing is a commonly used method of collecting information from people.

 Any person-to-person interaction between two or more individuals with a specific
purpose in mind is called an interview.
 Interview is a process of communication in which the respondents give the required
information oral-verbally in face to face situation.
 Interviewing can be very flexible, when the interviewer has the freedom to formulate
questions as they come to mind around the issue being investigated.
 Interviewing can be inflexible, when the investigator is to keep strictly to the questions
decided.

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According to the degree of flexibility, interview can be categorized in to two or Interviews can
be grouped into three main types: These include:

 Structured- Interview/ interview schedule Method

 Semi-structured Interview
 Unstructured Interview

Data Collection Methods using secondary data

 Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.

 published data are available in:
 Various publications of the central, state are local governments; foreign governments or
of international bodies and their subsidiary organizations;
 Technical and trade journals, Books, magazines and newspapers;
 Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc.
 in different fields; Public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources
of published information.

Qualitative data analysis

 is a very personal process. For qualitative data, the researcher might analyses as the
research progresses, continually refining and reorganizing in light of the emerging
results.
 The method you use will depend on: Your research topic, your personal preferences,
and the availability of time, equipment and finances.
 the format for analysis could be a transcript from an: interview or focus group, a series
of written answers on an open-ended questionnaire, or field notes or memos written by
the researcher.
 There are four types of qualitative analysis: Thematic analysis, Comparative analysis,
and content analysis and discourse /conversational analysis and then processing the
data.

Quantitative Data Analysis

 the issues of validity and reliability are important.

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  researcher must make sure that their measurements are stable and consistent and that
there are no errors or bias present.
 statistical software is the easiest and most efficient method to use.
 It express in computing software, statistical techniques, or univariate analysis, bivariate
analysis or multivariate etc.

Ethical Practices in Geographic Research

 Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise
that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have
adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics.
 The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that various
codes address: Honesty. Objectivity, integrity, carefulness, openness, respect for
intellectual property, confidentiality, responsible publication, responsible mentoring,
respect for colleagues, social responsibility, non-discrimination, competence, legality,
animal care, human study participants‟ protection etc.

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