MODULE-4

EQUIPMENTS IN HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

4.1 EQUIPMENTS FOR EXCAVATION
Excavation is the process of moving earth, rock or other materials with tools, equipment or
explosives. It also includes trenching, wall shafts, tunneling and underground. It is the preliminary
activity of the construction project.
The types of excavation equipment to be used in an excavation project depend on the scope of
work and construction site. The excavation equipment to be used can either be utilized for some
situations or can be a particular type which meets the requirements of the given project.
The various types of excavation equipments used are
1. Tractors
2. Power Shovels
3. Bull Dozers
4. Angle Dozers
5. Scrapers
6. Draglines
7. Clamshell
8. Backhoe
1. Tractor

Fig. 1: Tractor
It is important equipment for earth movement. It converts engine energy into tractive energy.
Tractors are usually worked by diesel engines.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

2. Power Shovel

Fig. 2: Power Shovel

A power shovel (also stripping shovel or front shovel or electric mining shovel or electric rope
shovel) is a bucket-equipped machine, usually electrically powered, used for digging and loading
earth or fragmented rock and for mineral extraction. Power shovels are a type of rope/cable
excavator, where the digging arm is controlled and powered by winches and steel ropes, rather
than hydraulics like in the more common hydraulic excavators. It is used to excavate earth of all
classes except rock and load it into wagons. They are mounted on crawless tracks. It consists of a
mounting, cab, boom, dipper stick and hoist line. The components of power shovel are shown in
fig. below

Fig. 3: Components of Power Showel

The size of bucket varies from 0.73 to 53 cubic meters. Power shovels are commonly available in
dipper size of 0.29, 0.38, 0.57, 0.76, 0.95, 1.14, 1.33, 1.53 and 1.91 m3.
The following job conditions should be looked into while selecting the size of a showel.
i. For large lifts to dump earth from basement into tracks will require long boom of a large shovel.
ii. For excavating blasted rocks, large size dipper will easily handle bigger sizes.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

iii. For excavating hard and tough bed of soil, the dipper of large shovel which can exert greater
downward pressure will be more suitable.
iv. If the project time is such that it needs high hourly output, large shovel should be used
Operation or working principle: Positioning the shovel near the face of the earth to be
excavated, the dipper is lowered to the floor of the pit, with the teeth pointing into the face. A
crowding force is applied through the dipper shaft and at the same time tension is applied to the
hoisting line to pull the dipper up the face of the pit. If the depth of the face (called the depth of
cut) is just right, the dipper will be filled as it reaches the top of the face. If the depth is shallow it
will not be possible to fill the dipper completely without excessive crowding and hoisting tension.
If the depth of cut is more than is required to fill the dipper, the depth of penetration of the dipper
into the face must be reduced if the full face is to be excavated or to start the L excavation above
the floor of the pit.
Advantages
1. Suitable for softer material.
2. Can remove big boulders with prior lossening.
3. It is used for excavating trenches, banks, clay pits, digging cuts in road works, road side berms
etc.
4. It is mostly used in the excavation of canals and depositing of the embankment without
hauling units.
Limitations
3. Bull Dozers
A bulldozer or dozer (also called a crawler) is a large, motorized machine that travels
on continuous tracks or large tires and is equipped with a metal blade to the front for pushing
material: soil, sand, snow, rubble, or rock during construction or conversion work. The word
"bulldozer" refers only to a tractor fitted with a dozer blade. The word is sometimes used
inaccurately for other earth moving equipment such as front loaders.

Fig. 4: Bull Dozer

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

Bulldozers are strong machines that mainly assist with pushing, digging, excavating, and leveling
materials like soil and debris at a work site. They come with large, heavy blades in the front that
push material. The components od the bull dozers are shown below

Fig. 5: Components of Bull Dozer

Operations/ Working Principle: During the first passes of a bulldozer over a given lane most of
the initial earth will spill off the ends of the blade to form a windrow on either side. After these
windrows have been built up, to form a trench, further spillage reduces or is eliminated, with an
increase in output. If the earth can be pushed downhill, the output of a machine will increase
substantially due to the advantage of favorable grade and the ability to float larger quantities of
earth ahead of the dozer.
The output of the bulldozer and other members of the dozer family may be estimated by the
formula
Output in bank volume/hour = (Loose volume handled / trip) x S x (60/t) x efficiency
Where, S = Swell factor, and t = Cycle time (time to make one trip or pass), min.
These machines may further be classified into:
(a) Crawler-tractor-mounted.
(b) Wheel-tractor-mounted.

Fig. 6: Crawler Bull Dozer and Wheel Mounted Buldozer

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

Applications : Bulldozer can do many jobs on a project, like (a) clearing land of timber and
stumps, (b) opening up pilot roads through mountains and rocky areas, (c) moving earth for haul
distances upto about 100 m, (d) helping load tractor-pulled scrapers, (e) spreading earth fill, (f)
backfilling trenches, (g) clearing construction sites of debris, (h) maintaining haul roads, and (i)
clearing the floors of borrow and quany pits.
Advantages
Among the advantages of the crawler-mounted bulldozer, we can list the following :(a) ability to
deliver greater tractive effort on soft, loose or muddy soil, (b) ability to travel over muddy
surfaces, (c) ability to operate in rock formations, where rubber tyres may get seriously damaged,
(d) ability to travel over rough surfaces, which may reduce the cost of maintaining haul roads, (e)
greater floatation because of lower pressures under the tracks, and (f) greater use-versatility on
jobs.
Among the advantages of the wheel-mounted bulldozers, we have (a) higher travel speeds on the
job or from one job to another, (b) elimination of hauling equipment, to transport the bulldozer of
a job (c) greater output, especially when considerable travelling is involved, (d) less operator
fatigue, and (e) ability to travel on paved roads without damaging the surface.
4. Dragline
Draglines are used to excavate earth and load it into haul units, such as trucks or tractor-pulled
wagons, or to deposit it on spoil banks and embankments near the place from where it is
excavated. A power shovel can be converted into a dragline by replacing the dipper stick of the
shovel with arcane boom and substituting a dragline bucket for the shovel dipper.

Fig. 7: Dragline
Operations of a Dragline: Excavation is started by swinging the empty bucket to the digging
position at the same time slackening the drag and the hoist cables. Excavation is done by pulling
the bucket toward the machine while maintaining tension in the hoist cable. When the bucket is
filled, the operator takes in the hoist cable while paying out the drag cable. Dumping is done by
releasing the drag cable. Filling the bucket, hoisting, swinging and dumping of the loaded bucket,
followed in that order, constitute one cycle. An experienced operator can cast the excavated

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

material beyond the end of the boom. Since it is difficult to control the accuracy in dumping from
a dragline, a larger capacity of haul units is desirable to reduce the spillage. A size ratio of 5-6
times the bucket capacity is recommended. The components of a dragline are shown below

Fig. 8: Components of dragline

Dragline consists of drag rope, large bucket, boom, hoist rope and driving motors. A large
bucket is attached with dragline boom (it is truss like structure). Bucket is controlled with the help
of number of ropes and chains. There are two separate function ropes are attached with bucket.
1. Hoist rope is controlled with the help of electric motor and it supports the hoist-coupler
assembly and the bucket from the boom.
2. Drag rope is used for drawing of bucket horizontally towards the machine.
Size of Draglines: The size of a dragline is specified by the size of the bucket which is the same
as the dipper of the power shovel. Draglines may handle more than one size of bucket, depending
on the class of material and the length of the boom. If the material is difficult to excavate, a
smaller bucket reduces the digging resistance
Advantages: (a) It does not have to go into the pit to excavate, (b) 1te below its level &d under
water, (c) The trucks do not have to go into the pit nor contend with wet mud, (d) A dragline with
a long boom can dispose off the earth in one operation without the need for haul units, and (e) It
can excavate trenches without shoring.
Disadvantages: disadvantage of a dragline is that its output is only 75-80% that of a power shovel
5. Clamshell
Clamshells are used primarily for handling loose materials such as sand, gravel, crushed stone,
etc. and for removing materials from cofferdams, pier foundations, etc. They are specially suited
to vertical lifting of materials from one location to another. The limit of vertical movement maybe
relatively large when they are used with long crane booms.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

Clamshells buckets are available in various sizes; and in heavy duty type for digging, medium-
weight type for general purpose, and light-duty type for handling light materials. Buckets may
have teeth that can be easily removed or they may be without teeth. Teeth are used in digging
harder types of materials but are not required when a bucket is re-handling materials.

Fig. 9: Clamshell teeth

The clamshell machine is so named due to the likeness of its bucket to a clam which is like a
shell-fish with a hinged double shell.

Fig. 10: Clamshell

Working Principle: The front end of the Clamshell machine is basically a crane boom with a
specially designed bucket loosely connected at the end through the cable as in a dragline. The
clamshell is a bucket with two hinged jaws carried by a crane suspended from the boom by
two lines: one raises and lowers the bucket, and the other pulls the jaws together against gravity
for digging action. It is used chiefly for deep, narrow excavations,
Advantages: 1. Digging pits for ground construction work. 2. Ideal for digging and loading
material in tight and limited spaces. 3. Material handling, loading and unloading industrial wastes.
Grains, sands etc.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

6. Hoe
The term hoe applies to an excavating machine of the power-shovel group. It is referred to by
several other names, such as, backhoe, back shovel, and pull shovel. A power shovel is converted
into a backhoe by installing a'dipper stick and a dipper at the end of the shovel boom. A hoe is
frequently equipped with a gooseneck boom to increase the digging depth of the machine.
Hoes are used primarily to excavate below the level at which the machine rests. They are adapted
to dig trenches, pits and basements. Due to their rigidity they are superior to draglines in operating
on close-range work and dumping into trucks. Because of the direct pull on the dipper, hoes may
exert greater tooth pressure than power shovels. The components of back hoe are shown below.

Fig. 11: Back Hoe

Working Principle: Operations and basic parts of a Backhoe are shown in figure below. The
machine is placed in operation by setting the boom at the desired angle and pulling in the hoist
cable to move the dipper to the desired position. The free end of the boom is lowered by releasing
the tension in the hoist cable until the dipper teeth engage the material to be dug. As the cable is
pulled in, the dipper is filled. The dipper is raised by the boom, swung and the material dumped in
a truck or over a spoil bank.

Fig. 12: Back Hoe

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

Advantages: (a) It can also be used in projects like fencing on different kinds of soils. (b) It is
also used for daily basis work like digging gutter. (c) If an auger are often attached it'll harvest
some greenery. (d) Backhoe loaders when paired with a jackhammer are often wont to break
concrete. (e) When you buy a backhoe loader then there's no got to buy other heavy equipment as
backhoe loader has are often utilized in some ways. (f) They are also used to clear and dig the
ditches. (g) They consist of a metal bucket and digging arm on another site for making the task of
the operator very easy.

4.2 EQUIPMENTS FOR GRADING

1. Grader
A grader, also commonly referred to as a road grader, motor grader, or simply a blade, is a
form of heavy equipment with a long blade used to create a flat surface during grading.
Typical graders have three axles, with the steering wheels in front, followed by the grading blade,
then a cab and engine atop tandem rear axles. Some graders also have front wheel drive for
improved performance. Some graders have optional rear attachments, such as a ripper, scarifier,
or compactor. A blade forward of the front axle may also be added. For snowplowing and some
dirt grading operations, a main blade extension can also be mounted.
Capacities range from a blade width of 2.50 to 7.30 m (8 to 24 ft) and engines from 93–
373 kW (125–500 hp).

Fig. 13: Grader

There are two kinds of graders: towed and motorized. The towed grader is drawn with a tractor
and is usually made small in size. The controls are often manual but sometimes a small petrol
engine is mounted on the grader framework to operate the controls. A separate operator is
required to control the grader. The motorized grader which is the most popular machine of this
class, is a self-propulsive and fast moving machine. The machine has an arched frame converging
and raised at the front and low at the rear where the prime mover is mounted. The blade is
supported on a circle with inside gear teeth, and is capable of turning through 360".

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

 Fig. 14: Components of Motor Grader
Size of Motor Graders: Motor graders are powered by engines having a horse power varying
from 90 to 300 metric hp and have speeds of 15 to 40 krnph.
Operations of Motor Graders: While grading the machine normally moves forward, the steering
being controlled through the steering wheel. The machine is moved in low gear at a speed allowed
by the depth of cut and the condition of surface, and the entire length of the road surface graded is
traversed before reversing the blade for the second cut and travelling in the reverse gear.
Alternatively; the machine is returned in high gear to start the second cut in forward motion.
Output of Motor Graders: Production of motor graders depends upon the engine power, blade
size, speed of travel, soil characteristics and operator efficiency. The output is usually expressed
in units area (m2) covered by the machine per hour. This area equals the effective width of the
blade multiplied by the average hourly speed of the grader during the pass. Time for acceleration
and turning should be included in finding the average speed of the machine. When side-casting or
grading with blade at an angle, the width actually covered by the machine should be used finding
the area. The effective width of the blade is, therefore, important.
Area covered by machine/hour (m2) = 1000 x Effective width of blade (m) x Average speed
(kmph) x efficiency
A 50 min-hr is usually taken for working efficiency.
Applications: (a) Create the base for paved roads, (b) Set the foundation for a large building, (c)
Create inclines, (d) Create drainage ditches, (e)Remove snow, (f) Mix and spread materials, (g)
Finish grading, (h) Ditch cutting, (i) Scarifying, (j) High bank cutting
Advantages: (a) Fast and efficient performance, (b) Precise capabilities cause less disturbance to
the soil, (c) Articulated frame graders can maneuver in tight spaces, (d) Can drive over roads and
do not need to haul between job sites, (e) Great for larger projects

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

4.3 EQUIPMENTS FOR COMPACTION
Light Compactors
1. Rammers
Rammers are used for compacting small areas by providing impact load to the soil. This
equipment is light and can be hand or machine operated. The base size of rammers can be 15cm x
15cm or 20cm x 20cm or more.

Fig. 15: Rammer

For machine operated rammers, the usual weight varies from 30kg to 10 tonnes These hammers
with 2- 3 tones weights are allowed to free fall from a height of 1m to 2m (3ft to 7ft) on the soil
for the compaction of rock fragments. Rammers are suitable for compacting cohesive soils as well
as other soils. This machine in areas with difficulty in access.
2. Vibrating Plate Compactors

Fig. 16: Vibrating Plate Compactor

Vibrating plate compactors are used for compaction of coarse soils with 4 to 8% fines. These
equipments are used for small areas. The usual weights of these machines vary from 100 kg to 2
tonne with plate areas between 0.16 m2 and 1.6 m2.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

3. Vibro Tampers
Vibro tampers is used for compaction of small areas in confined space. This machine is suitable
for compaction of all types of soil by vibrations set up in a base plate through a spring activated by an
engine driven reciprocating mechanism. They are usually manually guided and weigh between 50 and
100 kg.
Heavy Compactors
These compacting machines are used for large areas for use on different types of soils. The heavy
compaction equipments are selected based on moisture content of soil and types of soil.
4. Smooth Wheeled Roller
Smooth wheeled rollers are of two types
 Static smooth wheeled rollers
 Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers
The most suitable soils for these roller type are well graded sand, gravel, crushed rock, asphalt
etc. where crushing is required. These are used on a soil which does not require great pressure for
compaction. These rollers are generally used for finishing the upper surface of the soil. These
roller are not used for compaction of uniform sands.

Fig. 17: Smooth wheeled roller

The performance of smooth wheeled rollers depends on load per cm width it transfers to the soil
and diameter of the drum. The load per cm width is derived from the gross weight of the drum.
The smooth wheeled rollers consist of one large steel drum in front and two steel drums on the
rear. The gross weight of these rollers is in the range of 8-10 tonnes. The other type of smooth
wheel roller is called Tandem Roller, which weighs between 6-8 tonne. The performance of these
rollers can be increased by increasing the increasing the weight of the drum by ballasting the
inside of drums with wet sand or water. Steel sections can also be used to increase the load of the
drum by mounting on the steel frame attached with axle. The desirable speed and number of
passes for appropriate compaction of soil depends on the type of soil and varies from location to

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

location. About 8 passes are adequate for compacting 20 cm layer. A speed of 3-6 kmph is
considered appropriate for smooth wheel rollers.
5. Vibrating Smooth Wheeled Roller
In case of vibrating smooth wheeled rollers, the drums are made to vibrate by employing
rotating or reciprocating mass. These rollers are helpful from several considerations like:-
(i) Higher compaction level can be achieved with maximum work
(ii) Compaction can be done up to greater depths
(iii) Output is many times more than conventional rollers.

Fig. 18: Vibratory roller

Working Principle: Vibratory rollers produce vibrations by filling the drum with aggregates. As
the drum rotates so does the aggregates, the aggregates collide with the walls of the drum and
produces vibrations. The magnitudes of these vibrations can be increased by increasing the weight
of basalt. Alternatively, the vibration of the vibratory road roller is also obtained through weights
which are attached to the shaft inside the motor. The motor itself is located inside the drum.
Roller wheels give it the flexibility to even perform vertical movements. These vertical
movements allow the roller to also move easily on irregular surfaces.
The roller is operated by the driver sitting in the main cabin. All the steering controls are provided
there. The engine can be located either at the front or rear end of the roller.
Although these rollers are expensive but in the long term the cost becomes economical due to
their higher outputs and improved performance. The latest work specifications for excavation
recommends the use of vibratory rollers due to their advantage over static smooth wheeled rollers.
6. Sheepfoot Roller
Sheepfoot rollers are used for compacting fine grained soils such as heavy clays and silty clays.
Sheepfoot rollers are used for compaction of soils in dams, embankments, subgrade layers in
pavements and rail road construction projects. Sheep foot rollers are of static and vibratory types.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

Vibratory types rollers are used for compaction of all fine grained soils and also soil with sand-
gravel mixes. Generally this roller is used for compaction of subgrade layers in road and rail
projects.
Working Principle: Sheep foot rollers consist of steel drums on which projecting lugs are fixed
and can apply a pressure upto 14kg/sq cm or more. Different types of lugs are namely spindle
shaped with widened base, prismatic and clubfoot type. The weight of drums can be increased as
in the case of smooth wheeled rollers by ballasting with water, wet sand or by mounting steel
sections. The efficiency of sheep foot rollers compaction can be achieved when lugs are gradual
walkout of the roller lugs with successive coverage. The efficiency is affected by the pressure on
the foot and coverage of ground obtained per pass. For required pressure and coverage of ground,
the parameters such as gross weight of the roller, the area of each foot, the number of lugs in
contact with the ground at any time and total number of feet per drum are considered. The
compaction of soil is mainly due to foots penetrating and exerting pressure on the soil. The
pressure is maximum when a foot is vertical.

Fig. 19: Sheepfoot Roller

Characteristics of Sheep foot Roller
1. The sheep foot roller generated pressure up to 1400 to 7000 mph and the speeds of work
normally Sheep foot roller from 6-10 km/h.
2. The total covered area by the sheep foot roller is less when it compacts the soil. Just 8-12 %
ground coverage under the lugs on the drum by the sheep foot rollers.
3. A sheep foot roller compacting effort depends on the kneading and static weight.
4. For cohesive soil, the sheep foot roller is mostly used. For sandy soils, such as heavy clays
and silty clays except.
5. By filling the drum with wet some other material or sand, the sheep foot roller pressure on the
feet may be increased.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

6. The layer thickness of the compacting soil should be a minimum of 50 mm or more, which
depends on the length of the foot.
Advantages
The advantages of sheep foot roller are as follows.
1. Sheep foot roller is also known as tamping rollers or pad foot rollers, which have many
rectangular-shaped lugs or feet.
2. The advantage of a sheep foot roller is, In road construction works the sheep foot roller is very
good for compacting plastic soil like silty clay.
3. The advantage of the sheep foot roller is it can be used as a vibration and static type roller for
compaction of soil with a mixture of all fine-grained clay and sand-gravel.
4. The common advantage of sheep foot roller is, it is mostly used for cohesive soil. For sandy
soils, such as heavy clays and silty clays except.
5. The part of the soil layer can be compact by the sheep foot roller, The soil layer should be a
minimum of 50mm or more, which depends on the length of the foot it is another advantage of
sheep foot roller.
6. From the bottom of each lift to the top the sheep foot roller compact as well. As like there are
many more advantages of sheep foot roller.
7. In cohesive soil or silty soil where the other roller does not work properly and where the job is
done immediately, there the sheep foot roller is used.
8. Another advantage of sheep foot roller is, nowadays the contactors are used as various soil
and aggregate compactors.
9. More advantage of sheep foot roller is it can compact the soil with high-speed compaction.
10. The sheep foot roller we can Also, use for compaction in dams, road construction work,
and pavements.
11. By the sheep foot roller, we can use it to compact soil at greater depths.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of sheep foot rollers are,
1. In wet conditions, the sheep foot roller is used frequently.
2. The layer thickness of the compacting soil should not be less than the minimum of 50mm,
which depends on the length of the foot. This is a disadvantage of sheep foot rollers.
3. The disadvantages of the sheep foot roller are its drum should be filled with some
wet external materials or sand to increase the compaction pressure of the roller.
4. When we use a sheep foot roller an experienced driver is required to control the sheep foot
roller. This is a high disadvantage of a sheep foot roller.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

5. The disadvantages of sheep foot rollers are, In wet conditions, the sheep foot roller is used
frequently.
6. The layer thickness of the compacting soil should not be less than the minimum of 50mm,
which depends on the length of the foot. This is a disadvantage of sheep foot rollers.
7. The disadvantages of the sheep foot roller are its drum should be filled with some
wet external materials or sand to increase the compaction pressure of the roller.
8. When we use a sheep foot roller an experienced driver is required to control the sheep foot
roller. This is a high disadvantage of a sheep foot roller.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

 EMBANKMENT
4.4 EMBANKMENT (As per Section: 305 MORTH Fifth Revision
Specification)
The earthen material, which is get laid and compacted to raise the grade line of a proposed
highway or railway above the original ground level of the existing ground, is called embankment.
The grade line of the road may be raised due to some reasons which are as follows:
 Keeping subgrade above Ground Water Table(GWT)
 Preventing damage of pavement from the surface and capillary water.
 To maintain the designed vertical alignment of the road.
Embankment Settlement
When embankment foundation consists of compressible soil with high moisture content
Due to inadequate compaction of filled layers during construction operation
Action Measure
The following action can be taken to eliminate the risk of settlement during construction
operation.
 To increase the rate of consolidation of foundation soil by providing sand drain.
 By proper compaction of filled layers during construction operation
Embankment Construction Equipment
 Excavator
 Tippers /Dumpers
 Motor Graders
 Vibratory Compactor
 Tractors Dozer with Disc Harrows/ Spreading Blade / Ploughs
 Water Bowser with Sprinklers etc.
 Crawler Dozers
Material Requirements (As per section 305.2 of MORTH)
 The material shall be soil, moorum and gravel, fly ash or a mixture of these three.
 The material shall satisfy the requirements defined in the clauses of the contract document.
 The materials used in the works shall be suitable roadway/drainage/structure excavated
material or borrowed material approved by the Engineer as per requirements of Ministry of
Road Transport and Highway (MORTH) Specifications.
Setting out Works
 The Centerline of the road shall be set out by means of continuous transit theodolite/total
station survey.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

 The reference points for this shall be as per the project drawings and instruction of the
Engineer.
 The working Bench Marks shall be established from the approved reference benchmarks and
also near to all cross drainage structures.
 The reference points shall be so located that these shall not be disturbed during construction.
 Reference pegs shall be fixed on both sides of the slopes. These pegs are meant as guides and
shall be about 0.50-1.50m away from the toe of the embankment.
 Mark the limits of embankment fill with lime powder or pegs on the ground, after clearing, and
grubbing is completed.
Embankment Construction
 After completion of site clearance, the limits of embankment shall be marked by fixing the
pegs at regular intervals before commencing the earthwork.
 The original ground shall be leveled to facilitate placement of first layer of embankment,
scarified, mixed with water and then compacted by rolling so as to achieve minimum dry
density as specified.
 Atterberg limits, MDD, OMC, and in-situ dry density of the material at ground level shall be
checked.
 Any unsuitable material shall be removed as directed by the Engineer and replaced with
suitable material at approved borrow areas.
 Dry density of natural ground soil shall be determined, and natural ground shall be tested for
density, if found less than 95% of MDD, the original ground shall be scarified and mixed with
required quantity of water and then compacted by vibratory roller to achieve minimum
specified density.
 Embankment may be constructed by laying suitable material in layers not exceeding 250mm
thickness.
 Each layer is compacted by rolling to a satisfactory degree or to the required density before the
next layer is placed.
 Compaction is carried out at optimum moisture content so as to take benefit of maximum dry
density using a specified compacting effort and equipment.
 All the measurement of filling shall be taken at every stage of construction.
Quality Control and Testing
 The compaction control shall be achieved on each layer by taking a random measurement of
density as specified CL.903.2.2 in the MORTH specifications.
 Field density tests shall be conducted by sand replacement method/Non Destructive tests
(Nuclear density gauge method).

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

 When density measurement reveals any soft areas in the embankment, these are compacted
further. If in spite of that the specified compaction is not achieved, the material in the soft area
shall be removed and replaced by approved material, compacted to the specification.
 Test results shall be entered in the relevant inspection/test formats and as per respective
approved inspection and test plans.
 The alignment and levels of the compacted embankment top layer shall be checked to confirm
that these are within permissible limits as specified in Table 900-1.
 Record of testing shall be maintained in pictorial/chart form showing the details like date of
testing, bore area used, log no. of approval request etc. as necessary to monitor the activity.
 The following tests are Pertinent to Embankment (Ref Cl. 903.2 of MORT&H)

Sr. No Test Code Frequency

1 Sand Content IS: 2720 (Part – 4) Two tests per 3000 cum

2 Plasticity test IS: 2720 (Part – 5) Each type, two tests per 3000 cum

3 Density test IS: 2720 (Part – 8) Two tests per 3000 cum subject to a
minimum of one test per 1000 Sqm.

4 Deleterious content IS: 2720 (Part – 27) Engineer to decide

5 Moisture Content IS: 2720 (Part – 2) One test per 250 cum.

Material Properties:
 MDD: 15.2 kN/Cum for embankment up to 3.0m height, 16.0 kN/Cum for embankment more
than 3.0m height. For fly ash, separate density requirement as per contract shall be applicable.
 CBR: Minimum CBR requirement NIL
 Coarse material: Size not more than 75mm
 Free swell index: Not exceeding 50% (to be used only below 500mm of top of the
embankment)
 Liquid Limit: Not exceeding 70
 Plasticity Index: Not exceeding 45

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

 SOIL SUBGRADE
4.5 SUBGRADE (As per Section: 305 MORTH Fifth Revision Specification)
The foundation of the pavement structure is known as subgrade. Preparation of subgrade consists
of all operations before the pavement structure could be placed over it and compacted. The
subgrade may be situated on an embankment or excavation or at the existing ground surface. In all
the above cases, Site Clearance -Clearing Grubbing Operation should be done before starting
the pavement structure construction. After that, the grading operation is started as per the design
and drawing of the highway plan and profile. They are widely used in road railway and airport
construction.
Material Requirements (As per section 305.2 of MORTH)
 The material shall be soil, moorum and gravel, fly ash or a mixture of these three and
reclaimed material from pavement.
 The material shall satisfy the requirements defined in the clauses of the contract document.
 The materials used in the works shall be suitable roadway/drainage/structure excavated
material or borrowed material approved by the Engineer as per requirements of Ministry of
Road Transport and Highway (MORTH) Specifications.
Borrow Material (As per section 305.2.2.2 of MORTH)
Sample should be taken from known borrow area and to be tested as per IS:2720 for the suitability
use in the subgrade as per project specification.
Construction Equipments
 Excavator
 Tippers /Dumpers
 Motor Graders
 Vibratory Compactor
 Tractors Dozer with Disc Harrows/ Spreading Blade / Ploughs
 Water Bowser with Sprinklers etc.
 Crawler Dozers
Steps for Preparation of Subgrade
 The road subgrade shall be prepared as per the MORTH specifications if it is not mentioned in
contract technical specifications.
 The limits of filling shall be marked by fixing batter pegs at regular intervals on both sides of
the layer and working line with a white the help of lime powder.
 The layer shall be built 300mm wider than the designed and drawing dimensions so that after
proper compaction is achieved up to the toe, the surplus materials shall be trimmed to get the

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

 properly compacted slopes of the subgrade. Where the fill is to be deposited against an existing
subgrade, continuous horizontal benches of 300 mm wide shall be cut into the old slope.
 In the cutting section, where cutting is to be done up to subgrade top its top layer, shall be
loosened and re-compacted as per technical specification.
 The topsoil in the borrow area shall be removed by grubbing or stripping, so that earth without
vegetation is excavated and loaded.
 Soil from approved borrow areas shall be excavated with Excavators and loaded onto tippers
or dumpers for transportation to the stretch ready to receive fill Material.
 The material shall be dumped between the limiting lines marked with lime powder.
 The material shall be spread in layers of a uniform thickness not exceeding 250mm of
compacted thickness. Grader or a combination of dozer and grader can be used for this
activity.
 The grader will initially spread the heap of earth dumped over a stretch maintaining an
approximate line and level.
 At this stage, the material should have an Optimum Moisture Content(OMC), ranging from
+1% to –2%. The following mixing or drying process should be adopted if it is not found
within the permissible limit.
1. The material at the site is too Dry: Additional water shall be added to increase the
moisture content up to the permitted limit. After sprinkling water with the browser, the
material shall be thoroughly mixed with the help of grader to obtain a homogenous
mix. After that, the grader shall carry out the final precise grading.
2. The material at the site is too Wet: If the material at the site is too wet, it shall be
dried by aeration and exposure to the sun until the moisture content is acceptable.
 When a combination of grader and dozer is used, the dozer shall carry out the initial spreading
of borrowed material to the approximate line and level. After that, the grader shall carry out the
final precise grading.
 The in-situ moisture content shall be checked with the help of rapid moisture meter.
 Compaction of fill shall start immediately after achieving the required moisture content.
Compaction shall be done with the help of vibratory compactor. The compaction pattern,
which includes the number of passes required, shall be finalized after full-scale trials at the site
to achieve the required degree of compaction as per technical specification. The general pattern
shall be as follows.
1. Initial rolling, two static passes with a vibratory roller.
2. Subsequent rolling, four vibratory passes(One pass includes both forward and reverse
movement of the roller).

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

 The compaction shall commence from the lower end and move to the upper-end width by
width.
 Further layer shall commence after the underlying layer is tested and approved.
 The rain cuts shall be repaired before placing further layers of subgrade.
 The compaction behind the structure shall be done with the use of vibratory roller or plate
compactor to achieve 98% of MDD as per MORTH specification.
 The surface of embankment shall have suitable cross fall to enable efficient surface drainage.
Quality Control and Testing
 The compaction control shall be achieved on each layer by taking a random measurement of
density as specified CL.903.2.2 in the MORTH specifications.
 Field density tests shall be conducted by sand replacement method/Non Destructive tests
(Nuclear density gauge method).
 When density measurement reveals any soft areas in the embankment, these are compacted
further. If in spite of that the specified compaction is not achieved, the material in the soft area
shall be removed and replaced by approved material, compacted to the specification.
 Test results shall be entered in the relevant inspection/test formats and as per respective
approved inspection and test plans.
 The alignment and levels of the compacted embankment top layer shall be checked to confirm
that these are within permissible limits as specified in Table 900-1.
 Record of testing shall be maintained in pictorial/chart form showing the details like date of
testing, bore area used, log no. of approval request etc. as necessary to monitor the activity.
 The following tests are Pertinent to Embankment (Ref Cl. 903.2 of MORT&H)

Sr. Test Code Frequency

No

1 Sand Content IS: 2720 (Part – 4) Two tests per 3000 cum

2 Atterberg’s limits IS: 2720 (Part – 5) Two tests per 3000 cum

3 Density test IS: 2720 (Part – 8) Two tests per 3000 cum subject to a
minimum of one test per 1000 Sqm.

4 Deleterious content IS: 2720 (Part – 27) Engineer to decide

5 Moisture Content IS: 2720 (Part – 2) Two tests per 3000 cum.

6 CBR Test IS: 2720 (Part – 16) One test per 3000 cum

7 Density of IS: 2720 (Part – 28) Ten tests per 3000 cum
compacted layer

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

Minimum compaction for subgrade layers is 97% of modified proctor value of project
specification.
NOTE: Procedure for the above quality control tests refer geotechnical laboratory manual.
From the examination point of view it is very important.
Material Properties:
 MDD: Not less than17.5 kN/Cum.
 CBR:
 Coarse material: Size not more than 75mm
 Free swell index: Not exceeding 50% (to be used only below 500mm of top of the
embankment)
 Liquid Limit: Not exceeding 70
 Plasticity Index: Not exceeding 45
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF SUBGRADE SOIL
1. Stability
Sub grade soils must have sufficient resistance to permanent deformation under traffic loads.
2. Incompressibility
The finished surface of the sub grade should be well compacted so that it prevents compressive
under heavy traffic load and provides good support to road pavement.
3. Durability
Subgrade soil is the most important component of road pavement.
If the sub grade is weak, it affects the durability of the road pavement, hence the bearing capacity
of sub grade soil should be sufficient for long term durability.
4. Drain ability
Drain ability is also an important property of the sub grade.
The sub grade must have excellent drain capacity otherwise it affects the strength of the
pavement.
Good drainage is necessary so as to prevent excessive moisture retention and minimize potential
frost action.
5. Ease of compaction
Sub grade soils must have good compacting properties.
A well-compacted subgrade surface increases the strength and durability of road pavements.
Due to ease of compaction ensures high density and strength.
Sub grade soils must have resistance to weathering therefore retain the desired support.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore

Advantages of subgrade
 Subgrade maintains a high level of carrying capacity in a road.
 It avoids the initial cost in the reconstruction road.
 Also, increase the quality of the road.
 It avoids differential settlements in the ground.
Disadvantages of subgrade
 Soil containing high moisture is not compacted properly.
 Sometimes they are highly economical.

Dr. Yashwanth. M. K, Associate Professor, MITMysore