ISRO

Coordinates: 12°57′56″N 77°41′53″E

The Indian Space Research Organisation, commonly referred to

as ISRO[a] (/ˈɪsroʊ/), is the national space agency of India. It
Indian Space Research
operates as the primary research and development arm of the Organisation
Department of Space (DoS), which is directly overseen by the Bhāratīya Antrikṣ Anusandhān
Prime Minister of India, while the Chairman of ISRO also acts as Saṅgaṭ han
the executive of DoS.

ISRO is primarily responsible for performing tasks related to

space-based operations, space exploration, international space
cooperation and the development of related technologies.[2] It is
one of the six government space agencies in the world which
possess full launch capabilities, deploy cryogenic engines, launch
extraterrestrial missions and operate a large fleet of artificial
satellites.[3][4][b]

ISRO was previously the Indian National Committee for Space

Research (INCOSPAR), set up under Jawaharlal Nehru in 1962 Official Logo[1]
recognising the need for space research. INCOSPAR grew and Agency overview
became ISRO in 1969, within the Department of Atomic Energy
Abbreviation ISRO
(DAE).[5] In 1972, the government of India set up a Space
Commission and the DoS, bringing ISRO under it. The Formed 15 August 1969
establishment of ISRO thus institutionalised space research Preceding INCOSPAR
activities in India.[6][7] It has since been managed by DoS, which agency
also governs various other institutions in India in the domain of
Type Space agency
astronomy and space technology.[8]
Jurisdiction Department of
ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched Space
by the Soviet space agency Interkosmos in 1975.[9] In 1980, ISRO Headquarters Bangalore,
launched satellite RS-1 onboard SLV-3, making India the seventh
Karnataka
country to be capable of undertaking orbital launches. SLV-3 was
12°57′56″N
followed by ASLV, which was subsequently succeeded by the
development of many medium-lift launch vehicles, rocket engines, 77°41′53″E
satellite systems and networks enabling the agency to launch Chairman Sreedhara
hundreds of domestic and foreign satellites and various deep space Somanath
missions for space exploration.
Primary SDSC · TERLS
ISRO has the world's largest constellation of remote-sensing spaceports
satellites and operates the GAGAN and IRNSS (NavIC) satellite Owner Government of
navigation systems. It has sent three missions to the Moon and one India
to Mars.
Employees 16,786 (2022)
ISRO's goals in the near future includes expanding the satellite Website www.isro.gov.in (h
fleet, landing a rover on the Moon, sending humans into space, ttps://www.isro.go
development of a semi-cryogenic engine, sending more uncrewed v.in/)
missions to the Moon, Mars, Venus and the Sun and the deployment of more space telescopes in orbit to
observe cosmic phenomena and outer space beyond the Solar System. ISRO's long-term plans includes the
development of reusable launchers, heavy and super heavy-lift launch vehicles, deploying a space station,
sending exploration missions to the planets like Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune and Asteroids, and crewed
missions to the Moon and the planets.

ISRO's programmes have played a significant role in the socio-economic development of India and have
supported both civilian and military domains in various aspects including disaster management,
telemedicine and navigation and reconnaissance missions. ISRO's spin-off technologies also have founded
many crucial innovations for India's engineering and medical industries.

History

Formative years

Modern space research in India can be traced to the 1920s, when

scientist S. K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments sounding the
ionosphere through ground-based radio in Kolkata.[11] Later, Indian
scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to
scientific principles applicable in space sciences.[11] After 1945,
important developments were made in coordinated space research
in India[11] by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai, founder of the
Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad, and Homi Bhabha, An Arcas rocket being loaded into
who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in launch tube at Thumba Launching
1945.[11] Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of Station. In the early days of ISRO,
cosmic radiation, high-altitude and airborne testing, deep rocket parts were often transported
underground experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of the on bicycles and bullock carts.[10]
deepest mining sites in the world—and studies of the upper
atmosphere.[12] These studies were done at research laboratories,
universities, and independent locations.[12][13]

In 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was founded with Bhabha as its secretary.[13] It
provided funding for space research throughout India.[14] During this time, tests continued on aspects of
meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field, a topic that had been studied in India since the establishment of
the Colaba Observatory in 1823. In 1954, the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences
(ARIES) was established in the foothills of the Himalayas.[13] The Rangpur Observatory was set up in
1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad. Space research was further encouraged by the government of
India.[14] In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 and opened up possibilities for the rest of the
world to conduct a space launch.[14]

The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was set up in 1962 by Prime Minister
Jawaharlal Nehru on the suggestion of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai.[7] Initially there was no dedicated ministry for
the space programme and all activities of INCOSPAR relating to space technology continued to function
within the DAE.[15][6] IOFS officers were drawn from the Indian Ordnance Factories to harness their
knowledge of propellants and advanced light materials used to build rockets.[16] H.G.S. Murthy, an IOFS
officer, was appointed the first director of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station,[17] where
sounding rockets were fired, marking the start of upper atmospheric research in India.[18] An indigenous
series of sounding rockets named Rohini was subsequently developed and started undergoing launches
from 1967 onwards.[19] Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan, another IOFS officer, developed the propellant for
the rockets.

1970s and 1980s

Under the government of Indira Gandhi, INCOSPAR was superseded by ISRO. Later in 1972, a space
commission and Department of Space (DOS) were set up to oversee space technology development in
India specifically. ISRO was brought under DOS, institutionalising space research in India and forging the
Indian space programme into its existing form.[6][8] India joined the Soviet Interkosmos programme for
space cooperation[20] and got its first satellite Aryabhatta in orbit through a Soviet rocket.[9]

Efforts to develop an orbital launch vehicle began after mastering sounding rocket technology. The concept
was to develop a launcher capable of providing sufficient velocity for a mass of 35 kg (77 lb) to enter low
Earth orbit. It took 7 years for ISRO to develop Satellite Launch Vehicle capable of putting 40 kg (88 lb)
into a 400-kilometre (250 mi) orbit. An SLV Launch Pad, ground stations, tracking networks, radars and
other communications were set up for a launch campaign. The SLV's first launch in 1979 carried a Rohini
technology payload but could not inject the satellite into its desired orbit. It was followed by a successful
launch in 1980 carrying a Rohini Series-I satellite, making India the seventh country to reach Earth's orbit
after the USSR, the US, France, the UK, China and Japan. RS-1 was the third Indian satellite to reach orbit
as Bhaskara had been launched from the USSR in 1979. Efforts to develop a medium-lift launch vehicle
capable of putting 600-kilogram (1,300 lb) class spacecrafts into 1,000-kilometre (620 mi) Sun-
synchronous orbit had already begun in 1978.[21] They would later lead to the development of PSLV.[22]
The SLV-3 later had two more launches before discontinuation in 1983.[23] ISRO's Liquid Propulsion
Systems Centre (LPSC) was set up in 1985 and started working on a more powerful engine, Vikas, based
upon the French Viking.[24] Two years later, facilities to test liquid-fuelled rocket engines were established
and development and testing of various rocket engines thrusters began.[25]

At the same time, another solid-fuelled rocket Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle based upon SLV-3 was
being developed, and technologies to launch satellites into geostationary orbit (GTO). ASLV had limited
success and multiple launch failures; it was soon discontinued.[26] Alongside, technologies for the Indian
National Satellite System of communication satellites[27] and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme for
earth observation satellites[28] were developed and launches from overseas initiated. The number of
satellites eventually grew and the systems were established as among the largest satellite constellations in
the world, with multi-band communication, radar imaging, optical imaging and meteorological satellites.[29]

1990s and early 21st century

The arrival of PSLV in 1990s became a major boost for the Indian space programme. With the exception of
its first flight in 1994 and two partial failures later, PSLV had a streak of more than 50 successful flights.
PSLV enabled India to launch all of its low Earth orbit satellites, small payloads to GTO and hundreds of
foreign satellites.[30] Along with the PSLV flights, development of a new rocket, a Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was going on. India tried to obtain upper-stage cryogenic engines from
Russia's Glavkosmos but was blocked by the US from doing so. As a result, KVD-1 engines were
imported from Russia under a new agreement which had limited success[31] and a project to develop
indigenous cryogenic technology was launched in 1994, taking two decades to reach fulfillment.[32] A new
agreement was signed with Russia for seven KVD-1 cryogenic stages and a ground mock-up stage with no
technology transfer, instead of five cryogenic stages along with the technology and design in the earlier
agreement.[33] These engines were used for the initial flights and were named GSLV Mk.1.[34] ISRO was
under US government sanctions between 6 May 1992 to 6 May 1994.[35] After the United States refused to
help India with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology during the Kargil war, ISRO was prompted
to develop its own satellite navigation system IRNSS which it is now expanding further.[36]

In 2003, when China sent humans into space, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee urged scientists to
develop technologies to land humans on the Moon[37] and programmes for lunar, planetary and crewed
missions were started. ISRO launched Chandrayaan-1 in 2008, purportedly the first probe to verify the
presence of water on the Moon,[38] and the Mars Orbiter Mission in 2013, the first Asian spacecraft to enter
Martian orbit, making India the first country to succeed at this on its first attempt.[39] Subsequently, the
cryogenic upper stage for GSLV rocket became operational, making India the sixth country to have full
launch capabilities.[40] A new heavier-lift launcher GSLV Mk III was introduced in 2014 for heavier
satellites and future human space missions.[41]

Agency logo

ISRO did not have an official logo until 2002. The one adopted consists of an orange arrow shooting
upwards attached with two blue coloured satellite panels with the name of ISRO written in two sets of text,
orange-coloured Devanagari on the left and blue-coloured English in the Prakrta typeface on the
right.[42][43]

Goals and objectives

As the national space agency of India, ISRO's purpose is the pursuit of all
space-based applications such as research, reconnaissance, and
communications. It undertakes the design and development of space
rockets and satellites, and undertakes explores upper atmosphere and deep
space exploration missions. ISRO has also incubated technologies in
India's private space sector, boosting its growth.[44][45]

On the topic of the importance of a space programme to India as a

developing nation, Vikram Sarabhai as INSCOPAR chair said in
1969:[46][47][48]

To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the

fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations Vikram Sarabhai, first
in the exploration of the Moon or the planets or manned chairperson of INCOSPAR,
space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a ISRO's predecessor
meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, organization
we must be second to none in the application of advanced
technologies to the real problems of man and society, which
we find in our country. And we should note that the
application of sophisticated technologies and methods of
analysis to our problems is not to be confused with
embarking on grandiose schemes, whose primary impact is
for show rather than for progress measured in hard economic
and social terms.

The former president of India and chairman of DRDO, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, said:[49]
 Very many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a
newly independent nation which was finding it difficult to feed its population. But neither
Prime Minister Nehru nor Prof. Sarabhai had any ambiguity of purpose. Their vision was very
clear: if Indians were to play a meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be
second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They
had no intention of using it merely as a means of displaying our might.

India's economic progress has made its space programme more visible and active as the country aims for
greater self-reliance in space technology.[50] In 2008, India launched as many as 11 satellites, including
nine from other countries, and went on to become the first nation to launch 10 satellites on one rocket.[50]
ISRO has put into operation two major satellite systems: the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) for
communication services, and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRS) satellites for management of
natural resources.[51][52]

Organisation structure and facilities

ISRO is managed by the DOS, which itself falls under
the authority of the Space Commission and manages the
following agencies and institutes:[53][54][55]

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of
ISRO, Bengaluru
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL),
Ahmedabad
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory
(NARL), Gadanki, Andhra Pradesh The organisational structure of the Indian
NewSpace India Limited – Commercial wing, Department of Space
Bengaluru
North-Eastern Space Applications Centre[56]
(NE-SAC), Umiam
 Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's
space university

Research facilities

Facility Location Description

The largest ISRO base is also the main technical centre and the
Vikram Sarabhai venue for development of the SLV-3, ASLV, and PSLV series.[57] The
Thiruvananthapuram
Space Centre base supports TERLS and the Rohini Sounding Rocket
programme.[57] It is also developing the GSLV series.[57]

The LPSC handles design, development, testing and implementation

of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid stages and liquid engines
Liquid Propulsion Thiruvananthapuram for launch vehicles and satellites.[57] The testing of these systems is
Systems Centre and Bengaluru
largely conducted at IPRC at Mahendragiri.[57] The LPSC, Bengaluru
also produces precision transducers.[58]
Solar planetary physics, infrared astronomy, geo-cosmo physics,
Physical plasma physics, astrophysics, archaeology, and hydrology are some
Research Ahmedabad
of the branches of study at this institute.;[57] it also operates the
Laboratory
observatory at Udaipur.[57]
National
Atmospheric The NARL carries out fundamental and applied research in
Tirupati
Research atmospheric and space sciences.[59]
Laboratory

The SAC deals with the various aspects of the practical use of space
technology.[57] Among the fields of research at the SAC are geodesy,
Space satellite based telecommunications, surveying, remote sensing,
Applications Ahmedabad meteorology, environment monitoring etc.[57] The SAC also operates
Centre the Delhi Earth Station, which is located in Delhi and is used for
demonstration of various SATCOM experiments in addition to normal
SATCOM operations.[60]
North-Eastern Providing developmental support to North East by undertaking
Space specific application projects using remote sensing, GIS, satellite
Shillong
Applications
Centre communication and conducting space science research.[61]

Test facilities

Facility Location Description

Formerly called LPSC-Mahendragiri, was declared a separate centre. It

ISRO Propulsion handles testing and assembly of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid
Mahendragiri
Complex
engines, and stages for launch vehicles and satellites.[57]

Construction and launch facilities

Facility Location Description

U R Rao Satellite Bengaluru The venue of eight successful spacecraft projects is also one of the
Centre main satellite technology bases of ISRO. The facility serves as a
venue for implementing indigenous spacecraft in India.[57] The
satellites Aaryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, and IRS-1A were built at
this site, and the IRS and INSAT satellite series are presently under
 development here. This centre was formerly known as ISRO Satellite
Centre.[58]
The Unit of ISRO responsible for the development of altitude sensors
Laboratory for
for all satellites. The high precision optics for all cameras and
Electro-Optics Bengaluru
payloads in all ISRO satellites are developed at this laboratory,
Systems
located at Peenya Industrial Estate, Bengaluru.

With multiple sub-sites the Sriharikota island facility acts as a

launching site for India's satellites.[57] The Sriharikota facility is also
the main launch base for India's sounding rockets.[58] The centre is
Satish Dhawan also home to India's largest Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant
Sriharikota
Space Centre (SPROB) and houses the Static Test and Evaluation Complex
(STEX).[58] The Second Vehicle Assembly Building (SVAB) at
Sriharikota is being realised as an additional integration facility, with
suitable interfacing to a second launch pad.[62][63]
Thumba
Equatorial
Rocket Thiruvananthapuram TERLS is used to launch sounding rockets.[64]
Launching
Station

Tracking and control facilities

Facility Location Description

Indian Deep This network receives, processes, archives and distributes the spacecraft
Space Network Bengaluru health data and payload data in real-time. It can track and monitor
(IDSN) satellites up to very large distances, even beyond the Moon.[65]

The NRSC applies remote sensing to manage natural resources and study
National Remote
Hyderabad aerial surveying.[57] With centres at Balanagar and Shadnagar it also has
Sensing Centre training facilities at Dehradun acting as the Indian Institute of Remote
Sensing.[57]

Bengaluru
(headquarters)
ISRO Telemetry, and a number Software development, ground operations, Tracking Telemetry and
Tracking and of ground Command (TTC), and support is provided by this institution.[57] ISTRAC
Command stations has Tracking stations throughout the country and all over the world in Port
Network throughout Louis (Mauritius), Bearslake (Russia), Biak (Indonesia) and Brunei.[66]
India and the
world.[60]
Geostationary satellite orbit raising, payload testing, and in-orbit operations
Master Control Bhopal; are performed at this facility.[67] The MCF has Earth stations and the
Facility Hassan Satellite Control Centre (SCC) for controlling satellites.[67] A second MCF-
like facility named 'MCF-B' is being constructed at Bhopal.[67]
A network of telescopes and radars are being set up under the Directorate
of Space Situational Awareness and Management to monitor space debris
Space Situational and to safeguard space-based assets. The new facility will end ISRO's
Peenya, dependence on Norad. The sophisticated multi-object tracking radar
Awareness
Bengaluru installed in Nellore, a radar in Northeast India and telescopes in
Control Centre
Thiruvananthapuram, Mount Abu and North India will be part of this
network.[68][69]

Human resource development

Facility Location Description

 The Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) is a premier training
and educational institute set up for developing trained professionals
(P.G. and PhD level) in the field of remote sensing, geoinformatics
Indian Institute of and GPS technology for natural resources, environmental and
Remote Sensing Dehradun disaster management. IIRS is also executing many R&D projects on
(IIRS) remote sensing and GIS for societal applications. IIRS also runs
various outreach programmes (Live & Interactive and e-learning) to
build trained skilled human resources in the field of remote sensing
and geospatial technologies.[70]

Indian Institute of The institute offers undergraduate and graduate courses in

Space Science Aerospace Engineering, Electronics and Communication Engineering
Thiruvananthapuram (Avionics), and Engineering Physics. The students of the first
and Technology
(IIST) three batches of IIST were inducted into different ISRO centres.[71]
The centre works for education, research, and training, mainly in
Development and conjunction with the INSAT programme.[57] The main activities
Educational
Communication
Ahmedabad carried out at DECU include GRAMSAT and EDUSAT projects.[58]
Unit The Training and Development Communication Channel (TDCC) also
falls under the operational control of the DECU.[60]
Space
Technology
Incubation
Centres (S-TICs)
at:

Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar
National
Institute of
Technology
Jalandhar
The S-TICs opened at premier technical universities in India to
Maulana Azad
Agartala, Bhopal, promote startups to build applications and products in tandem with
National
Jalandhar, Nagpur the industry and would be used for future space missions. The S-TIC
Institute of
Rourkela, will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella to
Technology
Tiruchirappalli contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives
National relevant to the Indian Space Programme.[74]
Institute of
Technology
Agartala
National
Institute of
Technology,
Rourkela[72]
Visvesvaraya
National
Institute of
Technology[73]

In line with its ongoing effort to promote R&D in space technology

through industry as well as academia, ISRO in collaboration with
Space Innovation Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology (VSSUT), Burla,
Centre at: Sambalpur, Odisha, has set up Veer Surendra Sai Space Innovation
Veer Surendra Burla, Sambalpur Centre (VSSSIC) within its campus at Sambalpur. The objective of
Sai University its Space Innovation Research Lab is to promote and encourage the
of Technology students in research and development in the area of space science
and technology at VSSUT and other institutes within this
region.[75][76]
Regional Varanasi, Guwahati, All these centres are set up in tier-2 cities to create awareness,
Academy Centre Kurukshetra, Jaipur, strengthen academic collaboration and act as incubators for space
for Space (RAC- Mangaluru, Patna technology, space science and space applications. The activities of
S) at: RAC-S will maximise the use of research potential, infrastructure,
expertise, experience and facilitate capacity building.
 Banaras
Hindu
University
Gauhati
University
Kurukshetra
University
Malaviya
National
Institute of
Technology
National
Institute of
Technology
Karnataka
National
Institute of
Technology
Patna
Indian
Institute of
Technology
(BHU)
Varanasi[77]

Antrix Corporation Limited (Commercial Wing)

Set up as the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix's job is to promote products, services and technology
developed by ISRO.[78][79]

NewSpace India Limited (Commercial Wing)

Set up for marketing spin-off technologies, tech transfers through industry interface and scale up industry
participation in the space programmes.[80]

Space Technology Incubation Centre

ISRO has opened Space Technology Incubation Centres (S-TIC) at premier technical universities in India
which will incubate startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry and would be
used for future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella
to contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to the Indian Space Programme.
S-TICs are at the National Institute of Technology, Agartala serving for east region, National Institute of
Technology, Jalandhar for the north region, and the National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli for the
south region of India.[74]

Advance Space Research Group

Like NASA funded Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) managed by California Institute of Technology
(Caltech), ISRO with Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) implemented a joint
working framework in 2021 in which an Empowered Overseeing Committee (EOC) under Capacity
Building Programme Office (CBPO) of ISRO located in Bengaluru will approve all short, medium and
long term space research projects of common interest. In return, an Advance Space Research Group
(ASRG) formed at IIST under the guidance of EOC will have full access to ISRO facilities. The primary
aim is to transform IIST into a premier space research and engineering institute by 2028–2030 that can lead
future space exploration missions of ISRO.[81][82]

Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management

To reduce dependency on North America Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) for space situational
awareness and protect the civilian and military assets, ISRO is setting up telescopes and radars in four
locations to cover each direction. Leh, Mount Abu and Ponmudi were selected to station the telescopes and
radars that will cover North, West and South of Indian territory. The last one will be in Northeast India to
cover the entire eastern region. Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota already supports Multi-Object
Tracking Radar (MOTR).[83] All the telescopes and radars will come under Directorate of Space
Situational Awareness and Management (DSSAM) in Bengaluru. It will collect tracking data on inactive
satellites and will also perform research on active debris removal, space debris modelling and mitigation.[84]

For early warning, ISRO began a ₹400 crore (4 billion; US$53 million) project called Network for Space
Object Tracking and Analysis (NETRA). It will help the country track atmospheric entry, intercontinental
ballistic missile (ICBM), anti-satellite weapon and other space-based attacks. All the radars and telescopes
will be connected through NETRA. The system will support remote and scheduled operations. NETRA
will follow the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IASDCC) and United Nations Office
for Outer Space Affairs (UNOSA) guidelines. The objective of NETRA is to track objects at a distance of
36,000 kilometres (22,000 mi) in GTO.[85][86]

India signed a memorandum of understanding on the Space Situational Awareness Data Sharing Pact with
the US in April 2022.[87][88] It will enable Department of Space to collaborate with the Combined Space
Operation Center (CSpOC) to protect the space-based assets of both nations from natural and man-made
threats.[89] On 11 July 2022, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management
(IS4OM) at Space Situational Awareness Control Centre, in Peenya was inaugurated by Jitender Singh. It
will help provide information on on-orbit collision, fragmentation, atmospheric re-entry risk, space-based
strategic information, hazardous asteroids, and space weather forecast. IS4OM will safeguard all the
operational space assets, identify and monitor other operational spacecrafts with close approaches which
have overpasses over Indian subcontinent and those which conduct intentional manoeuvres with suspicious
motives or seek re-entry within South Asia.[90]

ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management

On 7 March 2023, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM)
conducted successful controlled re-entry of decommissioned satellite Megha-Tropiques after firing four on-
board 11 Newton thrusters for 20 minutes each. A series of 20 manoeuvres were performed since August
2022 by spending 120 kg fuel. The final telemetry data confirmed disintegtration over Pacific Ocean. It was
part of a compliance effort following international guidelines on space debris mitigation.[91]

Other facilities
Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) – Balasore
Bhaskaracharya Institute For Space Applications and Geo-Informatics (BISAG),
Gandhinagar
Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC), Bengaluru
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)
 Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC)
Integrated Space Cell
Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA)
ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) – Thiruvananthapuram
Master Control Facility
National Deep Space Observation Centre (NDSPO)
Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC)

General satellite programmes

Since the launch of Aryabhata in 1975,[9] a number of satellite
series and constellations have been deployed by Indian and foreign
launchers. At present, ISRO operates one of the largest
constellations of active communication and earth imaging satellites
for military and civilian uses.[29]

The IRS series

The Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are India's earth

observation satellites. They are the largest collection of remote
sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today, providing
INSAT-1B
remote sensing services.[29] All the satellites are placed in polar
Sun-synchronous orbit (except GISATs) and provide data in a
variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several
programs to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A,
B, C, D) nomenclature while the later versions were divided into sub-classes named based on their
functioning and uses including Oceansat, Cartosat, HySIS, EMISAT and ResourceSat etc. Their names
were unified under the prefix "EOS" regardless of functioning in 2020.[92] They support a wide range of
applications including optical, radar and electronic reconnaissance for Indian agencies, city planning,
oceanography and environmental studies.[29]

The INSAT series

The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is the country's

telecommunication system. It is a series of multipurpose
geostationary satellites built and launched by ISRO to satisfy the
telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-
rescue needs. Since the introduction of the first one in 1983, INSAT
has become the largest domestic communication system in the Asia-
Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of DOS, the Department of
Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India
INSAT-1B satellite: The broadcasting
Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management
sector in India is highly dependent
of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT
on INSAT system. Coordination Committee.[93] The nomenclature of the series was
changed to "GSAT" from "INSAT", then further changed to
"CMS" from 2020 onwards.[94] These satellites have been used by the Indian Armed Forces as
well.[95][96] GSAT-9 or "SAARC Satellite" provides communication services for India's smaller
neighbors.[97]

Gagan Satellite Navigation System

The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS
Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the Satellite-
Based Communications, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic Management plan for civil aviation. The
Indian SBAS system has been given the acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A
national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of a Technology Demonstration System
(TDS) over Indian airspace as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India
and ISRO. The TDS was completed during 2007 with the installation of eight Indian Reference Stations at
different airports linked to the Master Control Centre located near Bengaluru.[98]

Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC)

IRNSS with an operational name NavIC is an independent regional

navigation satellite system developed by India. It is designed to
provide accurate position information service to users in India as
well as the region extending up to 1,500 km (930 mi) from its
borders, which is its primary service area. IRNSS provides two
types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and
Restricted Service (RS), providing a position accuracy of better
than 20 m (66 ft) in the primary service area.[99] Coverage of the IRNSS in blue, as
of 2020

Other satellites

Kalpana-1 (MetSat-1) was ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite.[100][101] Indo-French satellite
SARAL on 25 February 2013. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa") is a cooperative altimetry
technology mission, used for monitoring the oceans' surface and sea levels. AltiKa measures ocean surface
topography with an accuracy of 8 mm (0.31 in), compared to 2.5 cm (0.98 in) on average using altimeters,
and with a spatial resolution of 2 km (1.2 mi).[102][103]

Launch vehicles
During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicles owing to geopolitical and economic
considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country developed a sounding rocket, and by the 1980s, research
had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
(ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure.[104]

Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Satellite Launch Vehicle (known as SLV-3) was
the first space rocket to be developed by India. The
initial launch in 1979 was a failure followed by a
successful launch in 1980 making India the sixth
country in world with orbital launch capability. The
development of bigger rockets began afterwards.[22]

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle

Augmented or Advanced Satellite Launch Vehicle

(ASLV) was another small launch vehicle released in
1980s to develop technologies required to place
satellites into geostationary orbit. ISRO did not have
adequate funds to develop ASLV and PSLV at once.
Comparison of Indian carrier rockets. Left to right:
Since ASLV suffered repeated failures, it was dropped
SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, LVM3
in favour of a new project.[105][26]

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle or PSLV is the first medium-lift

launch vehicle from India which enabled India to launch all its
remote-sensing satellites into Sun-synchronous orbit. PSLV had a
failure in its maiden launch in 1993. Besides two other partial
failures, PSLV has become the primary workhorse for ISRO with
more than 50 launches placing hundreds of Indian and foreign
satellites into orbit.[106]

Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

1990s 3 1 1 5

2000s 11 0 0 11

2010s 33 0 1 34
Stamp depicting SLV-3 D1 carrying
2020s 8 0 0 8 RS-D1 satellite to orbit
Total 55 1 2 58

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle was envisaged in 1990s to transfer significant payloads to
geostationary orbit. ISRO initially had a great problem realising GSLV as the development of CE-7.5 in
India took a decade. The US had blocked India from obtaining cryogenic technology from Russia, leading
India to develop its own cryogenic engines.[31]

Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches:

 Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

2000s 2 2 1 5

2010s 6 0 2 8
2020s 1 0 1 2

Total 9 2 4 15

Launch Vehicle Mark-3

Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3), previously known as GSLV Mk

III, is the heaviest rocket in operational service with ISRO.
Equipped with a more powerful cryogenic engine and boosters than
GSLV, it has significantly higher payload capacity and allows India
to launch all its communication satellites.[107] LVM3 is expected to
carry India's first crewed mission to space[108] and will be the
testbed for SCE-200 engine which will power India's heavy-lift
rockets in the future.[109] PSLV-C11 lifts off carrying
Chandrayaan-1, first Indian mission
Decade-wise summary of LVM3 launches: to the moon.

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

2010s 4 0 0 4[110]

2020s 3 0 0 3[111]
Total 7 0 0 7

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is a small-lift launch

vehicle developed by the ISRO with payload capacity to deliver
500 kg (1,100 lb) to low Earth orbit (500 km (310 mi)) or 300 kg
(660 lb) to Sun-synchronous orbit (500 km (310 mi))[112] for
launching small satellites, with the capability to support multiple
orbital drop-offs.[113][114][115]

Decade-wise summary of SSLV launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total GSLV-F08 launches GSAT-6A into
geostationary transfer orbit (2018).
2020s 1 0 1 2

Human Spaceflight Programme

The first proposal to send humans into space was discussed by ISRO in 2006, leading to work on the
required infrastructure and spacecraft.[116][117] The trials for crewed space missions began in 2007 with the
600-kilogram (1,300 lb) Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE), launched using the Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket, and safely returned to earth 12 days later.[118]
In 2009, the Indian Space Research Organisation proposed a
budget of ₹124 billion (equivalent to ₹310 billion or US$3.9 billion
in 2023) for its human spaceflight programme. An uncrewed
demonstration flight was expected after seven years from the final
approval and a crewed mission was to be launched after seven
years of funding.[119] A crewed mission initially was not a priority
and left on the backburner for several years.[120] A space capsule
recovery experiment in 2014[121][122] and a pad abort test in
2018[123] were followed by Prime Minister Narendra Modi's
announcement in his 2018 Independence Day address that India
will send astronauts into space by 2022 on the new Gaganyaan
spacecraft.[124] To date, ISRO has developed most of the
technologies needed, such as the crew module and crew escape
system, space food, and life support systems. The project would
cost less than ₹100 billion (US$1.3 billion) and would include
sending two or three Indians to space, at an altitude of 300–400 km
(190–250 mi), for at least seven days, using a GSLV Mk-III launch
vehicle.[125][126]
LVM3 M4 lifting off from SDSC SLP,
carrying Chandrayaan-3 (2023)
Astronaut training and other facilities

The newly established Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) will

coordinate the IHSF campaign.[127][128] ISRO will set up an
astronaut training centre in Bengaluru to prepare personnel for
flights in the crewed vehicle. It will use simulation facilities to train
the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and
survival in microgravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation
environment of space. ISRO had to build centrifuges to prepare
astronauts for the acceleration phase of the launch. Existing launch
facilities at Satish Dhawan Space Centre will have to be upgraded
for the Indian human spaceflight campaign.[129] Human Space
Flight Centre and Glavcosmos signed an agreement on 1 July 2019
for the selection, support, medical examination and space training of
Indian astronauts.[130] An ISRO Technical Liaison Unit (ITLU)
was to be set up in Moscow to facilitate the development of some
key technologies and establishment of special facilities which are
essential to support life in space.[131] Four Indian Air Force
personnel finished training at Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training
SSLV D1 lifting off from SDSC FLP
Center in March 2021.[132]

Crewed spacecraft

ISRO is working towards an orbital crewed spacecraft that can operate for seven days in low Earth orbit.
The spacecraft, called Gaganyaan, will be the basis of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. The
spacecraft is being developed to carry up to three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped
with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its first crewed mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-tonne
(3.3-short-ton; 3.0-long-ton) spacecraft will orbit the Earth at 400 km (250 mi) altitude for up to seven days
with a two-person crew on board. A source in April 2023 suggested that ISRO was aiming for a 2025
launch.[133]

Space station

India plans to build a space station as a follow-up programme to Gaganyaan. ISRO chairman K. Sivan has
said that India will not join the International Space Station programme and will instead build a 20-tonne
(22-short-ton; 20-long-ton) space station on its own.[134][135] It is expected to be placed in a low Earth
orbit at 400 kilometres (250 mi) altitude and be capable of harbouring three humans for 15–20 days. The
rough time-frame is five to seven years after completion of the Gaganyaan project.[136][137]

Planetary sciences and astronomy

ISRO and Tata Institute of Fundamental Research have operated a balloon launch base at Hyderabad since
1967.[138] Its proximity to the geo-magnetic equator,[139] where both primary and secondary cosmic ray
fluxes are low, makes it an ideal location to study diffuse cosmic X-ray background.[138]

ISRO played a role in the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude
between 20–40 km (12–25 mi). The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found
elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin.[140] They are
considered extremophiles, and named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the
balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient
astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.[141]

Astrosat

Launched in 2015, Astrosat is India's first dedicated multi-

wavelength space observatory. Its observation study includes active
galactic nuclei, hot white dwarfs, pulsations of pulsars, binary star
systems, and supermassive black holes located at the centre of the
galaxy.[142]

Extraterrestrial exploration Astrosat-1 in deployed configuration

Lunar exploration

Chandryaan (lit. 'Mooncraft') are India's series of lunar exploration spacecraft. The initial mission included
an orbiter and controlled impact probe while later missions include landers, rovers and sampling
missions.[109][143]

Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon. The robotic lunar exploration mission included a
lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched it using a modified version of
the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre. It entered lunar orbit on 8 November
2008, carrying high-resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray
frequencies. During its 312-day operational period (two years were planned), it surveyed the lunar surface
to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and three-
dimensional topography. The polar regions were of special interest,
as they had possible ice deposits. Chandrayaan-1 carried 11
instruments: five Indian and six from foreign institutes and space
agencies (including NASA, ESA, the Bulgarian Academy of
Sciences, Brown University and other European and North
American institutions and companies), which were carried for free.
The mission team was awarded the American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009 award,[144] the Rendering of Chandrayaan-1
International Lunar Exploration Working Group's International Co- spacecraft
operation award in 2008,[145] and the National Space Society's
2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering
category.[146][147]

Chandrayaan-2

Chandrayaan-2, the second mission to the Moon, which included

an orbiter, a lander and a rover. It was launched on a
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk III)
on 22 July 2019, consisting of a lunar orbiter, the Vikram lander,
and the Pragyan lunar rover, all developed in India.[148][149] It was
the first mission meant to explore the little-explored lunar south pole
region.[150] The objective of the Chandrayaan-2 mission was to
land a robotic rover to conduct various studies on the lunar
surface.[151]

The Vikram lander, carrying the Pragyan rover, was scheduled to

land on the near side of the Moon, in the south polar region at a
latitude of about 70° S at approximately 1:50 am(IST) on 7
September 2019. However, the lander deviated from its intended
trajectory starting from an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi), and telemetry
was lost seconds before touchdown was expected.[152] A review
board concluded that the crash-landing was caused by a software
glitch.[153] The lunar orbiter was efficiently positioned in an Vikram lander mounted on top of the
optimal lunar orbit, extending its expected service time from one orbiter of Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft
year to seven.[154] There will be another attempt to soft-land on the
Moon in 2023, without an orbiter.[155]

Chandrayaan-3

Chandryaan-3 is India's second attempt to soft-land on the Moon after the partial failure of Chandrayaan-2.
The mission will only include a lander-rover set and will communicate with the orbiter from the previous
mission.

Mars exploration

Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or (Mangalyaan-1)

The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known as Mangalyaan (eng: ''MarsCraft'' ) was launched
into Earth orbit on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and has entered
Mars orbit on 24 September 2014.[156] India thus became the first country to have a space probe enter Mars
orbit on its first attempt. It was completed at a record
low cost of $74 million.[157]

MOM was placed into Mars orbit on 24 September

2014. The spacecraft had a launch mass of 1,337 kg
(2,948 lb), with 15 kg (33 lb) of five scientific
instruments as payload.[158][159]

The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter

Mission team the 2015 Space Pioneer Award in the
science and engineering category.[160][161]
Integrated Module of Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft
Future projects
ISRO is developing and operationalising more powerful and less
pollutive rocket engines so it can eventually develop much heavier
rockets. It also plans to develop electric and nuclear propulsion for
satellites and spacecrafts to reduce their weight and extend their
service lives.[162] Long-term plans may include crewed landings on
Moon and other planets as well.[163]

Artist's rendering of the Mars Orbiter

Engines and launch vehicles Mission spacecraft, with Mars in the
background
Semi-cryogenic engine

SCE-200 is a rocket-grade kerosene (dubbed "ISROsene") and

liquid oxygen (LOX)-based semi-cryogenic rocket engine inspired by RD-120. The engine will be less
polluting and far more powerful. When combined with the LVM3, it will boost its payload capacity; it will
be clustered in future to power India's heavy rockets.[164]

Methalox engine

Reusable methane and LOX-based engines are under development. Methane is less pollutive, leaves no
residue and hence the engine needs very little refurbishment.[164] The LPSC began cold flow tests of
engine prototypes in 2020.[25]

Modular heavy rockets

ISRO is studying heavy (HLV) and super-heavy lift launch vehicles (SHLV). Modular launchers are being
designed, with interchangeable parts, to reduce production time. A 10-tonne (11-short-ton; 9.8-long-ton)
capacity HLV and an SHLV capable of delivering 50–100 tonnes (55–110 short tons; 49–98 long tons)
into orbit have been mentioned in statements and presentations from ISRO officials.[165][166]

The agency intends to develop a launcher in the 2020s which can carry nearly 16 t (18 short tons; 16 long
tons) to geostationary transfer orbit, nearly four times the capacity of the existing LVM3.[164] A rocket
family of five medium to heavy-lift class modular rockets described as "Next Generation Launch Vehicle or
NGLV"[167] (initially planned as Unified Modular Launch Vehicle or Unified Launch Vehicle) are being
planned which will share parts and will replace ISRO's existing PSLV, GSLV and LVM3 rockets
completely. The rocket family will be powered by SCE-200 cryogenic engine and will have a capacity of
lifting from 4.9 t (5.4 short tons; 4.8 long tons) to 16 t (18 short tons; 16 long tons) to geostationary transfer
orbit.[168]
Reusable launch vehicles

There have been two reusable launcher projects ongoing at ISRO.

One is the ADMIRE test vehicle, conceived as a VTVL system and
another is RLV-TD programme, being run to develop a spacecraft
similar to the American Space Shuttle which will be launched
vertically but land like a plane.[169]

To realise a fully re-usable two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) launch

vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been
conceived. For this purpose, the winged Reusable Launch Vehicle
Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The
RLV-TD acts as a flying testbed to evaluate various technologies
such as hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise
flight, and hypersonic flight using air-breathing propulsion. First in
the series of demonstration trials was the Hypersonic Flight
Experiment (HEX). ISRO launched the prototype's test flight,
RLV-TD, from the Sriharikota spaceport in February 2016. It
weighs around 1.5 t (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons) and flew up to a
height of 70 km (43 mi).[170] HEX was completed five months
later. A scaled-up version of it could serve as fly-back booster stage RLV-TD HEX01 from Satish Dhawan
for the winged TSTO concept.[171] HEX will be followed by a Space Centre First Launch Pad
landing experiment (LEX) and return flight experiment (REX).[172] (SDSC SHAR) on 23 May 2016

Spacecraft propulsion and power

Electric thrusters

India has been working on replacing conventional chemical propulsion with Hall-effect and plasma
thrusters which would make spacecraft lighter.[164] GSAT-4 was the first Indian spacecraft to carry electric
thrusters, but it failed to reach orbit.[173] GSAT-9 launched later in 2017, had xenon-based electric
propulsion system for in-orbit functions of the spacecraft. GSAT-20 is expected to be the first fully electric
satellite from India.[174][175]

Alpha source thermoelectric propulsion technology

Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), also called alpha source thermoelectric technology by ISRO,
is a type of atomic battery which uses nuclear decay heat from radioactive material to power the
spacecraft.[176] In January 2021, the U R Rao Satellite Centre issued an Expression of Interest (EoI) for
design and development of a 100-watt RTG. RTGs ensure much longer spacecraft life and have less mass
than solar panels on satellites. Development of RTGs will allow ISRO to undertake long-duration deep
space missions to the outer planets.[177][178]

Extraterrestrial probes

Destination Craft name Launch vehicle Year

Sun Aditya-L1 PSLV-XL 2023

Moon LUPEX H3 2025

Venus Venus Orbiter Mission GSLV 2024

Mars Orbiter Mission 2

Mars LVM3 2024
(Mangalyaan-2)

Lunar exploration

The Lunar Polar Exploration mission (LUPEX) is a planned robotic lunar mission concept by Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) that would send a lunar
rover and lander to explore the south pole region of the Moon no earlier than 2026.JAXA is likely to
provide the under-development H3 launch vehicle and the rover, while ISRO would be responsible for the
lander.[179][180]

Mars exploration

The next Mars mission, Mars Orbiter Mission 2 or Mangalyaan 2, has been proposed for launch in
2024.[181] The newer spacecraft will be significantly heavier and better equipped than its predecessor;[109]
it will only have an orbiter.[182]

Venus exploration

ISRO is considering an orbiter mission to Venus called Venus Orbiter Mission, that could launch as early as
2023 to study the planet's atmosphere.[183] Some funds for preliminary studies were allocated in the 2017–
18 Indian budget under Space Sciences;[184][185][186] solicitations for potential instruments were requested
in 2017[187] and 2018. A mission to Venus is scheduled for 2025 that will include a payload instrument
called Venus Infrared Atmospheric Gases Linker (VIRAL) which has been co-developed with the
Laboratoire atmosphères, milieux, observations spatiales (LATMOS) under French National Centre for
Scientific Research (CNRS) and Roscosmos.[188]

Solar probes

In 2022 ISRO plans to launch the 400 kg (880 lb) Aditya-L1, a mission to study the Solar
corona.[189][190][191] It is the first Indian space-based solar coronagraph to study the corona in visible and
near-infrared bands. Originally planned during the heightened solar activity period in 2012, Aditya-L1 was
postponed to 2021 due to the extensive work involved in its manufacture, and other technical aspects. The
main objective of the mission is to study coronal mass ejections (CMEs), their properties (the structure and
evolution of their magnetic fields for example), and consequently constrain parameters that affect space
weather.[192]

Asteroids and outer solar system

Conceptual studies are underway for spacecraft destined for the asteroids and Jupiter, as well, in the long
term. The ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every 33 months. If the mission to
Jupiter is launched, a flyby of Venus would be required.[193] Development of RTEG power might allow
the agency to further undertake deeper space missions to the other outer planets.[177]

Space telescopes and observatories

AstroSat-2

AstroSat-2 is the successor to the Astrosat mission.[194]

XPoSat

The X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is a planned mission to study polarisation. It is planned to have a
mission life of five years and is planned to be launched in 2022.[195][196] The spacecraft is planned to carry
the Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays (POLIX) payload which will study the degree and angle of
polarisation of bright astronomical X-ray sources in the energy range 5–30 keV.[197]

Exoworlds

Exoworlds is a joint proposal by ISRO, IIST and the University of Cambridge for a space telescope
dedicated for atmospheric studies of exoplanets, planned for 2025.[198][199]

Forthcoming satellites

Satellite Launch
Year Purpose Notes
name vehicle

GSLV –
NVS-01 2023 Navigation
F14
GSAT-20 LVM3 2024 Communications

Geospatial imagery to facilitate continuous

GISAT 2 GSLV 2024 Earth observation observation of Indian sub-continent, quick monitoring
of natural hazards and disaster.[200]
Facilitates continuous real-time communication
between Low Earth orbit bound spacecraft to the
Data relay and ground station as well as inter-satellite
IDRSS GSLV 2023 satellite tracking communication. Such a satellite in geostationary
constellation orbit can track a low altitude spacecraft up to almost
half of its orbit.[201]
NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a
joint project between NASA and ISRO to co-develop
January and launch a dual frequency synthetic aperture radar
NISAR GSLV Earth observation satellite to be used for remote sensing. It is notable
2024
for being the first dual band radar imaging
satellite.[202]
Disturbed and quite-type Ionosphere System at High
2024–
DISHA PSLV Aeronomy Altitude (DISHA) satellite constellation with two
25[203]
satellites in 450 km (280 mi) LEO.[181]

AHySIS- Follow-up to HySIS hyperspectral Earth imaging

PSLV 2024 Earth observation
2 satellite.[204]
Upcoming launch facilities

Kulasekharapatnam Spaceport

Kulasekharapatnam Spaceport is an under-development spaceport in Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu.

After completion, it would serve as the second launch facility of ISRO. This spaceport will mainly be used
by ISRO for launching small payloads.

Applications

Telecommunication

India uses its satellite communication network – one of the largest in the world – for applications such as
land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather
forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication.[205] Business, administrative services,
and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NIC) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite
technology.[206]

Military

The Integrated Space Cell, under the Integrated Defence Staff headquarters of the Ministry of Defence,[207]
has been set up to utilise more effectively the country's space-based assets for military purposes and to look
into threats to these assets.[208][209] This command will leverage space technology including satellites.
Unlike an aerospace command, where the Air Force controls most of its activities, the Integrated Space Cell
envisages cooperation and coordination between the three services as well as civilian agencies dealing with
space.[207]

With 14 satellites, including GSAT-7A for exclusive military use and the rest as dual-use satellites, India has
the fourth largest number of satellites active in the sky which includes satellites for the exclusive use of its
air force (IAF) and navy.[210] GSAT-7A, an advanced military communications satellite built exclusively
for the Air Force,[179] is similar to the Navy's GSAT-7, and GSAT-7A will enhance the IAF's network-
centric warfare capabilities by interlinking different ground radar stations, ground airbases and airborne
early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft such as the Beriev A-50 Phalcon and DRDO
AEW&CS.[179][211]

GSAT-7A will also be used by the Army's Aviation Corps for its helicopters and unmanned aerial vehicle
(UAV) operations.[179][211] In 2013, ISRO launched GSAT-7 for the exclusive use of the Navy to monitor
the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) with the satellite's 2,000-nautical-mile (3,700 km; 2,300 mi) 'footprint' and
real-time input capabilities to Indian warships, submarines and maritime aircraft.[210] To boost the network-
centric operations of the IAF, ISRO launched GSAT-7A in December 2018.[212][210] The RISAT series of
radar-imaging earth observation satellites is also meant for Military use.[213] ISRO launched EMISAT on 1
April 2019. EMISAT is a 436-kilogram (961 lb) electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite. It will improve
the situational awareness of the Indian Armed Forces by providing information and the location of hostile
radars.[214]

India's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India's 150–200-kilometre
(93–124 mi) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space programme, the intermediate range
Agni missile is derived from the Indian space programme's SLV-3. In its early years, under Sarabhai and
Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects such as the SLV-3. Eventually, the
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)-based missile programme borrowed staff and
technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (later elected president), who had headed the
SLV-3 project at ISRO, took over as missile programme at DRDO. About a dozen scientists accompanied
him, helping to design the Agni missile using the SLV-3's solid fuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-
missile-derived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended, and used, for
civilian-economic applications, but they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 the Ministry of Defence
temporarily blocked the use of IRS-1C by India's environmental and agricultural ministries in order to
monitor ballistic missiles near India's borders. In 1997, the Air Force's "Airpower Doctrine" aspired to use
space assets for surveillance and battle management.[215]

Academic

Institutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University and the Indian Institutes of Technology use
satellites for educational applications.[216] Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological
programme using space technology, reaching 2,400 villages through video programming in local languages
aimed at educational development via ATS-6 technology developed by NASA.[217] This experiment—
named Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—conducted large-scale video broadcasts
resulting in significant improvement in rural education.[217]

Telemedicine

ISRO has applied its technology for telemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical
professionals in urban locations via satellite.[216] Since high-quality healthcare is not universally available
in some of the remote areas of India, patients in those areas are diagnosed and analysed by doctors in urban
centers in real time via video conferencing.[216] The patient is then advised on medicine and treatment,[216]
and treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty hospitals' per instructions from those doctors.[216]
Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and
support to patients.[216]

Biodiversity Information System

ISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002.[218]
Nirupa Sen details the programme: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote
sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1: 250,000 scale.
This has been put together in a web-enabled database that links gene-level information of plant species with
spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India,
Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with
collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO."[218]

Cartography
The Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to enable
it for cartographic purposes.[46] IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named
IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.[46] The CARTOSAT-2 project, equipped with single
panchromatic camera that supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeeded the CARTOSAT-1
project.[219]

Spin-offs

ISRO's research has been diverted into spin-offs to develop various technologies for other sectors.
Examples include bionic limbs for people without limbs, silica aerogel to keep Indian soldiers serving in
extremely cold areas warm, distress alert transmitters for accidents, Doppler weather radar and various
sensors and machines for inspection work in engineering industries.[220][221]

International cooperations
ISRO has signed various formal cooperative arrangements in the form of either Agreements or Memoranda
of Understanding (MoU) or Framework Agreements with Afghanistan, Algeria, Argentina, Armenia,
Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, Finland,
France, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Maldives, Mauritius,
Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar, Norway, Peru, Portugal, South Korea, Russia, São Tomé and
Príncipe, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Oman, Sweden, Syria, Tajikistan, Thailand,
Netherlands, Tunisia, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Uzbekistan,
Venezuela and Vietnam. Formal cooperative instruments have been signed with international multilateral
bodies including European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), European
Commission, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT),
European Space Agency (ESA) and South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).[222]

Notable collaborative projects

Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-1 also carried scientific payloads to the Moon from NASA, ESA, Bulgarian
Space Agency, and other institutions/companies in North America and Europe.[223]

Indo-French satellite missions

ISRO has two collaborative satellite missions with France's CNES, namely Megha-Tropiques to study
water cycle in the tropical atmosphere[224] and SARAL for altimetry.[225] A third mission consisting of an
Earth observation satellite with a thermal infrared imager, TRISHNA (Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite
for High resolution Natural resource Assessment) is being planned by the two countries.[226]

LUPEX

Lunar Polar Exploration Mission is a joint Indo-Japanese mission to study the polar surface of the Moon
where India is tasked with providing soft landing technologies.[227]

NISAR

NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint Indo-US radar project carrying an L Band and
an S Band radar. It will be world's first radar imaging satellite to use dual frequencies.[228]
Some other notable collaborations include:

ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search
and Rescue.[229]
India has established a Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and
the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations.[230]
India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,
Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research
(COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International
Space University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS).[224]
Contributing to planned BRICS virtual constellation for remote sensing.[231][232]

Statistics
Last updated: 26 March 2023

Total number of foreign satellites launched by ISRO: 417 (34 countries)[233]

Spacecraft missions: 116[234]
Launch missions: 86
Student satellites: 13 [235]
Re-entry missions: 2

Budget for the Department of Space

Annual
Budget of
Department
of Space
over the
years
Budget of
Department
of Space as
percentage
of Indian
GDP
Department
of Space
budget as
percentage
of Total
Expenditure
 Budget of Department of Space[237]
GDP (2011-12 Total
Calendar 2020 Notes and
base year) in Expenditure
Year Nominal % of % of Total Constant references
crores(₹)[236] in crores (₹)
INR (crore) GDP Expenditure INR
(crore)

Revised
Estimate as
1972–73 55245 18.2325000 0.03% 696.489 Actuals are
not available
[238][239]

Revised
Estimate as
1973–74 67241 19.0922000 0.03% 624.381 Actuals are
not available
[240][241]

1974–75 79378 30.7287000 0.04% 781.901 [242]

1975–76 85212 36.8379000 0.04% 879.281 [243]

Revised
Estimate as
1976–77 91812 41.1400000 0.04% 1,062.174 Actuals are
not available
[243]

1977–78 104024 37.3670000 0.04% 890.726 [244]

1978–79 112671 51.4518000 0.05% 1,196.291 [245]

1979–80 123562 57.0062000 0.05% 1,247.563 [246]

1980–81 147063 82.1087000 0.06% 1,613.259 [247]

Revised
Estimate as
1981–82 172776 109.132100 0.06% 1,896.051 Actuals are
not available
[248][249]

1982–83 193255 94.8898000 0.05% 1,527.408 [250]

1983–84 225074 163.365600 0.07% 2,351.37 [251]

1984–85 252188 181.601000 0.07% 2,410.543 [252]

1985–86 284534 229.102300 0.08% 2,881.303 [253]

1986–87 318366 309.990900 0.1% 3,585.645 [254]

1987–88 361865 347.084600 0.1% 3,690.41 [255]

1988–89 429363 422.367000 0.1% 4,105.274 [256]

1989–90 493278 398.559500 0.08% 3,616.972 [257]

1990–91 576109 105298 386.221800 0.07% 0.37% 3,217.774 [258][259]

1991–92 662260 111414 460.101000 0.07% 0.41% 3,366.237 [260][259]

1992–93 761196 122618 490.920400 0.06% 0.4% 3,210.258 [261][259]

1993–94 875992 141853 695.335000 0.08% 0.49% 4,277.163 [262][259]

 1994–95 1027570 160739 759.079300 0.07% 0.47% 4,237.768 [263][259][264]

1995–96 1205583 178275 755.778596 0.06% 0.42% 3,826.031 [265][259][264]

1996–97 1394816 201007 1062.44660 0.08% 0.53% 4,935.415 [266][259][264]

1997–98 1545294 232053 1050.50250 0.07% 0.45% 4,550.066 [267][264]

1998–99 1772297 279340 1401.70260 0.08% 0.5% 5,364.608 [268][264][269]

1999-00 1988262 298053 1677.38580 0.08% 0.56% 6,123.403 [270][264][269]

2000-01 2139886 325592 1905.39970 0.09% 0.59% 6,686.851 [271][264][269]

2001-02 2315243 362310 1900.97370 0.08% 0.52% 6,429.035 [272][269][273]

2002-03 2492614 413248 2162.22480 0.09% 0.52% 7,010.441 [274][269][273]

2003-04 2792530 471203 2268.80470 0.08% 0.48% 7,085.999 [275][269][273]

2004-05 3186332 498252 2534.34860 0.08% 0.51% 7,627.942 [276][269][273]

2005-06 3632125 505738 2667.60440 0.07% 0.53% 7,701.599 [277][269][273]

2006-07 4254629 583387 2988.66550 0.07% 0.51% 8,156.366 [278][273][279]

2007-08 4898662 712671 3278.00440 0.07% 0.46% 8,408.668 [280][273][279]

2008-09 5514152 883956 3493.57150 0.06% 0.4% 8,273.225 [281][273][279]

2009-10 6366407 1024487 4162.95990 0.07% 0.41% 8,894.965 [282][279]

2010-11 7634472 1197328 4482.23150 0.06% 0.37% 8,542.8 [283][279]

2011-12 8736329 1304365 3790.78880 0.04% 0.29% 6,636.301 [284][279]

2012–13 9944013 1410372 4856.28390 0.05% 0.34% 7,778.216 [285][279]

2013–14 11233522 1559447 5168.95140 0.05% 0.33% 7,464 [286][279]

2014–15 12467960 1663673 5821.36630 0.05% 0.35% 7,902.702 [287][288]

2015–16 13771874 1790783 6920.00520 0.05% 0.39% 8,872.483 [289][290]

2016–17 15391669 1975194 8039.99680 0.05% 0.41% 9,820.512 [291][292]

2017–18 17090042 2141975 9130.56640 0.05% 0.43% 10,881.647 [293][294]

2018–19 18899668 2315113 11192.6566 0.06% 0.48% 12,722.226 [295][296]

2019–20 20074856 2686330 13033.2917 0.06% 0.49% 13,760.472 [297][298]

2020–21 19800914 3509836 9490.05390 0.05% 0.27% 9,490.054 [299][300]

2021–22 23664637 3793801 12473.84 0.05% 0.33% 12,473.84 [301][302][303]

Corporate affairs

S-band spectrum scam

In India, electromagnetic spectrum, a scarce resource for wireless communication, is auctioned by the
Government of India to telecom companies for use. As an example of its value, in 2010, 20 MHz of 3G
spectrum was auctioned for ₹677 billion (US$8.5 billion). This part of the spectrum is allocated for
terrestrial communication (cell phones). However, in January 2005, Antrix Corporation (commercial arm of
ISRO) signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia (a private company formed by former ISRO
employees and venture capitalists from the US) for lease of S band transponders (amounting to 70 MHz of
spectrum) on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of ₹14 billion (US$180 million), to
be paid over a period of 12 years. The spectrum used in these satellites (2500 MHz and above) is allocated
by the International Telecommunication Union specifically for satellite-based communication in India.
Hypothetically, if the spectrum allocation is changed for utilisation for terrestrial transmission and if this
70 MHz of spectrum were sold at the 2010 auction price of the 3G spectrum, its value would have been
over ₹2,000 billion (US$25 billion). This was a hypothetical situation. However, the Comptroller and
Auditor-General considered this hypothetical situation and estimated the difference between the prices as a
loss to the Indian Government.[304][305]

There were lapses on implementing official procedures. Antrix/ISRO had allocated the capacity of the
above two satellites exclusively to Devas Multimedia, while the rules said it should always be non-
exclusive. The Cabinet was misinformed in November 2005 that several service providers were interested
in using satellite capacity, while the Devas deal was already signed. Also, the Space Commission was not
informed when approving the second satellite (its cost was diluted so that Cabinet approval was not
needed). ISRO committed to spending ₹7.66 billion (US$96 million) of public money on building,
launching, and operating two satellites that were leased out for Devas.[306] In late 2009, some ISRO
insiders exposed information about the Devas-Antrix deal,[305][307] and the ensuing investigations led to
the deal's annulment. G. Madhavan Nair (ISRO Chairperson when the agreement was signed) was barred
from holding any post under the Department of Space. Some former scientists were found guilty of "acts of
commission" or "acts of omission". Devas and Deutsche Telekom demanded US$2 billion and
US$1 billion, respectively, in damages.[308] The Department of Revenue and Ministry of Corporate Affairs
began an inquiry into Devas shareholding.[306]

The Central Bureau of Investigation registered a case against the accused in the Antrix-Devas deal under
Section 120-B, besides Section 420 of IPC and Section 13(2) read with 13(1)(d) of PC Act, 1988 in March
2015 against the then executive director of Antrix Corporation, two officials of a USA-based company, a
Bengaluru-based private multimedia company, and other unknown officials of the Antrix Corporation or
the Department of Space.[309][310]

Devas Multimedia started arbitration proceedings against Antrix in June 2011. In September 2015, the
International Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce ruled in favour of Devas, and
directed Antrix to pay US$672 million (Rs 44.35 billion) in damages to Devas.[311] Antrix opposed the
Devas plea for tribunal award in the Delhi High Court.[312]

See also
India portal

Rocketry portal

Spaceflight portal

Deep Ocean mission

Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
List of government space agencies
List of ISRO missions
New Space India Limited
Science and technology in India
 Space industry of India
Swami Vivekananda Planetarium
Telecommunications in India
Timeline of Solar System exploration

Notes
a. ISO 15919: Bhāratīya Antarikṣ Anusandhān Saṅgaṭhan
b. CNSA (China), ESA (most of Europe), ISRO, (India), JAXA (Japan), NASA (United States)
and Roscosmos (Russia) are space agencies with full launch capabilities.

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Further reading
The Economics of India's Space Programme, by U. Sankar, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-568345-5
The Indian Space Programme, by Gurbir Singh, Astrotalkuk Publications, ISBN 978-
0956933737
Reach For the Stars: The Evolution of India's Rocket Programme, by Gopal Raj, ISBN 978-
0670899500
From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India's Space Journey, by ISRO, ISBN 978-
9351776895
Brief History of Rocketry in ISRO, by P V Manoranjan Rao and P Radhakrishnan, ISBN 978-
8173717642
India's Rise as a Space Power, by U R Rao, ISBN 978-9382993483

External links
Media related to Indian Space Research Organisation at Wikimedia Commons
Official website (http://www.isro.gov.in)
"Official website of the Department of Space of the Government of India" (http://www.dos.go
v.in). dos.gov.in.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ISRO&oldid=1171605288"