Cell Division & Reproduction

1. THE CELL CYCLE:

The cell cycle is the series of events that cells go through

as they grow and divide.
During the cell cycle, a cell grows, prepares for division,
and divides to form two daughter cells, each of which
then begins the cycle again.

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The cell cycle consists of two phases ;

INTERPHASE + M PHASE

ANIMATION:
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Cell Division & Reproduction
EVENTS OF THE CELL CYCLE
1. INTERPHASE :

* The cell is metabolically active and performing its duty as part of a

tissue.
* The DNA duplicates during interphase to prepare for mitosis (the
next four phases that lead up to and include nuclear division.
* Chromosomes are not clearly seen in the nucleus, although a dark
spot called the nucleolus may be visible.

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Cell Division & Reproduction
Divided into 3 phases:

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Cell Division & Reproduction
The G1 phase: Is a period of activity in which cells do most of
their growing. During this phase, cells increase in size and synthesize
new proteins and organelles.

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Cell Division & Reproduction
S phase: In which chromosomes are replicated and the synthesis
of DNA molecules takes place.

S Phase
DNA replication

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Cell Division & Reproduction
G2 phase: G2 is usually the shortest of the three phases of
interphase. During the G2 phase, many of the organelles and
molecules required for cell division are produced.

G2 Phase
A lot of protein synthesis
and more cell growth is
going to occur during
this phase.

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 Sample Questions
►Explain what is happening within the cell during
phase S.

►State one process other than cell growth which

occurs during phase G2.
 Mark Scheme
Explain what is happening within the cell during phase S.
• quantity of DNA doubles;
replication of DNA / chromosomes;
preparation for mitosis / nuclear division / cell division /
asexual reproduction

State one process other than cell growth which occurs during
phase G2.
• mitochondria divide / energy stores increase / ATP produced /
respiration / duplication of centrioles / spindle begins to form
/ protein synthesis
Cell Division & Reproduction

Choose the best answer

During the G1 phase, .....................................................

a) organelles required for cell division are produced.

b) chromosome are replicated
c) cells increase in size and synthesize new protein and organelles

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Cell Division & Reproduction
Choose the best answer

The sister chromatids are identical because ................

a) one is copy of other.
b) they both are copies of a third chromatid.
c) they are both made of DNA and protein

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 2. Phases of Mitosis:
– Prophase
– Nuclear division about to occur.
• Chromatin condensed.
– Chromosomes distinguishable with microscope
– Each chromosome has two sister chromatids held together at the
centromere.
• Nucleolus disappears
• Nuclear envelope fragments
• Spindle begins to assemble
• Two centrosomes move away from each other.
• In animal cells, microtubules form star-like arrays termed asters.
Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells

Early Prophase
Centrosomes have duplicated.
Chromatin is condensing into
chromosomes, and the nuclear

envelope is fragmenting.
Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells

Prophase
Nucleolus has disappeared, and
duplicated chromosomes are
visible. Centrosomes begin moving
apart, and spindle is in process
of forming.
Cell Division & Reproduction

Choose the best answer

The function of the spindle is to ........................................

a) break down the nuclear envelope

b) help form new nuclear envelopes
c) help separate the chromosomes

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Cell Division & Reproduction

Which drawing indicates a cell in prophase of mitosis

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Prometaphase
• Preparations for sister chromatid separation are evident.

• The centromere of each chromosome develops two kinetochores.

– Specialized protein complex

– One attached to each sister chromatid
» Physically connect sister chromatids with specialized microtubules
(kinetochores)

» These connect sister chromatids to opposite poles of the mother cell.

Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells
 Metaphase

• Chromosomes pulled around by kinetochore fibers

• Forced to align across the equatorial plane of the cell
– Metaphase plate – Represents plane through which
mother cell will be divided
– Nonattached, polar spindle fibers overlap
– M checkpoint delays start of anaphase until kinetochores
are attached properly
Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells
Cell Division & Reproduction

Which drawing indicates a cell in metaphase of mitosis

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 Anaphase
• Centromere dissolves, releasing sister chromatids
• Sister chromatids separate at the centromere.
– Now called daughter chromosomes
– Pulled to opposite poles along kinetochore fibers
– Poles move farther apart
Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells
Cell Division & Reproduction

Choose the best answer

What happens during anaphase?

a) The chromosomes become visible

b) The chromosomes line up across the center of the
cell
c) The sister chromatids separate

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Cell Division & Reproduction

Which drawing indicates a cell in anaphase of

mitosis

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 Telophase

• The spindle disappears.

• New nuclear envelopes form around daughter chromosomes.
• There are now two clusters of daughter chromosomes.
– Still, there are two of each type with all types represented.
– Clusters are incipient daughter nuclei.
– Nuclear envelopes form around the two incipient daughter nuclei.
– Each daughter nucleus receives one chromosome of each type.
• Division of the cytoplasm requires cytokinesis.
• Chromosomes become diffused chromatin once again.
Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells
Cell Division & Reproduction

Which drawing indicates a cell in telophase of

mitosis

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Figure 12.7g

10 µm
Prophase
Figure 12.7h

10 µm
Prometaphase
Figure 12.7i

10 µm
Metaphase
Figure 12.7j

10 µm
Anaphase
Figure 12.7k

10 µm
Telophase and
Cytokinesis
Cell Division & Reproduction

Use the clues and words below to help you write the vocabulary terms
from the chapter in the blanks.

anaphase chromatid mitosis

cancer cytokinesis prophase centriole

interphase telophase

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Cell Division & Reproduction
one of two identical “sister” parts of a copied chromosome
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
1
the final phase of mitosis in which the nuclear envelope re-forms
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
2
division of the cytoplasm of a cell __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
3
disorder in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably
__ __ __ __ __ __
4
first phase of mitosis __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
5

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Cell Division & Reproduction
part of the cell cycle in which cell grows and replicates its DNA
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ __
6
third stage of mitosis during which the sister chromatids separate
and become individual chromosomes __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
7
division of the cell nucleus __ __ __ __ __ __ __
8
a tiny structure located in the cytoplasm near the nuclear envelope
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
9

Put the numbered letters in order to find the answer to the

question.
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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 Cytokinesis in Animal and Plant Cells
• Cytokinesis = division of cytoplasm
• Allocates the mother cell’s cytoplasm equally to
daughter nucleus
• Encloses each daughter cell in its own plasma
membrane
• Often begins in anaphase
• Proceeds differently in plant and animal cells

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 Animal cytokinesis:
▪ Cleavage furrow appears between daughter nuclei.
▪ Formed by a contractile ring of actin filaments
▪ Like pulling on a drawstring
▪ Eventually pinches the mother cell in two
 Plant Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis in plant cells begins with the formation of a
cell plate.
– Rigid cell walls outside plasma membrane do not permit furrowing.
– Many small membrane-bounded vesicles are made by Golgi.
– They eventually fuse into one thin vesicle extending across the mother
cell.
The membranes of the cell plate become the plasma membrane between
the daughter cells.
The space between the daughter cells becomes filled with the middle
lamella.
Daughter cells later secrete primary cell walls on opposite sides of the
middle lamella, which cements the primary cell walls together.
Jump to long image description
 CONTROL OF THE CELL CYCLE:
• The cell cycle appears to be driven by specific chemical signals
present in the cytoplasm.

• Some evidence for this hypothesis comes from experiments in

which cultured mammalian cells
at different phases of the cell cycle were fused
to form a single cell with two nuclei.

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► The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed
by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is
similar to a clock
► The cell cycle control system is regulated by both
internal and external controls
► The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell
cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received
Figure 12.15
G1 checkpoint

Control
system S
G1

M G2

M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
Check points
Figure 12.17
G1
checkpoint
G0

G1 G1
Without go- With go-
ahead signal, ahead signal,
G1
cell enters G0. cell continues
S
(a) G1
cell cycle.
M G2 checkpoint
G1 G1

M G2 M
G2

M checkpoint

G2
Anaphase checkpoint
Prometaphas Metaphase
e
Without full With full
chromosome chromosome
attachment, attachment,
stop signal is go-ahead
(b) M
received. signal
checkpoint
Growth factors are released
by certain cells and
stimulate other cells to
divide
Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in
Cancer Cells
► Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s
control mechanisms
► Cancer cells may not need growth factors to grow
and divide
► They may make their own growth factor
► They may convey a growth factor’s signal without the
presence of the growth factor
► They may have an abnormal cell cycle control system
► A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a
process called transformation
► Cancer cells that are not eliminated by the
immune system form tumors, masses of abnormal
cells within otherwise normal tissue
► If abnormal cells remain only at the original site,
the lump is called a benign tumor
► Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and
can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other
parts of the body, where they may form additional
tumors
► Localized tumors may be treated with high-energy
radiation, which damages the DNA in the cancer
cells
► To treat metastatic cancers, chemotherapies that
target the cell cycle may be used
• A benign tumor is noncancerous.
• It does not spread to surrounding
healthy tissue.
• A malignant tumor is cancerous. It invades and destroys surrounding
healthy tissue and can spread to other parts of the body.
• The spread of cancer cells is called metastasis. Cancer cells absorb
nutrients needed by other cells, block nerve connections, and
prevent organs from functioning.
• Characteristics of Cancer Cells
– Form tumors
• Mitosis is normally controlled by contact with neighboring cells: contact
inhibition.
– Cancer cells have lost contact inhibition.
▪ Lack differentiation
• They are non-functional in their tissues.
• Cells are non-specialized.
• Cells are immortal (can enter cell cycle repeatedly).
▪ Have abnormal, enlarged nuclei
• Cells may be enlarged.
• Cells may have abnormal number of chromosomes.
• Cells often have extra copies of genes.
– Undergo metastasis
• The original tumor easily fragments.
• New tumors appear in other organs.
– Undergo angiogenesis
• They form new blood vessels.
– They bring nutrients and oxygen to the tumor.
 Cancer Cells vs. Normal Cells
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Table 9.2 Cancer Cells Versus Normal Cells

Cancer Cells Normal Cells

Nondifferentiated cells Differentiated cells
Abnormal nuclei Normal nuclei
Do not undergo apoptosis Undergo apoptosis
No contact inhibition Contact inhibition
Disorganized,multilayered One organized layer
Undergo metastasis Remain in original tissue
Progression of Cancer
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Figure 12.20

5 µm
Breast cancer
cell
(colorized
SEM)

Metastatic
Lymph tumor
vessel
Tumor
Blood
vessel

Glandular Cancer
tissue cell

1 A tumor 2 Cancer cells 3 Cancer cells 4 A small

grows invade spread percentage
from a single neighboring through of cancer cells
cancer cell. tissue. lymph and may
blood vessels metastasize to
to other another part
parts of the of the
body. body.
Causes of Cancer
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

© Biophoto Associates/Science Source

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 What Causes Cancer?
–Defects in genes that regulate cell growth and
division.

–Some sources of gene defects are tobacco, radiation

exposure, viral infection and inherited defective
genes.
 Treatments for Cancer
– Surgery.
– Targeted radiation.
– Chemotherapy is the use of compounds that kill or
slow the growth of cancer cells.

– *Endostatin therapy is a new treatment that focuses

on suppressing blood vessel growth (angiogenesis) in
cancerous tumors.

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