UPSC Civil Services Main 1979 - Mathematics

Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 16, 2010

Question 1(a) If f (x) ∈ C n+1 for |x − a| ≤ h, then show that

n Z x (n+1)
X f (k) (a) k f (t)(x − t)n
f (x) = (x − a) + dt
k=0
k! a n!

Further show that the remainder after n + 1 terms can be expressed as

f (n+1) (X)(x − X)n
(x − a)
n!
where a < X < x.
Solution. Carrying out integration by parts on the given integral repeatedly, we get
Z x (n+1) x Z x (n)
f (t)(x − t)n f (n) (t)(x − t)n f (t)(x − t)n−1
dt = + dt
a n! n! a a (n − 1)!
Z x (n)
f (n) (a)(x − a)n f (t)(x − t)n−1
= − + dt
n! a (n − 1)!
Z x (n−1)
f (n) (a)(x − a)n f (n−1) (a)(x − a)n−1 f (t)(x − t)n−2
= − − + dt
n! (n − 1)! a (n − 2)!
= ...
n Z x
X f (r) (a)(x − a)r
= − + f 0 (t) dt
r=1
r! a
n
X f (r) (a)(x − a)r
= − + f (x) − f (a)
r=1
r!
n
X f (r) (a)(x − a)r
= − + f (x)
r=0
r!

1
Thus n x
f (r) (a)(x − a)r f (n+1) (t)(x − t)n
X Z
f (x) = + dt
r=0
r! a n!
as required. Now we use the result — if f (x) is continuous in [a, b], then
Z b
f (x) dx = f (µ)(b − a) for some µ ∈ (a, b)
a
Rb
This is obvious as m(b − a) ≤ a f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a), where m, M are respectively the
min and max of f (x) over [a, b]. and every value between m and M is attained (by the
intermediate value theorem).
Since f ∈ C n+1 , f (n+1) is continuous and we can use the above result. Therefore
Z x (n+1)
f (t)(x − t)n f (n+1) (X)(x − X)n
dt = (x − a)
a n! n!
where a < X < x.

Question 1(b) If  2 2

2xy x − y , (x, y) 6= (0, 0)


f (x, y) = x2 + y 2
0, (x, y) = (0, 0)


∂ 2f ∂ 2f
show that 6= . Explain this result.
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Solution.
f (0, k) − f (0, 0) 0
fy (0, 0) = lim = lim = 0
k→0 k k→0 k
2 −k 2
f (h, k) − f (h, 0) 2hk hh2 +k 2
fy (h, 0) = lim = lim = 2h
k→0 k k→0 k
∂ 2f fy (h, 0) − fy (0, 0) 2h
(0, 0) = lim = lim =2
∂x ∂y h→0 h h→0 h

f (h, 0) − f (0, 0) 0
fx (0, 0) = lim = lim = 0
h→0 h h→0 h
2 2
f (h, k) − f (0, k) 2hk hh2 −k
+k2
fx (0, k) = lim = lim = −2k
h→0 h h→0 h
∂ 2f fx (0, k) − fx (0, 0) −2k
(0, 0) = lim = lim = −2
∂y ∂x k→0 k k→0 k

∂ 2f ∂ 2f
Thus 6= at (0, 0). The reason for this is that neither fxy nor fyx is continuous
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
at (0, 0). This implies that neither fx (x, y) nor fy (x, y) is differentiable at (0, 0). Thus the
criteria of Young’s or Schwartz theorem are not satisfied.

2
 R1
Question 2(a) If B(x, y) = 0
tx−1 (1 − t)y−1 dt, x > 0, y > 0, then show that B(x, x) =
21−2x B(x, 21 ).

Solution. See 1982, question 2(b), where we proved

Γ( 12 )Γ(x) 22x−1 [Γ(x)]2

=
Γ(x + 12 ) Γ(2x)

Γ( 21 )Γ(x) 1 [Γ(x)]2
Since = B(x, ) and = B(x, x), we get B(x, x) = 21−2x B(x, 12 ) as required.
Γ(x + 12 ) 2
Γ(2x)

Paper II

Question 3(a) Find the maximum of x21 x22 . . . x2n under the restriction x21 +x22 +. . .+x2n = 1.
Using the result derive the inequality
1 a1 + . . . + an
(a1 a2 . . . an ) n ≤
n
for positive real numbers a1 , . . . , an .

Solution. Let F (x1 , . . . , xn ) = x21 x22 . . . x2n + λ( ni=1 x2i − 1), where λ is Lagrange’s unde-
P
termined multiplier. For extreme values,
∂F
= 2x21 x22 . . . x2i−1 xi x2i+1 . . . x2n + 2λxi = 0, 1 ≤ i ≤ n
∂xi
Since x21 +x22 +. . .+x2n = 1, (x1 , . . . , xn ) 6= (0, . . . , 0), it follows that λ = −x21 x22 . . . x2i−1 x2i+1 . . . x2n
for 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Thus x21 = x22 = . . . = x2n = n1 , and λ = − nn−1 1
.

∂ 2F
= 2x21 x22 . . . x2i−1 x2i+1 . . . x2n + 2λ = 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
∂x2i
n
∂ 2F Y 4 1
= 4xi xj x2r = at x21 = x22 = . . . = x2n =
∂xi ∂xj r=1,r6=i,j
nn−1 n
8 X
⇒ d2 F = dxi dxj (only the cross terms appear)
nn−1 1≤i<j≤n

Now x21 + x22 + . . . + x2n = 1, so 2 ni=1 xi dxi = 0 ⇒ ni=1 dxi = 0 ⇒ dxn = −(dx1 + . . . +
P P
dxn−1 ).
n−1
2 8 h X X 2 i
Thus d F = n−1 dxi dxj − dxi . Clearly d2 F < 0, so we have a
n 1≤i<j≤n−1 i=1
maximum when x21 = x22 = . . . = x2n = n1 .

3
 Derivation of inequality:
 1 n  x2 + x2 + . . . + x2  n
1 2 n
x21 x22 . . . x2n ≤ = as x21 + x22 + . . . + x2n = 1
n n
2 2 2
1 x + x2 + . . . + xn
⇒ (x21 x22 . . . x2n ) n ≤ 1
n
Let x2i = ai , 1 ≤ i ≤ n, to get
1 a1 + . . . + an
(a1 a2 . . . an ) n ≤
n
as required.
x 2 1 2 2
e−x (t +1)
Z Z
−t2
Question 4(a) Define f (x) = e dt , g(x) = 2
dt. Show that g 0 (x) +
0 0 tZ + 1 √
x
−t2 π
f 0 (x) = 0 for all x. Deduce that (i) g(x) + f (x) = π
4
(ii) lim e dt = .
x→∞ 0 2
Solution.
Z x 
0 −t2
2
f (x) = 2 e dt e−x
0
1 2 2
∂ e−x (t +1)
Z  
0
g (x) = dt
0 ∂x t2 + 1
1 2 (t2 +1)
e−x (−2x(t2 + 1))
Z
= dt
0 t2 + 1
2 Rx 2
Let xt = y in the second equation, then dy = x dt, g 0 (x) = −2e−x 0
e−y dy = −f 0 (x),
showing that f 0 (x) + g 0 (x) = 0 for all x.
R1
1. f 0 (x) + g 0 (x) = 0 ⇒ f (x) + g(x) = C, a constant. Clearly f (0) = 0, g(0) = dt
0 t2 +1
=
i1
tan−1 t = π4 . So C = f (0) + g(0) = π4 , thus g(x) + f (x) = π4 .
0
2 2
1
e−x t
Z 
2
2. lim g(x) = lim 2
dt e−x .
x→∞ x→∞ 0 t +1
Z 1 −x2 t2 Z 1
e dt π 2 2 2
But 2
dt ≤ 2
= , ∵ e−x t ≤ 1. Thus 0 ≤ g(x) ≤ π4 e−x ⇒
0 t +1 0 1+t 4
limx→∞ g(x) = 0.
Z x 2 Z x √
−t2 π −t2 π
Thus lim f (x) = lim e dt = =⇒ lim e dt = , as both sides are
x→∞ x→∞ 0 4 x→∞ 0 2
positive.

4
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1980 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 16, 2010

Question 1(a) Let f be a real continuous function on the interval [a, b] which is differen-
tiable in the open interval (a, b). Prove that there exists at least one point x ∈ (a, b) at which
f (b) − f (a) = (b − a)f 0 (x).
Solution. (This is the mean value theorem of calculus.)
Consider the function φ(x) = f (x)−f (a)−(x−a)A, where A is a constant so determined
f (b) − f (a)
that φ(b) = 0 ⇒ A = . Thus φ(b) = φ(a) = 0, φ(x) is continuous in [a, b] as
b−a
it is the sum of functions continuous over [a, b], and φ(x) is differentiable over (a, b) as
f (x), f (a), (x − a)A are all differentiable over (a, b). Thus φ(x) satisfies the conditions of
Rolle’s theorem, so there is at least one point c ∈ (a, b) such that φ0 (c) = 0 i.e. f 0 (c) − A =
f (b) − f (a)
0 ⇒ f 0 (c) = , thus f (b) − f (a) = (b − a)f 0 (c).
b−a
Question 1(b) Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the area cut
off from y 2 = 4ax by the line y = x through 2π radians about the x-axis.
Solution. The curve y 2 = 4ax intersects y = x at (0, 0) and (4a, 4a). The required volume
V = Volume of rotating y 2 = 4ax about the x-axis - Volume of rotating y = x about the
x-axis. Thus
Z 4a Z 4a
2
V = πy1 dx − πy22 dx
Z0 4a 0
Z 4a
= π4ax dx − πx2 dx
0 0
2 4a 3 4a
 
x x
= 4aπ −π
2 0 3 0
2
16a 64a3 32πa3
= 4aπ −π =
2 3 3

1
Question 2(a) A rectangular box open at the top is to have a capacity of 4m3 . Find the
dimensions of the box requiring least material for its construction.

Solution. Let x be the length, y be the breadth, and z the height of the box. Then the
capacity of the box is xyz = 4. The surface area of the box is S = 2xz + 2yz + xy =
4
xy + 2(x + y) xy = xy + x8 + y8 . For extreme values

∂S 8 ∂S 8
= y − 2 = 0, =x− 2 =0
∂x x ∂y y
x4
Thus y = x82 , substituting in the second equation we get x = 8
⇒ x = 0, 2. Since x = 0 is
inadmissible, x = 2 ⇒ y = 2, z = 1.

∂ 2S 16 ∂ 2 S 16 ∂ 2 S
= , = , =1
∂x2 x3 ∂y 2 y 3 ∂x ∂y
 2 2
∂ 2S ∂ 2S ∂ S ∂ 2S ∂ 2S
Thus − = 4 − 1 > 0 when x = 2, y = 2, and = 2 > 0, = 2 > 0.
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
So x = 2, y = 2 is a minimum for S.
Thus the dimensions of the required box are 2 meters × 2 meters × 1 meter.

2
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1981 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 16, 2010

|x|
Question 1(a) Let f (x) = . Discuss the value of limx→0 f (x) and f (0). Justify your
x
answer. Discuss the differentiability of f and f 2 at x = 0.

Solution. Clearly (
1, x>0
f (x) =
−1, x < 0
Thus limx→0+ f (x) = 1, limx→0− f (x) = −1, showing that limx→0 f (x) does not exist. Thus
no matter what value is given to f (x) at 0, f (x) cannot be continuous at x = 0.
Since f (x) is not continuous at x = 0, the question of its differentiability does not arise., as
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
differentiability implies continuity — note that f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) = h, so if
h
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f (x) is differentiable at x0 , then limh→0 f (x0 +h)−f (x0 ) = limh→0 limh→0 h =
0
h
f (x0 ) · 0 = 0, so limh→0 f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ).
Clearly f 2 (x) = 1 for every x 6= 0, therefore f 2 would become differentiable at x = 0 if
we define f (x) = 1 or −1, making f 2 (x) = 1 for all x. In any other case f 2 (x) would not be
differentiable at x = 0, as it would not be continuous at x = 0.

x
Question 2(a) Suppose a manufacturer can sell x items at a price P = 200 − paisa
100
per item, and it costs y = 50x + 20000 paise to produce the x items. What is the production
level for maximum profits, and the selling price per item?
 x 
Solution. Selling price of x items = 200 − x
100
Cost price of x items = 50x + 20000.

1
  x 
Profict P on the sale of x items = 200 − x − (50x + 20000).
100
For extreme values,
dP x x x
= 200 − − − 50 = 150 − = 0 =⇒ x = 7500
dx 100 100 50
d2 P 1
2
=− <0
dx 50
showing that the profit is maximum when 7500 items are sold at 125 paisa per item.
Z ∞Z ∞
2 2
Question 2(b) Evaluate the double integral e−(x +y ) dx dy.
0 0

Solution. See 2002 question 1(b).

1
Question 2(c) State the mean value theorem. If f 0 (x) = for all x, and f (0) = 0,
1 + x2
show that 0.4 < f (2) < 2.0.
Solution. If f (x) is a real valued function defined on the closed interval [a, b], such that (i)
f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], (ii) f (x) is differentiable on the open interval
(a, b), then there exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that f (b) − f (a) = (b − a)f 0 (c).
We apply the mean value theorem to f (x) on [0, 2] and get f (2) = f (2) − f (0) =
(2 − 0)f 0 (c) = 1+c
2
2 for some c ∈ (0, 2).
2 2 2
Now 0 < c < 2 so < 2
< , thus 0.4 < f (2) < 2.
1+4 1+c 1+0
√
Question 3(a) The region bounded by the curves y = x3 and y = x is revolved about the
x-axis. Find the volume generated.
Solution. The curves intersect each other at (0, 0 and (1, 1). The required volume V =
Volume obtained by rotating the arc from (0, 0) to (1, 1) of y 2 = x about the x-axis - Volume
obtained by rotating the arc from (0, 0) to (1, 1) of y = x3 about the x-axis. Thus
Z 1 Z 1
2
V = πy1 dx − πy22 dx
0 0
Z 1 Z 1
= π x dx − π x6 dx
0 0
π π 5π
= − =
2 7 14

Γ(p)Γ(q)
Question 3(b) Show that B(p, q) = .
Γ(p + q)
Solution. See 1991 question 2(c).

2
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1982 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 16, 2010

Question 1(a) A function f (x) is defined for x > 0 as follows:

(
0, x irrational
f (x) = 2
q2
, x rational, x = pq in lowest terms

Show that f (x) has a removable discontinuity at every rational point, but is continuous for
irrational values.

Solution.

1. f (x) is continuous at x = c, c irrational — Let  > 0 be given. Since the number

of positive integers q for which q 2 ≤ 2 is finite, we can find a positive number δ > 0
such that (c − δ, c + δ) does not contain any rational number pq for which q 2 ≤ 2 , i.e.
x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ), x = pq , (p, q) = 1 ⇒ q 2 > 2 ⇒ q22 < . Thus for x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ),

• If x is irrational, |f (x) − f (c)| = 0 < 

• If x is rational, x = pq , (p, q) = 1, then |f (x) − f (c)| = | q22 − 0| < .

Thus f is continuous at all irrational points.

2. f (x) is discontinuous at x = c = pq , where (p, q) = 1. Let  > 0,  < q22 , then

whatever δ > 0 we take, we can find an irrational number x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ), and
|f (x) − f (c)| = |0 − q22 | > . Thus f (x) is not continuous at any rational point.

3. To show that the discontinuity is removable at x = c, c ∈ Q, we need to show that

limx→c f (x) exists, because if limx→c f (x) = l, we can define f (c) = l, and make f
continuous at c.

1
 
Let  > 0, and let δ > 0 be chosen so that 0 < δ < . Let x ∈ R, 0 < |x − pq | < δ.
2q
Then
|f (x) − 0| = |0 − 0| <  if x 6∈ Q
m p
If x ∈ Q, let x = , x 6= , then
n q
p m p qm − pn  qm − pn 
x− = − = < ⇒ <
q n q qn 2q n 2
2 qm − pn  m p
Now |f (x) − 0| = | n22 − 0| ≤ < because |qm − pn| ≥ 1 as 6= .
n n n n q

Hence we have shown that 0 < |x − pq | < δ with δ < ⇒ |f (x) − 0| < , i.e.
2q
limx→ pq f (x) = 0, showing that f (x) has a removable discontinuity at all rational
points.

Question 1(b) If f (x) is differentiable three times in (a − h, a + h), prove that there is a
point c in the interval such that

f (a + h) + f (a − h) h2
− f 0 (a) = f 000 (c)
2h 6
Solution. In order to prove this we prove the following particular case.
If f (x) is thrice differentiable and f (a) = 0, f (a − h) = 0, f (a + h) = 0, f 0 (a) = 0 then
there exists a point c ∈ (a − h, a + h) such that f 000 (c) = 0.

1. f (a − h) = f (a) = 0 and f 0 (x) exists, therefore Rolle’s theorem tells us that there
exists ξ1 ∈ (a − h, a) such that f 0 (ξ1 ) = 0.

2. f (a + h) = f (a) = 0 and f 0 (x) exists, therefore Rolle’s theorem tells us that there
exists ξ2 ∈ (a, a + h) such that f 0 (ξ2 ) = 0.

3. f 0 (ξ1 ) = f 0 (a) = 0 and f 00 (x) exists in [ξ1 , a], Rolle’s theorem gives a point η1 ∈ (ξ1 , a)
such that f 00 (η1 ) = 0.

4. f 0 (a) = f 0 (ξ2 ) = 0 and f 00 (x) exists in [a, ξ2 ], Rolle’s theorem gives a point η2 ∈ (a, ξ2 )
such that f 00 (η2 ) = 0.

5. Finally f 00 (η1 ) = f 00 (η2 ) = 0 and f 000 (x) exists in [η1 , η2 ], then Rolle’s theorem gives a
point c ∈ (η1 , η2 ) such that f 000 (c) = 0. Clearly, c ∈ (η1 , η2 ) ⊆ (a − h, a + h).

2
Now to prove the main result, let
Q(x) = f (a) + (x − a)f 0 (a) + B(x − a)2 + A(x − a)3
where A, B are so determined that Q(a + h) = f (a + h), Q(a − h) = f (a − h). Thus
f (a + h) − Q(a + h) = 0 ⇒ f (a + h) − f (a) − hf 0 (a) − h2 B − h3 A = 0 (1)
f (a − h) − Q(a − h) = 0 ⇒ f (a − h) − f (a) + hf 0 (a) − h2 B + h3 A = 0 (2)
Subtracting (2) from (1) we get
f (a + h) − f (a − h) − 2hf 0 (a) − 2h3 A = 0 (3)
We now take φ(x) = f (x) − Q(x), then φ(a) = 0, φ0 (a) = 0, φ(a − h) = 0, φ(a + h) = 0,
so by the result proved above, we get a point c ∈ (a − h, a + h) such that φ000 (c) = 0. But
000
φ000 (c) = f 000 (c) − Q000 (c) = f 000 (c) − 6A ⇒ A = f 6(c) . Substituting in (3) we have
h3 000
f (a + h) − f (a − h) − 2hf 0 (a) = f (c)
3
or
f (a + h) + f (a − h) h2
− f 0 (a) = f 000 (c)
2h 6
as required.
Note: In such questions the general tendency is to take φ(t) = f (a + th) − f (a − th), 0 ≤
t ≤ 1 and apply Taylor’s theorem to φ(t) in [0, 1]. We get
1 00
φ(1) = φ(0) + φ0 (0) + φ (θ), 0 < θ < 1
2!
φ(1) = f (a + h) − f (a − h)
φ(0) = 0
φ0 (0) = h(f 0 (a) − (−h)f 0 (a) = 2hf 0 (a)
φ00 (0) = h2 f 00 (a) − h2 f 00 (a) = 0
φ000 (θ) = h3 f 000 (a + θh) − (−h3 )f 000 (a − θh) = h3 [f 000 (a + θh) + f 000 (a − θh)]
Thus
f (a + h) + f (a − h) h2
− f 0 (a) = [f 000 (a + θh) + f 000 (a − θh)]
2h 6
i.e. we get two points in (a − h, a + h) and not one, so such a solution does not work in our
case.
Question 1(c) The arc of the parabola y 2 = 4ax from the vertex to one extremity of the
latus rectum is√revolved about the corresponding chord. Prove that the volume of the spindle
2 5 3
so formed is πa .
75
Solution.

3
 Arc OL joining (0, 0) to (a, 2a) is rotated
about the chord OL. Let P be the point L
(x, y), M the foot of the the perpendicular on (a, 2a)
|y − 2x| P
OL i.e. y = 2x. Therefore P M = √ .
5 M
y 2 − 4xy + 4x2 O
OM 2 = OP 2 − P M 2 = x2 + y 2 −
5
4y 2 + 4xy + x2
=
5 √
2y + x 4 ax + x y 2 = 4ax
OM = √ = √
5 5
The required volume is V , given by
Z a
V = π(P M )2 d(OM )
0
√
y 2 − 4xy + 4x2 4ax − 4ax · 4x + 4x2
(P M )2 = =
√
5 5
a √ √
2 √x + 1 2 a+ x
d(OM ) = √ dx = √ dx
5 5x
Z a √ √
4  √ 2 a + x
⇒V = π x a − 2 ax + x √ dx
0 5 5x
Z a
4π √ √ √ 3

= √ x2 + ax − 2x ax + 2a ax − 4ax + 2 ax 2 dx
5 5 0
a
4π x3 x2

3 2 3
= √ − 3a + 2a 2 x 2
5 5 3 2 3 0
√  3 3 3
 √
4 5π a 3a 4a 2 5 3
= − + = πa
25 3 2 3 75
as required.

Question 2(a) If x cos u + y sin u = 1 and v = x sin u − y cos u, prove that

∂ 2u ∂u ∂u
v2 +v = cos 2u
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Solution. Differentiate x cos u + y sin u = 1 with respect to x to get
∂u ∂u
cos u − x sin u + y cos u =0
∂x ∂x
or
∂u ∂u ∂u
cos u − (x sin u − y cos u) = cos u − v =0 ⇒ v = cos u (1)
∂x ∂x ∂x

4
 Differentiate x cos u + y sin u = 1 with respect to y to get
∂u ∂u
−x sin u + sin u + y cos u =0
∂y ∂y
or
∂u ∂u ∂u
sin u − (x sin u − y cos u) = sin u − v =0 ⇒ v = sin u (2)
∂y ∂y ∂y
Differentiate (1) with respect to y to get

∂u ∂ 2u ∂u ∂v
− sin u =v +
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
But
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂u
= x cos u − cos u + y sin u = − cos u
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
as x cos u + y sin u = 1. Therefore

∂u ∂ 2u ∂u ∂u ∂u
− sin u =v + − cos u
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
Multiplying by v, and substituting (1), (2), we get

∂ 2u ∂u ∂u
− sin u(sin u) = v 2 +v − cos u(cos u)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
or
∂ 2u ∂u ∂u
v2 +v = cos2 u − sin2 u = cos 2u
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
as required.

Question 2(b) Prove that

√  1  √   1  2
1
π2 Γ 3= 3 Γ
6 3

Solution. We know that

π
Z 1 Z
Γ(m)Γ(n) m−1 n−1
2
= B(m, n) = x (1 − x) dx = 2 sin2m−1 θ cos2n−1 θ dθ
Γ(m + n) 0 0

on putting x = sin2 θ.
1
1. We take n = 2
to get
π
Γ( 12 )Γ(m)
Z
2
=2 sin2m−1 θ dθ
Γ(m + 21 ) 0

5
 2. We take m = n to get
π π
π
[Γ(n)]2
Z Z Z
2
2n−1 1 2
2n−1 1
=2 (sin θ cos θ) dθ = (sin 2θ) dθ = (sin φ)2n−1 dφ
Γ(2n) 0 22n−2 0 22n−1 0

by putting 2θ = φ. But
π
Z π Z
2
2n−1
(sin φ) dφ = 2 (sin φ)2n−1 dφ
0 0

so π
[Γ(n)]2
Z
1 2
= 2n−2 (sin θ)2n−1 dθ
Γ(2n) 2 0

Using both these, we have

Γ( 12 )Γ(n) 22n−1 [Γ(n)]2

=
Γ(n + 12 ) Γ(2n)
or √
1
Γ( 12 )Γ(2n) π
Γ(n)Γ n + = 2n−1
= 2n−1 Γ(2n)
2 2 2
1
Put n = 3
to get
√ 1 2

2 2

1

√

1
π 23 Γ 3 1
1 Γ
3
Γ 3
Γ = =⇒ Γ = π 23
3 Γ( 56 ) 3 Γ( 56 )

π 2

1

2π 5

1


Now Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) = , so Γ 3
Γ 3
= √ and Γ 6
Γ 6
= 2π. Thus we get
sin nπ 3
2π
Γ( 61 )
2 √
√

1
1 3
Γ = π 23
3 2π
so   2
√ 1 √ 1 1
3 Γ = π 23 Γ
3 6
as required.

Question 2(c) Find a point within a triangle such that the sum of its distances from the
angular points may be a minimum.

Solution.

6
 Let the point be P = (x, y), and the A
vertices of the triangle ABC be (xi , yi ), i =
1,
P2, 3.p Then u = P A + P B + P C =
3 2 2
r1
i=1 (x −
pxi ) + (y − yi ) = r1 + r2 + r3 , a c
where ri = (x − xi )2 + (y − yi )2 , i = 1, 2, 3. P γ
For extreme values α
∂u
3
x − xi β
X r2 r3
= =0
∂x ri
i=1 B b C
3
∂u X y − yi
= =0
∂y i=1
ri

Thus
x − x1 x − x2 x − x3 y − y1 y − y2 y − y3
+ =− , + =−
r1 r2 r3 r1 r2 r3
Squaring and adding, we get
2

2+ (x − x1 )(x − x2 ) + (y − y1 )(y − y2 ) = 1
r1 r2
or
1
1
(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) + (y − y1 )(y − y2 ) = −
r1 r2 2
Now by the cosine formula, r12 + r22 − 2r1 r2 cos α = a2 or

(x − x1 )2 + (y − y1 )2 + (x − x2 )2 + (y − y2 )2 − 2r1 r2 cos α = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2

Thus
1
cos α = (2x2 − 2xx1 − 2xx2 + 2x1 x2 + 2y 2 − 2yy1 − 2yy2 + 2y1 y2 )
2r1 r2
1
1
= (x − x1 )(x − x2 ) + (y − y1 )(y − y2 ) = −
r1 r2 2

Thus α = 2π 3
. By symmetry, β = γ = 2π 3
, i.e. the sides of the triangle subtend the same
angle at P .
Note that this solution is inadmissible when any angle of the triangle is > 2π3
. In this case,
the partial derivatives of u do not vanish anywhere inside the triangle, hence the minimum
must lie at one of the vertices. A simple check shows that the minimum is at the vertex
whose angle is > 2π3
.

7
 3 3
∂ 2u X ∂ 2 ri X ∂ x − xi
= =
∂x2 i=1
∂x2 i=1
∂x ri
3  
X 1 x − xi x − xi
= −
i=1
r i ri2 ri
3 3
(x − xi )2 (y − yi )2
  X
X 1
= 1− 2
= 3
>0
i=1
ri ri i=1
r i

∂2u
Similarly ∂y 2
> 0.

3 3 3 3
∂ 2u X ∂ x − xi X x − xi ∂ri X x − xi y − y i X (x − xi )(y − yi )
= =− 2
=− 2
=−
∂x ∂y i=1
∂y ri i=1
ri ∂y i=1
ri ri i=1
ri3
 2 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ u
Now we need to check that 2 2
− > 0. To make the calculations easier,
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
let x − xi = ri cos αi , y − yi = ri sin αi . Then
2 3 3 3 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u sin2 αi cos2 αi
 X X  X
sin αi cos αi
− = −
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y i=1
ri i=1
ri i=1
ri
1
= [sin2 α1 cos2 α2 + cos2 α1 sin2 α2 − 2 sin α1 cos α2 cos α1 sin α2 ] + . . .
r1 r2
1 1 1
= [sin α1 cos α2 − cos α1 sin α2 ]2 + [. . .]2 + [. . .]2 > 0
r1 r2 r1 r3 r2 r3
Thus u = P A + P B + P C is at a minimum when P is the point at which the sides subtend
the same angle.
Note: This is called the Steiner’s problem, and the point P is called the Fermat Point or
the Fermat-Torricelli Point of the triangle.

Paper II

Question 3(a) Find the extreme values of f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x21 +x22 +x23 subject to 3i,j=1 aij xi xj =
P
1, where aij = aji .

Solution. Let F (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x21 + x22 + x23 − λ 3i,j=1 aij xi xj − 1 . For extreme values,
P 

3
∂F X
= 2xi − 2λ aij xj = 0, 1 ≤ i ≤ 3 (∗)
∂xi j=1

8
 3 3
X ∂F X
This implies 0 = xi = 2f − 2λ aij xi xj = 2f − 2λ ⇒ f = λ at the extreme values.
i=1
∂xi i,j=1
Now the equations (*) are a set of linear equations, which can be written as 2(I−λA)x =
0, where I is a 3 × 3 identity matrix,
P3 and A = (aij ) is a 3 × 3 symmetric matrix, so has
real eigenvalues. Since x 6= 0 as i,j=1 aij xi xj = 1, I − λA must be singular ⇒ λ 6= 0, so
A − λ−1 I is singular. Thus λ−1 is an eigenvalue of A.
Hence the extreme values of f are λ−1 , where λ is an eigenvalue of A = (aij ).

9
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1983 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 16, 2010

Question 1(a) Consider the function

log(2 + x) − x2n sin x

f (x) = lim
n→∞ 1 + x2n
in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 . Show that the function does not vanish anywhere in this interval
and explain why is so although f (0), f ( π2 ) differ in sign.

Solution. Since x2n → 0 as n → ∞ for 0 ≤ x < 1, it follows that

log 3 − sin 1
f (x) = log(2 + x), 0 ≤ x < 1, f (1) =
2
1 log(2+x)
For x > 1, x2n
→ 0 and x2n
→ 0 as n → ∞, therefore
log(2+x)
x2n
− sin x
f (x) = lim 1 = − sin x
n→∞
x2n
+1

Thus 
log(2 + x), 0 ≤ x < 1

f (x) = log 3−sin
2
1)
, x=1

− sin x, 1 < x ≤ π2


Clearly f (0) = log 2 > 0, f ( π2 ) = − sin π2 = −1 < 0, and f (x) 6= 0 for any x ∈ [0, π2 ].
The reason why this can happen is that f (x) is not continuous in the interval [0, π2 ], so
the intermediate value theorem does not apply. The function is discontinuous at x = 1 as
limx→1+ f (x) = − sin 1, limx→1− f (x) = log 3 and both of these are different from f (1).

1
Question 1(b) Prove that there is a point a ∈ (−h, h) such that
Z h
2h3 00
f (x) dx = h[f (h) + f (−h)] − f (a)
−h 3
Solution. Integrating by parts, we get
Z h ih Z h Z h
0
f (x) dx = xf (x) − xf (x) dx = h[f (h) + f (−h)] − xf 0 (x) dx
−h −h −h −h
R0
Now put x = −t in −h
xf 0 (x) dx to get
Z 0 Z 0 Z h
0 0
xf (x) dx = (−t)f (−t)(−dt) = − tf 0 (−t) dt
−h h 0

Thus Z h Z h
x f 0 (x) − f 0 (−x) dx


f (x) dx = h[f (h) + f (−h)] −
−h 0
0 0
f (x) − f (−x) f (x) + f 00 (−x)
00
f 0 (x) − f 0 (−x)
We now note that lim = lim = 2f 00 (0), showing that
x→0 x x→0 1 x
is Riemann integrable in [0, h]. Since x2 keeps the same sign, the first mean value theorem
of integral calculus gives us
Z h 0 0
2 f (x) − f (−x) f 0 (ξ) − f 0 (−ξ) h 2
Z
x dx = x dx
0 x ξ 0

for some ξ ∈ (0, h). Consequently,

Z h
f 0 (ξ) − f 0 (−ξ) 2h3
f (x) dx = h[f (h) + f (−h)] −
−h 2ξ 3
We now apply Lagrange’s mean value theorem to the function f 0 (x) in [−ξ, ξ] and get
f 0 (ξ) − f 0 (−ξ)
= f 00 (a) for some a ∈ (−ξ, ξ)
2ξ
Thus
h
2h3 00
Z
f (x) dx = h[f (h) + f (−h)] − f (a)
−h 3
Note that 0 < ξ < h ⇒ a ∈ [−h, h].
Corollary: If f 000 (x) exists in (−h, h) prove that
f (h) − f (−h) f 0 (h) + f 0 (−h) h3 000
=h − f (a)
2 2 3
for some a ∈ (−h, h).
Proof: Use the above result for f 0 (x) instead of f (x). The left hand side now becomes
f (h) − f (−h), and dividing by two, we get the above equation.

2
Question 1(c) Find the least perimeter of an isoceles triangle in which a circle of radius r
can be inscribed.

Solution.

Let α be the semi-vertical angle. D is the A

midpoint of BC. E is the point of contact α
of AC and the circle or radius r inscribed
OE
in ABC. Therefore = tan α, or AE =
AE F E
OE cot α = r cot α. Similarly, we find out r r
that OA = r csc α, and AD = AO + OD = O
r(1 + csc α), consequently BD = AD tan α =
r(1 + csc α) tan α. Since 4ABC is isoceles,
BD = DC, DC = CE and AE = AF . B D C

The perimeter

P = BD + DC + CE + AE + BF + AF
= 4BD + 2AE = 4r(1 + csc α) tan α + 2r cot α
= 4r tan α + 4r sec α + 2r cot α
dP
= 4r sec2 α + 4r sec α tan α − 2r csc2 α = 0
dα
2 2 sin α 1
⇒0 = + −
cos2 α cos2 α sin2 α
⇒ 0 = 2 sin α + 2 sin α − cos2 α
2 3

⇒ 0 = 2 sin3 α + 3 sin2 α − 1
⇒ 0 = (sin α + 1)2 (2 sin α − 1)

Thus dP
dα
= 0 ⇒ sin α = 21 , since sin α = −1 is not possible as 2α is the angle of a triangle.
Thus α = π6 .

d2 P
= 8r sec2 α tan α + 4r(sec α tan2 α + sec3 α) − 4r csc α(− csc α cot α) > 0
dα2
for α = π6 . Therefore we have a minimum when α = π6 . The required perimeter is 4r √13 +
√ √
4r √23 + 2r 3 = 6r 3.

Question 2(a) If f (0) = 0 and f 0 (x) = 1+x

1
2 , prove without using the method of integration

that  x+y 
f (x) + f (y) = f
1 + xy

3
 x+y
Solution. Let u = f (x) + f (y), v = 1+xy
. Then

∂v (1 − xy)(1) − (x + y)(−y) 1 + y2
= =
∂x (1 − xy)2 (1 − xy)2
∂v (1 − xy)(1) − (x + y)(−x) 1 + x2
= =
∂y (1 − xy)2 (1 − xy)2
1 1
∂(u, v) 1+x2 1+y 2
= 1+y 2 1+x2 =0
∂(x, y) (1−xy)2 (1−xy)2

 x+y 
Therefore u, v are functionally dependent. Let u = φ(v) ⇒ f (x) + f (y) = φ .
1 − xy
Substituting y =  x0+gives us f (x) + f (0) = φ(x) or φ(x) = f (x) as f (0) = 0. Hence
y
f (x) + f (y) = f , which was to be proved.
1 − xy

Question 2(b) Show that under the transformation u = x2 − y 2 , v = 2xy the equation

∂ 2H 2
2∂ H ∂H ∂H
y2 2
− x 2
=x −y
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
 
∂ ∂ ∂H
becomes u −v = 0.
∂v ∂u ∂v

Solution.
∂H ∂H ∂u ∂H ∂v ∂H ∂H
= + = 2x + 2y
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v 2∂x ∂u  ∂v  2
∂ 2H 2
∂ 2H

∂H ∂ H ∂ H ∂ H
= 2 + 2x 2x + 2y + 2y 2x + (2y)
∂x2 ∂u ∂u2 ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u ∂v 2
∂H ∂ 2H ∂ 2H ∂ 2H
= 2 + 4x2 2 + 8xy + 4y 2 2 (1)
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
∂H ∂H ∂u ∂H ∂v ∂H ∂H
= + = −2y + 2x
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y ∂u ∂v
2
 2 2
 2
∂ 2H
 
∂ H ∂H ∂ H ∂ H ∂ H
= −2 − 2y (−2y) + 2x + 2x (−2y) + (2x)
∂y 2 ∂u ∂u2 ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u ∂v 2
∂H ∂ 2H ∂ 2H ∂ 2H
= −2 + 4y 2 2 − 8xy + 4x2 2 (2)
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
∂H ∂H ∂H ∂H ∂H ∂H
x −y = 2x2 + 2xy + 2y 2 − 2xy
∂x ∂y ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
∂H
= 2(x2 + y 2 ) (3)
∂u

4
Using (1), (2), (3) we get
2 2
 
2∂ H 2∂ H ∂H ∂H
0 = y −x − x −y
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y
2 2 2
2 ∂H 2 2∂ H 3 ∂ H 4∂ H
= 2y + 4x y + 8xy + 4y
∂u ∂u2 ∂u ∂v ∂v 2
2 2
∂H ∂ H ∂ H ∂ 2H ∂H
+2x2 − 4x2 y 2 2 + 8x3 y − 4x4 2 − 2(x2 + y 2 )
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
2 2
∂ H ∂ H
= 8xy(x2 + y 2 ) + 4(y 4 − x4 ) 2
∂u ∂v ∂v
2 2
∂ H ∂ H
⇒0 = (y 2 − x2 ) 2 + 2xy
∂v ∂u ∂v
∂ 2H ∂ 2H
⇒0 = −u 2 + v
 ∂v ∂u
 ∂v
∂ ∂ ∂H
⇒0 = u −v
∂v ∂u ∂v
as required.

Question 2(c) Prove that the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the tractrix
t
x = a cos t + a log tan , y = a sin t
2
about the asymptote is equal to half the volume of a sphere of radius a.
Solution. The x-axis is the asymptote, as t → 0 ⇒ x → ∞, y → 0. The volume required
is twice the volume in the first quadrant.

Z π
2 dx
V = 2 πy 2 dt
0 dt
Z π
2 a
= 2π a2 sin2 t(−a sin t + ) dt
0 sin t
Z π
2
3
= 2πa (sin t − sin3 t) dt
0
Z π
2
3
= 2πa sin t cos2 t dt
0
π
cos3 t 2 2πa3

3
= 2πa − =
3 0 3
3
1 4πa 1
= = × Volume of a sphere of radius a
2 3 2

5
 Paper II

Question 3(a) Obtain a set of sufficient conditions such that for a function f (x, y)

∂ 2f ∂ 2f
=
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Solution. Euler’s Theorem: If the partial derivatives fxy and fyx are continuous at (a, b)
then fxy (a, b) = fyx (a, b).
Proof: Let Ψ(h, k) = f (a + h, b + k) − f (a + h, b) − f (a, b + k) + f (a, b) where (a + h, b +
k), (a + h, b), (a, b + k) all belong to a neighborhood N of (a, b) — we can take for N an open
disc with center (a, b) in which fxy and fyx exist.
Let G(x) = f (x, b + k) − f (x, b) for x ∈ Ih where Ih = [a, a + h] or [a + h, a] according
as h > 0 or h < 0. Clearly G0 (x) = fx (x, b + k) − fx (x, b) for x ∈ Ih . We apply Lagrange’s
Mean Value Theorem to G(x) and obtain:

G(a+h)−G(a) = Ψ(h, k) = hG0 (a+θh) = h[fx (a+θh, b+k)−fx (a+θh, b)] (∗)

where 0 < θ < 1.

Now we consider F (t) = fx (a + θh, t) for t ∈ Ik where Ik = [b, b + k] or [b + k, b] according
as k > 0 or k < 0. We apply Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem to F (t) and obtain:

F (b + k) − F (b) = fx (a + θh, b + k) − fx (a + θh, b) = kF 0 (b + θ1 k)

where 0 < θ1 < 1. But F 0 (t) = ∂

f (a
∂y x
+ θh, t), so

∂ 2f
F (b + k) − F (b) = k (a + θh, b + θ1 k)
∂y ∂x

Using (*) we get

∂ 2f
Ψ(h, k) = hk (a + θh, b + θ1 k)
∂y ∂x
Since fyx is continuous at (a, b), we get

Ψ(h, k) ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
lim = lim (a + θh, b + θ1 k) = (a, b)
h→0,k→0 hk h→0,k→0 ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x

Now instead of G(x), we start with H(y) = f (a+h, y)−f (a, y) for y ∈ Ik , and proceeding
exactly as above, we get
Ψ(h, k) ∂ 2f
lim = (a, b)
h→0,k→0 hk ∂x ∂y
∂ 2f ∂ 2f
Hence (a, b) = (a, b), which completes the proof.
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

6
Question 3(b) Find the maximum and minimum values of x2 + y 2 + z 2 subject to the
conditions x + y + z = 1, xyz + 1 = 0.

Solution. Let F (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + λ1 (x + y + z − 1) + λ2 (xyz + 1) where λ1 , λ2 are

Lagrange’s undetermined multipliers. The extreme values are given by
∂F
= 2x + λ1 + λ2 yz = 0
∂x
∂F
= 2y + λ1 + λ2 xz = 0
∂y
∂F
= 2z + λ1 + λ2 xy = 0
∂z
Subtracting the first two, 2(x − y) + λ2 z(y − x) = 0 ⇒ x = y or λ2 = z2 (Note that
x 6= 0, y 6= 0, z 6= 0 because xyz + 1 = 0). Similarly from the other pairs of equations, we
get y = z or λ2 = x2 , and x = z or λ2 = y2 .
Since xyz = −1, x + y + z = 1, it follows that x, y, z cannot be all positive or all negative,
moreover two must be positive and one negative. In particular, x = y = z is not possible.
Suppose x 6= y, then λ2 = z2 . Now ∂F ∂x
= 0 ⇒ 2x + λ1 + 2y = 0.
Substituting the values of λ1 , λ2 in ∂F
∂z
= 0, we get

2xy
2z − 2(x + y) + =0
z
But x + y = 1 − z, xy = − z1 , so we get 2z − 2(1 − z) − z22 = 0 ⇒ 2z 3 − z 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒
(z − 1)(2z 2 + z + 1) = 0. But 2z 2 + z + 1 has no real roots, so the only real root is z = 1.
Thus we get λ2 = 2, z = 1, λ1 = 0(∵ x + y + z = 1 ⇒ x + y = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 0), x = ±1, y =
∓1(∵ x + y = 0, xy = 1 ⇒ x2 = 1 ⇒ x = ±1, y = ∓1). Hence the stationary values are
(1, −1, 1), (−1, 1, 1) and f (x, y, z) = 3 at these points.
On taking y 6= z we shall get (1, 1, −1), (1, −1, 1) as stationary points (by symmetry),
and for x 6= z, we get (1, 1, −1), (−1, 1, 1). f (x, y, z) is always equal to 3, hence we cannot
say whether it is a maximum or minimum without checking d2 F .
Considering the point (−1, 1, 1),

d2 F = 2(dx)2 + 2(dy)2 + 2(dz)2 + 4 dx dy + 4 dx dz − 4 dy dz

Now x+y+z = −1 ⇒ dx+dy+dz = 0 ⇒ dz = −dx−dy. xyz = −1 ⇒ yz dx+zx dy+xy dz =

0 ⇒ dx − dy − dz = 0 ⇒ dx = 0, dz = −dy.
Thus d2 F = 8(dz)2 > 0, so f has a minimum at all these stationary points.
Note: The question can be treated as that of one variable as y, z can be eliminated, but
the calculation becomes quite messy.

7
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1984 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 16, 2010

Question 1(a) 1. Show that the function

(
x2 sin2 x1 , x 6= 0
f (x) =
0, x=0

is continuous at 0.
π
2. tan x is not continuous at x = 2

Solution.
√
1. Given  > 0, let δ =√ , then |x| ≤ δ =⇒ |x2 sin2 x1 | ≤ |x2 | < , because | sin2 x1 | ≤ 1.
Thus |x − 0| < δ =  ⇒ |f (x) − f (0)| < , showing that f (x) is continuous at x = 0.
1
2. Since limx→ π2 sin x = 1, given  = 2
there exists δ1 > 0 such that 0 < |x − π2 | < δ1 ⇒
| sin x − 1| < 21 ⇒ sin x > 12 .
Since limx→ π2 cos x = 0, given any real number G > 0 there exists δ2 > 0 such that
0 < |x − π2 | < δ2 ⇒ | cos x| < 2G
1
.
Let δ = min(δ1 , δ2 ). Then δ > 0 and 0 < |x − π2 | < δ ⇒ | tan x| > 12 · 2G = G. This
shows that tan x is not bounded in any neighborhood of π2 , therefore limx→ π2 tan x does
not exist, so tan x is not continuous at x = π2 .

Note that if limx→a f (x) = l, then f (x) is bounded in a neighborhood of a, because given
 > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ l −  < f (x) < l + .

1
Question 1(b) Find the volume of the torus generated by revolving a disc of radius r about
a line at a distance a > r from the center of the circle.

Solution. Let the line be the x-axis, and let the circle have center (0, a).√ The circle’s
equation is x2 + (y − a)2 = r2√
. The upper semicircle is given by f1 (x) = a + r2 − x2 , and
the lower one by f2 (x) = a − r2 − x2 , and the desired volume is given by
Z r
V = π (f12 (x) − f22 (x)) dx
Z−rr
= π (f1 (x) − f2 (x))(f1 (x) + f2 (x)) dx
−r
Z r √
= π (2 r2 − x2 )(2a) dx
−r
Z r√
= 8aπ r2 − x2 dx
0
Put x = r sin θ
Z π
2
= 8aπ r cos θ · r cos θ dθ
0
Z π
2
2
= 8ar π cos2 θ dθ
0
1 π 
= 8ar2 π = 2π 2 ar2
22
We could get the same result by applying Pappus’ Theorem — the volume of a solid of
revolution generated by rotating a plane figure about an external axis is equal to the product
of the area of the figure and the distance traveled by its geometric centroid during revolution.
Thus V = πr2 · 2aπ = 2π 2 ar2 .

Question 1(c) Let f (x, y) = (x + y) sin( x1 + y1 ), when x 6= 0, y 6= 0, and f (x, 0) =

f (0, y) = 0. Examine whether (i) f (x, y) is continuous, and (ii) limx→0 f (x, y) for y 6= 0 and
limy→0 f (x, y) for x 6= 0 exist.

Solution. (i) Given  > 0, let δ1 = δ2 = 2 . Then |x| < δ1 , |y| < δ2 ⇒ |f (x, y) − f (0, 0)| =
|(x + y) sin( x1 + y1 )| ≤ |x| + |y| < , as | sin( x1 + y1 )| ≤ 1. Thus f (x, y) is continuous at (0, 0).
(ii) Since |x sin( x1 + y1 )| ≤ |x|, it follows that limx→0 x sin( x1 + y1 ) = 0. Thus if limx→0 f (x, y)
exists for y 6= 0, then limx→0 y sin( x1 + y1 ) should also exist, for y 6= 0, because y sin( x1 + y1 ) =
(x + y) sin( x1 + y1 ) − x sin( x1 + y1 ).
Let g(x) = y sin( x1 + y1 ). Suppose limx→0 g(x) = l for y = π2 . Then given  > 0,  < π2 ,
there exists δ > 0 such that 0 < |x| < δ ⇒ |g(x) − l| < 2 . Let x1 = 2nπ 1 1
, x2 = (2n+1)π , n large

2
so that |x1 | < δ, |x2 | < δ. Now

|g(x1 ) − g(x2 )| = |g(x1 ) − l + l − g(x2 )|

≤ |g(x1 ) − l| + |g(x2 ) − l| < 
2 π 2
g(x1 ) = sin(2nπ + ) =
π 2 π
2 π 2
g(x2 ) = sin((2n + 1)π + ) = −
π 2 π
4
⇒ |g(x1 ) − g(x2 )| = >
π
Thus we have a contradiction. Hence limx→0 y sin( x1 + y1 ) does not exist for y 6= 0, so
limx→0 f (x, y) for y 6= 0 does not exist. Similarly it can be seen that limy→0 f (x, y) for x 6= 0
does not exist, by symmetry.
ZZ
Question 2(a) Evaluate xy dx dy over the area given by the boundary y = 0(0 ≤ x ≤
3); y = (x − 3)2 (2 ≤ x ≤ 3); y = 1(1 ≤ x ≤ 2); y = x(0 ≤ x ≤ 1).

Solution.

The region of integration consists of three

y = (x − 3)2
parts
y=x
1. The triangle 4 bounded by
y = 0, x = 1, y = x.
2. The square  bounded by
x = 1, x = 2, y = 0, y = 1. 4  R
3. The region R bounded by O x=1
x = 2, y = 0, y = (x − 3)2 , (2 ≤ x ≤ 3).

1 x 1
y 2 ix 1 1 3
ZZ Z Z Z Z
1
I1 = xy dx dy = xy dy dx = x dx = x dx =
4 x=0 y=0 0 2 0 2 0 8
Z 2 Z 1
x2 i 2 y 2 i 1 3 1
ZZ
3
I2 = xy dx dy = xy dy dx = · = · =
 x=1 y=0 2 1 2 0 2 2 4
Z 3 Z (x−3)2 Z 3
y 2 i(x−3)2
ZZ
I3 = xy dx dy = yx dy dy = x dx
R x=2 0 x=2 2 0
1 3 1 0 4 1 h u6 u5 i0
Z Z
4 1  3 1  13
= x(x − 3) dx = u (u + 3) du = +3 = − =
2 2 2 −1 2 6 5 −1 2 5 6 60
1 3 13 131
Thus the given integral = I1 + I2 + I3 = + + =
8 4 60 120

3
Question 2(b) If B(p, q) is the Beta function, show that
pB(p, q) = (q − 1)B(p + 1, q − 1)
where p, q are real, p > 0, q > 1. Hence or otherwise find B(p, n) where n is an integer > 0.
Z 1
Solution. By definition, B(p, q) = xp−1 (1 − x)q−1 dx. Integrating by parts, we get
0
p
1 1
xp
Z
x
B(p, q) = (1 − x)q−1 + (q − 1)(1 − x)q−2 dx
p 0 0 p
Since p > 0, (q − 1) > 0, we get
Z 1
pB(p, q) = (q − 1) xp+1−1 (1 − x)(q−1)−1 dx = (q − 1)B(p + 1, q − 1)
0

In particular, pB(p, n) = (n − 1)B(p + 1, n − 1). Repeating this formula, we get

n−1
B(p, n) = B(p + 1, n − 1)
p
(n − 1)(n − 2)
= B(p + 2, n − 2)
p(p + 1)
(n − 1)!
= B(p + n − 1, 1)
p(p + 1) . . . (p + n − 1)
Z 1
(n − 1)!
= xp+n−2 (1 − x)1−1 dx
p(p + 1) . . . (p + n − 2) 0
(n − 1)! Γ(p)Γ(n)
= =
p(p + 1) . . . (p + n − 1) Γ(p + n)

x+y ∂(u, v)
Question 2(c) If u = and v = tan−1 x + tan−1 y, find . Are u and v func-
1 − xy ∂(x, y)
tionally related? If so, find the relationship.
Solution.
∂u (1 − xy) · 1 − (x + y)(−y) 1 + y2
= =
∂x (1 − xy)2 (1 − xy)2
∂u (1 − xy) · 1 − (x + y)(−x) 1 + x2
= =
∂y (1 − xy)2 (1 − xy)2
∂v 1
=
∂x 1 + x2
∂v 1
=
∂y 1 + y2
∂u ∂u
∂(u, v) ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= ∂v ∂v = − =0
∂(x, y) ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

4
This shows that u, v are functionally related. Let x = tan θ, y = tan φ. Then v = θ + φ.
tan θ + tan φ
u= = tan(θ + φ) = tan v.
1 − tan θ tan φ
Alternatively, usingv = tan−1 x + tan−1 y we write
tan v − tan(tan−1 y) tan v − y
x = tan(v − tan−1 y) = −1
=
1 + tan v tan(tan y) 1 + y tan v
tan v−y
1+y tan v
+y (tan v)(1 + y 2 )
u = tan v−y = = tan v
1 − y 1+y tan v
1 + y2

as before.

Paper II

Question 3(a) Show that the maximum and minimum values of the function u = x2 +y 2 +xy
where ax2 + by 2 = ab, a > b > 0 are given by 4(u − a)(u − b) = ab.

Solution. Let F (x, y) = x2 +y 2 +xy +λ(ax2 +by 2 −ab) where λ is Lagrange’s undetermined
multiplier. The extreme values are obtained from
∂F ∂F
= 2x + y + 2λax = 0, = 2y + x + 2λby = 0
∂x ∂y
∂F ∂F
0 = x +y = 2(x2 + y 2 + xy) + 2λ(ax2 + by 2 ) = 2u + 2λab
∂x ∂y
u
Thus λ = − ab . Consequently 2x + y − 2uxb
= 0 ⇒ 2x(b − u) + yb = 0, and 2y + x − 2uy a
=
0 ⇒ 2y(a − u) + ax = 0.
Since ax2 + by 2 = ab > 0, (x, y) 6= (0, 0), so the coefficient matrix of the above linear
2(b − u) b
equations must be singular i.e. = 0 or 4(a − u)(b − u) − ab = 0.
a 2(a − u)
Thus the maximum and minimum √ values are √ given by 4(a − u)(b − u) − ab = 0.
Note: We can substitute x = b cos t, y = a sin t to make u a function of one variable,
and proceed accordingly.

Question 3(b) Discuss the continuity and differentiability of the function

(
x2 tan−1 xy − y 2 tan−1 xy , x 6= 0, y 6= 0
f (x, y) =
0, x=y=0

Also examine if fxy and fyx are equal at (0, 0).

Solution.
1. The function is continuous at (0, 0), because |f (x, y) − f (0, 0)| = 0 or ≤ π2 (x2 + y 2 ).

5
2. fxy (0, 0) 6= fyx (0, 0). For this we calculate the following:

(a) If (x, y) 6= (0, 0),

 
−1 y 2 1 y 1 1
fx (x, y) = 2x tan +x y 2 − 2 − y2 2
x 1+ 2 x
x 1 + xy2 y
y x2 y y3 y
= 2x tan−1 − 2 2
− 2 2
= 2x tan−1 − y
x x +y x +y x

(b)
f (h, k) − f (0, k) h2 tan−1 k
h
− k 2 tan−1 h
k
fx (0, k) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
h
tan−1
Now limh→0 h tan−1 k
h
= 0, limh→0 h
k
= 1
k
— if θ = tan−1 hk , hk = tan θ, then
h
tan−1 θ
h
= k tan
k
θ
, and tanθ θ → 1 as θ → 0.
Thus fx (0, k) = −k, in particular fx (0, 0) = 0.
(c) By symmetry, fy (x, y) = x − 2y tan−1 x
y
is x 6= 0, y 6= 0, and fy (h, 0) = h.

fx (0, k) − fx (0, 0) −k − 0
fyx (0, 0) = lim = lim = −1
k→0 k k→0 k
fy (h, 0) − fy (0, 0) h−0
fxy (0, 0) = lim = lim =1
h→0 h h→0 h

Thus fxy (0, 0) 6= fyx (0, 0).

3. The function is differentiable at (0, 0) as both fx (x, y) and fy (x, y) are continuous at
(0, 0). Note that limx→0,y→0 fx (x, y) = limx→0,y→0 fy (x, y) = 0 and fx (0, 0) = 0 =
fy (0, 0).

6
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1985 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 16, 2010

Question 1(a) If (
xy
x2 +y 2
, (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
f (x, y) =
0, (x, y) = (0, 0)
Show that both the partial derivatives fx , fy exist at (0, 0), but the function is not continuous
there.

Solution. See 2004, question 2(d).

Question 1(b) If for all values of the parameter λ and some constant n, F (λx, λy) =
∂F ∂F
λn F (x, y) identically, where F is assumed to be differentiable, prove that x +y =
∂x ∂y
nF (x, y).

Solution. See 1996, question 2(a).

Question 1(c) Prove the relation between the beta and gamma functions

Γ(m)Γ(n)
β(m, n) =
Γ(m + n)

Solution. See 1991, question 2(c).

1
Question 2(a) If a function f defined on [a, b] is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on
(a, b), and f (a) = f (b), then prove that there exists at least one real number c, a < c < b
such that f 0 (c) = 0.

Solution. This is Rolle’s theorem. Since f is continuous on [a, b], it is bounded

and attains its maximum and minimum. Since f (a) = f (b) and we assume that f is not a
constant function, it follows that there exists a real number c such that f (c) = M , maximum
of f (without loss of generality) and a < c < b. Then the right hand derivative of f at c is
f (c + h) − f (c)
lim+ and clearly it is ≤ 0, because f (c + h) − f (c) ≤ 0 and h > 0. However
h→0 h
f (c + h) − f (c)
the left hand derivative of f at c is lim− ≥ 0 because f (c + h) − f (c) ≤ 0 and
h→0 h
0
h < 0. Since f (c) exists, the right hand derivative of f at c equals the left hand derivative
of f at c, which is possible only when both are zero, i.e. f 0 (c) = 0.

Question 2(b) Use Maclaurin’s expansion to show that

x2 x3 x4
log(1 + x) = x − + − + ...
2 3 4
Hence find the value of log(1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 ).

Solution. Since log(1 + x) possesses continuous derivatives of all orders for every value of
x for which 1 + x > 0 i.e. x > −1, we have

x2 00 xn−1 (n−1)
f (x) = log(1 + x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) + f (0) + . . . + f (0) + Rn
2! (n − 1)!

where
xn (n) xn (n − 1)!
Rn = f (θx) = (−1)n−1 , 0<θ<1
n! n! (1 + θx)n
(−1)n−1 (n − 1)!
as f (n) (x) for f (x) = log(1 + x) is .
(x + 1)n
x 1
Let 0 < x ≤ 1, so that 0 < < 1, then |Rn | < n
and therefore Rn → 0 as n → ∞.
1 + θx
Let −1 < x ≤ 0, we consider the expansion

x2 00 xn−1 (n−1)
f (x) = log(1 + x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) + f (0) + . . . + f (0) + Rn
2! (n − 1)!

where
n−1
xn

n−1 (n) n n 1−θ 1
Rn = (1 − θ) f (θx) = (−1) x , 0<θ<1
(n − 1)! 1 + θx 1 + θx

2
— this is Cauchy’s form of the remainder — note that we consider Cauchy’s form of the
remainder as Lagrange’s form of the remainder does not enable us to prove that Rn → 0 as
n → ∞. when −1 < x < 0.
1−θ 1 1
Since 0 < θ < 1 and |x| < 1, 0 < < 1. Also, < . Now since xn → 0
1 + θx 1 + θx 1 − |x|
as n → ∞, we get Rn → 0 as n → ∞.
Now using the fact that f (n) (0) = (−1)n−1 (n − 1)!, we get the required result
x2 x3 x4
log(1 + x) = x − + − + ...
2 3 4

1 − x5
log(1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 ) = log( ) = log(1 − x5 ) − log(1 − x)
1−x
x10 x15 x2 x3 x4
= −(x5 + + + . . .) + (x + + + + . . .)
2 3 2 3 4
x2 x3 x4 1  x6 x7 x8 x9 x10  1 
= x+ + + + x5 −1 + + + + + − 1 + ...
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 5
which is the required expansion.

Question 2(c) Find the volume generated by revolving y 2 = 4ax about the latus rectum.

Solution.

Let P be the point (x, y), M be the foot of

the perpendicular on the latus rectum x = a. P M
Then P M = a − x. SM = y, where S is
the focus (a, 0). Because of symmetry we S (a, 0)
can confine ourselves to the first quadrant, x=a
0 ≤ y ≤ 2a.
y 2 = 4ax

Z Z 2a
2
V = 2 π(P M ) d(SM ) = 2π (a2 − 2ax + x2 ) dy
0
2a 
y2 y4 
Z
= 2π + a2 − dy
0 2 16a2
2a
y3 y5 8a3 32a5
  
2 3
= 2π a y − + = 2π 2a − +
6 80a2 0 6 80a2
30 − 20 + 6 32πa3
= 2πa3 =
15 15

3
 Paper II
Question 3(a) Show that for the function
( 2
x y2
x2 +y 2
, (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
f (x, y) =
0, x = 0, y = 0
1. fx is not differentable at (0, 0).
2. fyx is not continuous at (0, 0).
3. fxy (0, 0) = fyx (0, 0).
Solution.
1. For (x, y) 6= (0, 0),
(x2 + y 2 )2xy 2 − x2 y 2 (2x) 2xy 4
fx (x, y) = = 2
(x2 + y 2 )2 (x + y 2 )2
2.
h2 y 2
f (h, y) − f (0, y) h2 +y 2
−0 hy 2
fx (0, y) = lim = lim = lim =0
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h2 + y 2

Thus fx (0, y) = 0 for y 6= 0.

3.
f (x + h, 0) − f (x, 0)
fx (x, 0) = lim =0
h→0 h
In particular, fx (0, 0) = 0.
fx (0,k)−fx (0,0)
4. fyx (0, 0) = limk→0 k
=0
f (x,k)−f (x,0) x2 k
5. fy (x, 0) = limk→0 k
= limk→0 x2 +k2
= 0 when x 6= 0.
f (0,k)−f (0,0)
6. fy (0, 0) = limk→0 k
= 0.
fy (h,0)−fy (0,0)
7. fxy (0, 0) = limh→0 h
= 0.
Thus we have shown that fxy (0, 0) = fyx (0, 0) = 0.
8. For (x, y) 6= (0, 0),
∂ ∂ 2xy 4
fyx (x, y) = fx (x, y) =
∂y ∂y (x2 + y 2 )2
8xy 3 (x2 + y 2 )2 − 2xy 4 · 2(x2 + y 2 ) · 2y
=
(x2 + y 2 )4
3
8xy 3 (x2 + y 2 ) − 8xy 5 8x3 y 3

xy
= = 2 =8 2
(x2 + y 2 )3 (x + y 2 )3 x + y2
Now from question 1(a) above, it follows that fyx is not continuous at (0, 0).

4
9. If fx were differentiable at (0, 0), we would have
√
fx (h, k) = fx (0, 0) + hfxx (0, 0) + kfyx (0, 0) + h2 + k 2 φ(h, k)

where limh→0,k→0 φ(h, k) = 0. Substituting the known values, we get

2hk 4 1
φ(h, k) = √
(h2 + k 2 )2 h2 + k 2
2m4
Now we can see that limh→0,k→0 φ(h, k) does not exist — if k = mh, φ(h, mh) = 5 ,
(1+m2 ) 2
so limh→0 φ(h, mh) is different for different values of m (say 0, 1).

Thus we have shown all the three results required.

5
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1986 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 16, 2010

Question 1(a) 1. A function f (x) is defined as follows:

( 1
e1− x2 sin x1 , x 6= 0
f (x) =
0, x=0

Examine whether or not f (x) is differentiable at x = 0.

2. If f 0 (x) exists and is continuous, find the value of

1 x
Z
lim (x − 3y)f (y) dy
x→0 x2 0

Solution.
f (x) − f (0)
1. By definition, f 0 (0) = lim , if this limit exists.
x→0 x
f (x) − f (0) 1 1 1
lim = lim e1− x2 sin
x→0 x x→0 x x
1 − 12 1
= e lim 2 e x lim x sin
x→0 x x→0 x
1 1
= e lim te−t · 0 Letting t = 2
, also lim x sin = 0
t→∞ x x→0 x
= 0 ∵ lim te−t = 0
t→∞

Thus f (x) is differentiable at x = 0, and f 0 (0) = 0.

1
 2. Define
Z x
F (x) = (x − 3y)f (y) dy
0
Z x Z x
= x f (y) dy − 3 yf (y) dy
0 0
Z x Z x
0
F (x) = f (y) dy + xf (x) − 3xf (x) = f (y) dy − 2xf (x)
0 0
F 00 (x) = f (x) − 2f (x) − 2xf 0 (x) = −f (x) − 2xf 0 (x)
Note that F 00 (x) exists because f 0 (x) exists.
F (x)
The required limit is lim 2 . Since lim F (x) = 0, lim x2 = 0 and both are differen-
x→0 x x→0 x→0
tiable, we can apply L’Hospital’s rule to get
F (x) F 0 (x)
lim = lim
x→0 x2 x→0 2x

Again L’Hospital’s rule applies, so

F (x) F 00 (x) −f (x) − 2xf 0 (x) f (0)
lim 2
= lim = lim =−
x→0 x x→0 2 x→0 2 2
since f 0 (x) exists and is continuous, so limx→0 xf 0 (x) = 0.
Thus Z x
1 f (0)
lim 2 (x − 3y)f (y) dy = −
x→0 x 0 2

Question 1(b) Use Rolle’s theorem to establish that under suitable conditions (to be stated)
f (a) f (b) f (a) f 0 (ξ)
= (b − a) , a<ξ<b
g(a) g(b) g(a) g 0 (ξ)
Hence or otherwise deduce the inequality
nbn−1 (a − b) < an − bn < nan−1 (a − b)
where a > b and n > 1.
Solution. Let f (x), g(x) be continuous in the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable in the
open interval (a, b). Let
f (a) f (x) x − a f (a) f (b)
F (x) = −
g(a) g(x) b − a g(a) g(b)
x−a
= [f (a)g(x) − g(a)f (x)] − [f (a)g(b) − g(a)f (b)]
b−a
Thus F (x) is

2
 1. continuous in the closed interval [a, b].
2. differentiable in the open interval (a, b)
3. F (a) = F (b) = 0.
Thus F (x) satisfies the requirements of Rolle’s theorem, consequently, there exists ξ, a <
ξ < b such that F 0 (ξ) = 0. But
1
F 0 (ξ) = [f (a)g 0 (ξ) − g(a)f 0 (ξ)] − [f (a)g(b) − g(a)f (b)]
b−a
f (a) f 0 (ξ) 1 f (a) f (b)
= 0 − =0
g(a) g (ξ) b − a g(a) g(b)
therefore
f (a) f (b) f (a) f 0 (ξ)
= (b − a) , a<ξ<b
g(a) g(b) g(a) g 0 (ξ)
Let f (x) = xn , g(x) = 1, then the above result implies
b n an bn nξ n−1
= (a − b) , b<ξ<a
1 1 1 0
or an − bn = (a − b)nξ n−1 . Now since bn−1 < ξ n−1 < an−1 , we get
nbn−1 (a − b) < an − bn < nan−1 (a − b), as required.
(ax3 + by 3 )n ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
Question 1(c) If u = + xf ( xy ), find the value of x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 .
3n(3n − 1) ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Solution. We use the result proved in 2006, question 2(b): If f (x, y) is a homogeneous
function of degree n possessing continuous partial derivatives of degree 2,
∂ 2f ∂ 2f 2
2∂ f
x2 + 2xy + y = n(n − 1)f
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
(ax3 + by 3 )n
Let v = , then v is homogeneous of degree 3n, so
3n(3n − 1)
2
2∂ v ∂ 2v 2
2∂ v (ax3 + by 3 )n
x 2
+ 2xy +y 2
= 3n(3n − 1) = (ax3 + by 3 )n
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 3n(3n − 1)
Let w = xf ( xy ), then w is homogeneous of degree 1, so
∂ 2w ∂ 2w 2
2∂ w
x2 + 2xy + y = 1(1 − 1)w = 0
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
Now u = v + w, so adding the above equations we have
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2∂ u
x2 + 2xy + y = (ax3 + by 3 )n
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2

3
Question 2(a) 1. Without evaluating the involved integrals, show that
1
Z x Z
t dt x dt
+ =0
1 1 + t2 1 t(1 + t2 )
Z a+T
2. If f (x) is periodic of period T , show that f (t) dt is independent of a.
a

Solution.
du t 1 u2 u
1. Let t = u1 , so that dt = − 2
and 2
= 2
= , implying that
u 1+t u 1+u 1 + u2
Z x Z 1   Z 1
t dt x u du x du
2
= 2
− 2
= − 2
1 1+t 1 1+u u 1 u(1 + u )

Thus 1
Z x Z
t dt x dt
+ =0
1 1 + t2 1 t(1 + t2 )
Z a+T
2. Define F (a) = f (t) dt. We shall prove that F (a) = F (b) for any b. In particular
Ra T
F (a) = F (0) = 0
f (t) dt which is independent of a.

Z b+T Z a+T
F (b) − F (a) = f (t) dt − f (t) dt
b a
Z b+T Z a+T Z b
= f (t) dt − f (t) dt − f (t) dt
b b a
Z b+T Z b Z b
= f (t) dt + f (t) dt − f (t) dt
b a+T a
Z b+T Z b
= f (t) dt − f (t) dt
a+T a
Z b Z b
= f (u + T ) du − f (t) dt ∵u+T =t
a a
Z b Z b
= f (u) du − f (t) dt = 0 ∵ f (u + T ) = f (u)
a a

Thus F (b) = F (a) for all b.

4
Question 2(b) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving one arc of x = a(t −
sin t), y = a(1 − cos t) about its base.
Solution. One arc is given by 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π and the base is the x-axis. Thus
Z 2π
dx
V = π y 2 dt
dt
Z0 2π Z 2π 
2 2 3 t 3
= π a (1 − cos t) a(1 − cos t) dt = πa 2 sin2 dt
0 0 2
Z π
3 t
= 8πa 2 sin6 θ dθ (θ = )
0 2
Z π
2
= 32πa3 sin6 θ dθ (sin(π − θ) = sin θ, so double the integral and half the limit)
0
5·3·1 π
= 32πa3 = 5π 2 a3
6·4·2 2

Z 2 Z x − 21
Question 2(c) Evaluate (x−y)2 +2(x+y)+1 dx dy by using the transformation
0 0
x = u(1 + v), y = v(1 + u). Assume u, v are positive in the region concerned.
Solution.
1. The Jacobian of the transformation is
∂(x, y) 1+v u
= =1+u+v >0
∂(u, v) v 1+u
because u ≥ 0, v ≥ 0.
2. The region of integration in the xy-plane is the triangle bounded by the lines y = 0, y =
x, x = 2.
3. The region of integration in the uv-plane lies in the first quadrant as u ≥ 0, v ≥ 0.
Clearly
x=y ⇔ u=v
x = 2 ⇔ u(1 + v) = 2
y = 0 ⇔ v = 0 (∵ 1 + u > 0)

(1, 1)
v-axis
u(1 + v) = 2

(1, 0) (2, 0) u-axis

5
 The curve u(1 + v) = 2 meets the u-axis at (2, 0) and the line u = v at (1, 1). The
region of integration is bounded by v = 0, v = u, u(1 + v) = 2 and therefor consists
of the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and the portion bounded by u = 1, v =
0, u(1 + v) = 2, in which u varies from 1 to 2, and v varies from 0 to 2−u u
.

4.
 − 12  − 21
(x − y)2 + 2(x + y) + 1 = (u − v)2 + 2(2uv + u + v) + 1
1
= (u2 + v 2 + 2uv + 2u + 2v + 1)− 2 = (1 + u + v)−1

Thus the product of the Jacobian and the integrand is 1.

Thus
Z 2 Z x − 21
2
I = (x − y) + 2(x + y) + 1 dx dy
0 0
2
Z 1 Z u Z 2 Z
u
−1
= dv du + dv du
0 0 1 0
Z 2
1 2
= + du − 1
2 1 u
1
= 2 log 2 −
2

Paper II

Question 3(a) Find the maximum and minimum values of f (x, y) = 7x2 + 8xy + y 2 where
x, y are constrained by the relation x2 + y 2 = 1.

Solution. Let F (x, y) = 7x2 +8xy +y 2 +λ(x2 +y 2 −1), where λ is Lagrange’s undetermined
multiplier. For extreme values
∂F ∂F
= 14x + 8y + 2λx = 0, = 8x + 2y + 2λy = 0
∂x ∂y

Thus (7 + λ)x + 4y = 0, 4x + (1 + λ)y = 0. Since (x, y) 6= (0, 0) because x2 + y 2 = 1, it

follows that
7+λ 4
= (7 + λ)(1 + λ) − 16 = λ2 + 8λ − 9 = 0 ⇒ λ = −9, 1
4 1+λ

∂F ∂F
x +y = 14x2 + 8xy + 2λx2 + 8xy + 2y 2 + 2λy 2 = 2f + 2λ(x2 + y 2 ) = 0
∂x ∂y

6
Since x2 + y 2 = 1, we get f = −λ ⇒ at stationary points f = 9, −1. Thus the maximum
value of f is 9, minimum value is −1.
Check: We have found the maximum and minimum values without finding the stationary
points.
1 2
λ = −9 ⇒ x = 2y, x2 + y 2 = 1 ⇒ 5y 2 = 1 ⇒ y = ± √ , x = ± √
5 5
1 2
λ = 1 ⇒ y = −2x, x2 + y 2 = 1 ⇒ 5x2 = 1 ⇒ x = ± √ , y = ∓ √
5 5

In case (1), f (x, y) = 28

5
+ 165
+ 15 = 9. In case (2) f (x, y) = 57 − 16
5
+ 54 = −1, confirming the
above.
Note: The question could also be done by substituting x = cos t, y = sin t, and then
f (x, y) = 7 cos2 t+8 cos t sin t+sin2 t, which is now a function of one variable. Differentiating
and letting the derivative be 0, we get −14 cos t sin t + 8(cos2 t − sin2 t) + 2 sin t cos t = 0.
Let z = tan t, then 2z 2 + 3z − 2 = 0 ⇒ z = −2, 21 ⇒ (x, y) = (± √15 , ∓ √25 ), (± √25 , ± √15 ) ⇒
f (x, y) = 9, −1.

7
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1987 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 14, 2010

1 9 1 9
Question 1(a) If x1 = x+ and for n > 0, xn+1 = xn + , find the value of
2 x 2 xn
limn→∞ xn (x > 0 is assumed).

Solution. x > 0 ⇒ x1r > 0. By induction, clearly xn > 0 for all n ≥ 1.

x + x9 9
Now x1 = ≥ x · = 3, because the arithmetic mean is always ≥ the geometric
2 x
mean of two positive numbers. Similarly xn ≥ 3 for all n ≥ 1, thus the sequence {xn } is
bounded below. Moreover
1 9 1
xn+1 − xn = xn + − xn = (9 − x2n ) ≤ 0
2 2xn 2xn
as x2n ≥ 9. Thus {xn } is a monotonically decreasing sequence. Let l be the greatest lower
bound of {xn } — then
1 9  1 9  1 9
l = lim xn = lim xn−1 + = lim xn−1 + = l+
n→∞ n→∞ 2 xn−1 2 n→∞ limn→∞ xn−1 2 l
Thus 2l2 = l2 + 9 ⇒ l = 3 (l = −3 is not admissible as all elements of the sequence are ≥ 3).
Thus limn→∞ xn = 3.
1
Question 1(b) 1. If x = −a, h = 2a, f (x) = x 3 , find θ from the mean value theorem:
f (x + h) = f (x) + hf 0 (x + θh).

2. If u = x + y − z, v = x − y + z, w = x2 + (y − z)2 , examine whether or not there is a

functional relationship between u, v, w and find the relationship, if any.

Solution.

1
 1. Substituting the given values, we get f (a) = f (−a) + 2af 0 (−a + 2aθ). Now f (x) =
1 2
x 3 ⇒ f 0 (x) = 13 x− 3 , so

1 12a 2
a 3 = (−a) 3 + (−a + 2aθ)− 3
3
1 2a − 2 2
= −a 3 + a 3 (2θ − 1)− 3
3
2 2
⇒2 = (2θ − 1)− 3
3
2
⇒3 = (2θ − 1)− 3
⇒ 27 = (2θ − 1)−2
1
⇒ ±√ = 2θ − 1
27

So θ = 21 (1 ± 1
√
3 3
).

2. To establish that u, v, w have a functional relation, we have to show that the Jacobian
∂(u, v, w)
= 0. Clearly
∂(x, y, z)

1 1 −1 1 1 0
∂(u, v, w)
= 1 −1 1 = 1 −1 0 =0
∂(x, y, z)
2x 2(y − z) −2(y − z) 2x 2(y − z) 0

Thus u, v, w are functionally dependent.

Now u2 = x2 + (y − z)2 + 2x(y − z), v 2 = x2 + (y − z)2 − 2x(y − z), thus u2 + v 2 = 2w,
which is the desired functional relationship.

 x n1 +1 + y n1 +1  12
Question 1(c) If u = csc−1 , show that
x+y

∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2∂ u 1
x2 2
+ 2xy + y 2
= 2 tan u(2n + sec2 u)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 4n
1
Solution. Let v = csc u. Then v is a homogeneous function of degree 2n
, because
 (ax) n1 +1 + (ay) n1 +1  12 1
 x n1 +1 + y n1 +1  12 1
v(ax, ay) = = a 2n = a 2n v(x, y)
a(x + y) x+y

2
 Applying Euler’s theorem to v,
∂v ∂v 1
x +y = v
∂x ∂y 2n
∂u ∂u 1 ∂v ∂u
−x csc u cot u − y csc u cot u = csc u ∵ v = csc u, = − csc u cot u
∂x ∂y 2n ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u 1
x +y = − tan u (1)
∂x ∂y 2n
2 2
∂u ∂ u ∂ u 1 ∂u
+x 2 +y = − sec2 u Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x (2)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y 2n ∂x
2
∂ u ∂u ∂ 2u 1 ∂u
x + +y 2 = − sec2 u Differentiating (1) w.r.t. y (3)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y 2n ∂y
2 2
∂ 2u
 
∂ u ∂ u 1 ∂u ∂u
x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = (−1 − 2
sec u) x +y (2) × x + (3) × y
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 2n ∂x ∂y
1 1
= − (2n + sec2 u)(− tan u) From (1)
2n 2n
1
= tan u(2n + sec2 u)
4n2

Question 2(a) 1. Show by means of a suitable substitution that

π
∞
tx−1
Z Z
2
2x−1 2y−1 1
sin θ cos θ dθ = dt, x, y > 0
0 2 0 (1 + t)x+y

2. Establish the inequality Z 1

1 dx π
< 1 <
2 0 (4 − x2 − x3 ) 2 6

Solution.
Z 1
1. By definition B(y, x) = z y−1 (1 − z)x−1 dz.
0
2
Put z = cos θ, dz = −2 cos θ sin θ dθ, to get
Z 0
B(y, x) = cos2y−2 θ sin2x−2 θ (−2 cos θ sin θ) dθ
π
2
Z π
2
= 2 sin2x−1 θ cos2y−1 θ dθ
0

3
 1
Now, put z = t+1
in B(y, x),
Z 1
B(y, x) = z y−1 (1 − z)x−1 dz
0
Z 0
1 y−1  1 x−1 −dt
= 1−
t+1 t+1 (1 + t)2
Z∞∞
tx−1
= dt
0 (1 + t)x+y

From these two we have

Z π
1 ∞ tx−1
Z
2
2x−1 2y−1
sin θ cos θ dθ = dt
0 2 0 (1 + t)x+y

as required.

2. Since 4 − x2 + x3 = 4 − x2 (1 − x), and x2 (1 − x) > 0 for 0 < x < 1, it follows that

1 1
4 − x2 + x3 < 4 ⇒ < 1 .
2 (4 − x2 − x3 ) 2
1 1
On the other hand, 4 − x2 + x3 > 4 − x2 for x > 0, so (4 − x2 + x3 )− 2 < (4 − x2 )− 2 .
Hence
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
1 dx dx
dx < 1 < √
0 2 4 − x2
2 3
0 (4 − x − x ) 2 0
Z 1 1
1 dx −1 x π
< 1 < sin =
2 2 3
0 (4 − x − x ) 2 2 0 6

x3
Question 2(b) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the curve y 2 = ,a >
2a − x
0 about its asymptote x = 2a.

Solution. Consider a thin vertical strip of thickness dx, and rotate it about the asymptote

4
 r
x3
— its volume is 2πrh dx = 2π(2a − x)2 dx. Thus
2a − x
s
Z 2a
x3
V = 4π (2a − x) dx
0 2a − x
√
Z 2a
3
= 4π 2a − x x 2 dx
0
Put x = 2a sin2 θ ⇒ dx = 4a sin θ cos θ dθ
Z π√
2 3
= 4π 2a cos θ(2a) 2 sin3 θ 4a sin θ cos θ dθ
0
Z π
2
3
= 64πa sin4 θ cos2 θ dθ
0
3·1·1 π
= 64πa3 = 2π 2 a3
6·4·2 2

ZZ
1 1 2
Question 2(c) Evaluate x 2 y 3 (1 − x − y) 3 dx dy where D is the domain bounded by the
D
lines x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 1.

Solution. We convert this to a Dirichlet integral using the standard transformation. Put
x + y = u, y = uv, so that dx dy = u du dv, (see 1989, question 3(a) for example).
Z 1Z 1
1 1 1 1 2
I = u 2 (1 − v) 2 u 3 v 3 (1 − u) 3 u du dv
Z0 1 Z0 1
11 2 1 1
= u 6 (1 − u) 3 v 3 (1 − v) 2 du dv
0 0
Γ( 17
6
)Γ( 53 ) Γ( 34 )Γ( 32 ) 2
3
Γ( 23 ) 31 Γ( 13 )Γ( 32 ) 16  2   1 
= = = Γ Γ
Γ( 276
) Γ( 17 6
) 753
222
Γ( 32 ) 945 3 3

But Γ( 23 )Γ( 13 ) = π
sin π3
= 2π
√
3
. Thus I = 32π
√ .
945 3

Paper II

Question 3(a) Let f (x) = x if x is rational, and 1 − x if x is irrational. Show that f is

continuous only at x = 12 .

Solution. See 2001, question 1(a).

5
Question 4(a) Find the maximum and minimum value of f (x, y) = xy subject to the con-
dition that x2 + y 2 + xy = a2 .

Solution. Let F (x, y) = xy − λ(x2 + y 2 + xy − a2 ), where λ is Lagrange’s undetermined

multiplier. For extreme values,
∂F ∂F y x
= y − 2λx − λy = 0, = x − 2λy − λx = 0 ⇒ λ = =
∂x ∂y 2x + y 2y + x

as (x, y) 6= (0, 0). Thus 2x2 + xy = 2y 2 + xy ⇒ (x + y)(x − y) = 0 ⇒ x = y, x = −y. Using

x2 + y 2 + xy = a2 we get
a2
1. x = y ⇒ 3x2 = a2 ⇒ x = y = ± √a3 ⇒ f (x, y) = 3

2. x = −y ⇒ x2 = a2 ⇒ x = a, y = −a or x = −a, y = a. In either of these cases

f (x, y) = −a2 .
2
Thus the required maximum value is a3 and the required minimum is −a2 .
Note: In this problem there was no need to check the nature of the critical points, as the
maximum amd minimum values occur at these points. If it were required, it could be done
as follows.
d2 F = −2λ(dx)2 − 2λ(dy)2 + 2(1 − λ)dx dy
2x+y
Now x2 + y 2 + xy = a2 ⇒ 2x dx + x dy + y dx + 2y dy = 0, or dy = − x+2y dx. Thus
 2
2 2 2x + y 2x + y
d F = −2λ(dx) − 2λ (dx)2 − 2(1 − λ)(dx)2
x + 2y x + 2y

Case 1: x = a, y = −a, λ = −1 or x = −a, y = a, λ = −1

d2 F = 2(dx)2 − 4(−1)(dx)2 + 2(−1)2 (dx)2 > 0

so we have a local minimum at (a, −a) or (−a, a).

Case 2: x = y = ± √a3 , λ = 31 .

2 4 2
d2 F = − (dx)2 − (dx)2 − (dx)2 < 0
3 3 3
so we have a local maximum at x = y = ± √a3 .

6
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1988 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 14, 2010

Question 1(a) If f (x) = tan x prove that

   
(n) n (n−2) n (n−4) nπ
f (0) − f (0) + f (0) − . . . = sin
2 4 2

Solution. Clearly sin x = f (x) cos x. Using Leibnitz’s formula for the derivative of the
product of two functions, we get
n  
dn sin x X n (n−r)
= f (x) cos(r) (x)
dxn r=0
r

dr rπ dr rπ dr
Now cos x = cos(x + 2
) and sin x = sin(x + 2
). Therefore, cos x = 0 when
dxr r
dxr n
dxr
d n d
x = 0, n odd, and r
cos x = (−1) 2 when x = 0, n even. Also, sin x = sin nπ
2
when
dx dxn
x = 0.
Thus    
nπ (n) n (n−2) n (n−4)
sin = f (0) − f (0) + f (0) − . . .
2 2 4
.

Question 1(b) Find the minimum value of x2 + y 2 + z 2 when x + y + z = k.

Solution. Let F (x) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + λ(x + y + z − k), where λ is Lagrange’s undetermined

multiplier. For stationary values,
∂F ∂F ∂F
= 2x + λ = 0, = 2y + λ = 0, = 2z + λ = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z

1
Thus λ = −2x = −2y = −2z ⇒ x = y = z. From x + y + z = k we have x = y = z = k3 .
Now
∂ 2F ∂ 2F ∂ 2F ∂ 2F ∂ 2F ∂ 2F
d2 F = (dx)2
+ (dy)2
+ (dz)2
+ dx dy + dy dz + dz dx
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
= 2(dx)2 + 2(dy)2 + 2(dz)2
Now dx + dy + dz = 0 from x + y + z = k, so substituting dz = −dx − dy, we get
d2 F = 2(dx)2 + 2(dy)2 + 2(dx + dy)2 = 4(dx)2 + 4(dy)2 + 4dx dy
 
dy 2 3 2
= 4 dx + + (dy) > 0
2 4
k k2 2 2 k2
Thus x2 +y 2 +z 2 is minimum when x = y = z = 3
and the minimum value of 9
+ k9 + k9 = 3
.

Question 1(c) Find the asymptotes of the cubic

x3 − xy 2 − 2xy + 2x − y = 0
and show that they cut the curve again in points which lie on the line 3x − y = 0.
Solution. Since the coefficient of the highest degree term of y in the equation, i.e.y 2 is −x,
it follows that x = 0 is an asymptote parallel to the y axis.
There is no asymptote parallel to the x-axis, as the coefficient of x3 , the highest degree
term of x peresent in the equation, is a constant.
If y = mx + c is an asymptote, then m is given by Φ3 (m) = 1 − m2 = 0 ⇒ m = ±1. c
Φ2 (m)
is given by − 0 provided it is not indeterminate, where Φr are homogeneous terms of
Φ3 (m)
degree r present in the equation. Thus c = − −2m−2m
= −1. Thus the asymptotes of the type
y = mx + c are y = x − 1, y + x = −1.
The joint equation of asymptotes is given by x(y − x + 1)(y + x + 1) = 0 or x(y 2 − x2 +
2y + 1) = xy 2 − x3 + 2yx + x = 0, or P3 = x3 − xy 2 − 2yx − x = 0.
Thus the point of intersection of the curve and the asymptotes lie on the line 3x − y = 0
as the equation of the given curve is P3 + 3x − y = 0.
Note: The asymptotes parallel to the y-axis can also be found as follows:
Let x = my + d be an asymptote. Dividing the equation by y 3 and letting y → ∞, we
get m3 − m = 0, as xy → m when y → ∞. Thus m = 0, ±1.
If m = 0, then x = d, so d3 − dy 2 − 2dy + 2d − y = 0. Dividing by y 2 and letting y → ∞
we get d = 0, so x = 0 is an asymptote.
Similarly we can find d = 1 when m = ±1. This will determine all three asymptotes.

Question 2(a) Find the center of gravity of one loop of the lemniscate of Bernoulli r2 =
a2 cos 2θ.
Solution.

2
 Because of symmetry, y = 0. The area of
the lemniscate is
Z π Z π  π4
1 4 2 4 sin 2θ a2
r dθ = a2 cos 2θ dθ = a2 =
2 − π4 0 2 0 2
π
Now θ= 4
Z π
2 4
3
θ = − π4
x = r cos θ dθ
3a2 − π4
Z π
4a 4 3
= (1 − 2 sin2 θ) 2 cos θ dθ
3 0
√ cos t dt
Let 2 sin θ = sin t ⇒ cos θ dθ = √
2
Z π Z π √
4a 2
2 3 4a 2
4 4a 3 · 1 · π π 2a
= √ (1 − sin t) 2 cos t dt = √ cos t dt = √ =
3 2 0 3 2 0 3 24·2·2 8
√
the centroid is π 82a , 0 .


Thus
ZZ
3
Question 2(b) Evaluate x 2 y 2 (1 − x2 − y 2 ) dx dy over the positive quadrant of the circle
x2 + y 2 = 1.
dX dY
Solution. Substitute x2 = X, y 2 = Y ⇒ dx dy = 1 1 and the region of integration is
4X 2 Y 2
transformed to X ≥ 0, Y ≥ 0, X + Y ≤ 1. The required integral becomes
ZZ ZZ
3 dX dY 1 1 1
I= X Y (1 − X − Y )
4
1 1 = X 4 Y 2 (1 − X − Y ) dX dY
X≥0,Y ≥0 4X 2 Y 2 4 X≥0,Y ≥0
X+Y ≤1 X+Y ≤1

Put X + Y = u, Y = uv ⇒ X = u(1 − v).

∂(X, Y ) 1 − v −u
= =u
∂(u, v) v u
Y
Also, X ≥ 0, Y ≥ 0, X + Y ≤ 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ u ≤ 1, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1(∵ v = X+Y
).

1 1 1 1
Z Z
1 1 1
I = u 4 (1 − v) 4 u 2 v 2 (1 − u)u du dv
4 0 0
1 1 7
Z Z 1
1 1
= u 4 (1 − u) du v 2 (1 − v) 4 dv
4 0 0
1 11 3 5 1 Γ( 114
)Γ(2) Γ( 32 )Γ( 54 ) 1 Γ( 32 )Γ( 54 )
= B( 4 , 2)B( 2 , 4 ) = =
4 4 Γ( 19 4
) Γ( 114
) 4 Γ( 19 4
)

The above integral actually becomes Dirichlet’s integral.

3
Question 2(c) Show that the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the curve (a−x)y 2 =
π 2 a3
a2 x about its asymptote is .
2
Solution. The asymptote is x = a, because a − x is the coefficient of the highest degree
term in y present in the equation of the curve. Thus
Z ∞
V = π(a − x)2 dy
−∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
ay 2 2 6 dy
= 2π a− 2 2
dy = 2πa
0 a +y 0 (a + y 2 )2
2

Put y = a tan θ, dy = a sec2 θ dθ

Z π Z π
6
2 a sec2 θ dθ 3
2
2 31 π π 2 a3
V = 2πa 4 2 2
= 2πa cos θ dθ = 2πa =
0 a (1 + tan θ) 0 22 2

Paper II

Question 3(a) Evaluate

x2 y 2  32
ZZ 
1− − 2 dx dy
a2 b
x2 y 2
over the area of the ellipse + 2 = 1.
a2 b
Solution.
ZZ Let x = aX, y = bY , so dx dy = ab dX dY . The given integral becomes
3
ab (1 − X − Y 2 ) 2 dX dY over the circle X 2 + Y 2 ≤ 1. Changing to polar coordinates,
2

X = r cos θ, Y = r sin θ, we get

π
Z
2
Z 1
3
I = 4ab (1 − r2 ) 2 r dr dθ
0 0
Z 1
3
= 2πab (1 − r2 ) 2 r dr
0
Put r2 = t, 2r dr = dt
Z 1
3 2 5 1
i 2πab
= πab (1 − t) dt = −πab (1 − t)
2 2 =
0 5 0 5

4
Question 4(a) Show that a local extreme value of f given by
f (x) = xk1 + . . . + xkn , x = (x1 , . . . , xn )
subject to the condition x1 + . . . + xn = a is ak n1−k .
Solution. Let F (x) = xk1 +. . .+xkn −λ(x1 +. . .+xn −a) where λ is Lagrange’s undetermined
multiplier. For extreme values, for all i
∂F λ
= kxk−1
i − λ = 0 ⇒ xk−1
i =
∂xi k
λ a
Thus xk−1
1 = . . . = xk−1
n = , or x1 = . . . = xn . Using x1 + . . . + xn = a we get xi = , so
n
k n
X a
k nak
the extreme value is = k = ak n1−k .
i=0
n n
Note: To decide the nature of the extreme value, we consider
d2 F = k(k − 1)x1k−2 [(dx1 )2 + . . . + (dxn )2 ]
using x1 = . . . = xn . Thus d2 F > 0 if k < 0 or k > 1 (assuming a > 0), so we have a
minimum. If 0 < k < 1, d2 F < 0, and we have a maximum. This is not required for this
question.
Question 4(b) The function f : R2 → R is given by
( 2
x y
x2 +y 2
, (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
f (x, y) =
0, (x, y) = (0, 0)
Prove that at (0, 0) f is continuous and possesses all directional derivatives, but is not dif-
ferentiable.
Solution. Let  > 0 and δ = , then
x2 y r2 cos2 θ r sin θ p
|f (x, y) − f (0, 0)| = 2 = ≤ r = x2 + y 2
x + y2 r2
Thus for any (x, y) belonging to the open disc with center (0, 0) and radius δ =  i.e. for
x2 + y 2 < 2 , we get |f (x, y) − f (0, 0)| < , so f (x, y) is continuous at (0, 0).
Let v = (cos θ, sin θ), then by definition the directional derivative at (a, b) in the direction
of v is given by
f (a + t cos θ, b + t sin θ) − f (a, b)
lim
t→0 t
when this limit exists, and it is denoted by fv (a, b).
Here (a, b) = (0, 0), so
f (t cos θ, t sin θ) t2 cos2 θ t sin θ
fv (0, 0) = lim = lim = cos2 θ sin θ
t→0 t t→0 t3
Thus all directional derivatives exist.
However for f to be differentiable, all directional derivatives should be equal — this is
clearly not the case here, as the directional derivative for θ = 0 is 0, but for θ = π4 it is 2√1 2 .

5
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1989 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 14, 2010

Question 1(a) If f is at least thrice continuously differentiable, then show that

h2 00
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf 0 (a) + f (a + θh)
2!
where θ lies between 0 and 1, and prove that limh→0 θ = 13 .

Solution. Let
(a + h − x)2
φ(x) = f (a + h) − f (x) − (a + h − x)f 0 (x) − A
2!
where A is so determined that φ(a + h) = φ(a). Clearly φ(a + h) = 0, and φ(a) = f (a + h) −
2 2
f (a) − hf 0 (a) − h2! A, so φ(a) = 0 ⇒ h2! A = f (a + h) − f (a) − hf 0 (a).
Now φ satisfies the requirements of Rolle’s theorem in [a, a + h], therefore there exists
θ ∈ (0, 1) such that φ0 (a + θh) = 0, note that a + θh ∈ (a, a + h). But

φ0 (a + θh) = −(h − θh)f 00 (a + θh) + (h − θh)A = 0 ⇒ A = f 00 (a + θh)

Now from φ(a) = 0, we get

h2 00
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf 0 (a) + f (a + θh)
2!
as required.
Now consider the equality
h2 00
f (a + h) − f (a) − hf 0 (a) − 2
f (a) h2 f 00 (a + θh) − f 00 (a)
=
h3 2 h3

1
Taking the limit as h → 0 on both sides, we get
2
f (a + h) − f (a) − hf 0 (a) − h2 f 00 (a)
LHS = lim
h→0 h3
f (a + h) − f (a) − hf 00 (a)
0 0
= lim L’Hospital’s rule
h→0 3h2
f 00 (a + h) − f 00 (a)
= lim L’Hospital’s rule
h→0 6h
1 000
= f (a)
6
f 00 (a + θh) − f 00 (a) θ f 00 (a + θh) − f 00 (a)
RHS = lim = lim
h→0 2h h→0 2 θh
θ 000
= f (a)
2
Thus θ = 31 as h → 0, provided f 000 (a) 6= 0.
The question above is a particular case of the following:
Taylor’s Theorem: Let f (n−1) , the (n − 1)-th derivative of a real valued function be
continuous in the closed interval [a, a + h], and let f (n) exist in the open interval (a, a + h),
then there exists a real number θ, 0 < θ < 1, such that
hn−1 (n−1)
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf 0 (a) + . . . + f (a) + Rn
(n − 1)!
where
hn (1 − θ)n−p (n)
Rn = f (a + θh), 0 < θ < 1
(n − 1)!p
Proof: The condition that f (n−1) (x) is continuous in [a, a + h] ⇒ f, f 0 , f 00 , . . . , f (n−2) are
continuous in [a, a + h]. Let
(a + h − x)n−1 (n−1)
φ(x) = f (x) + (a + h − x)f 0 (x) + . . . + f (x) + A(a + h − x)p
(n − 1)!
where A is a constant to be determined so that φ(a + h) = φ(a) i.e.

0 (hn−1 (n−1)
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf (a) + . . . + f (a) + Ahp
(n − 1)!
Now (i) φ(x) is continuous in [a, a + h] (ii) φ(x) is differentiable in (a, a + h) and (iii)
φ(a + h) = φ(a). Thus all requirements of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied,so there exists a real
number θ, 0 < θ < 1 such that φ0 (a + θh) = 0 (note that any real number c ∈ (a, a + h) can
be written as c = a + c−a
h
h, and since a < c < a + h, we get 0 < θ = c−a
h
< 1). But

(a + h − x)n−1 (n)
φ0 (x) = f (x) − pA(a + h − x)p−1
(n − 1)!

2
so
(h(1 − θ))n−1 (n) hn−p (1 − θ)n−p (n)
φ0 (a+θh) = f (a+θh)−pAhp−1 (1−θ)p−1 = 0 ⇒ A = f (a+θh)
(n − 1)! (n − 1)!p

Thus
hn−1 (n−1) hn (1 − θ)n−p (n)
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf 0 (a) + . . . + f (a) + f (a + θh)
(n − 1)! (n − 1)!p

If we put n = p we get

hn−1 (n−1) hn
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf 0 (a) + . . . + f (a) + f (n) (a + θh)
(n − 1)! n!

The given question is for n = 2, so

h2 00
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf 0 (a) + f (a + θh)
2!
Now we prove the second part: If f (n+1) (x) is continuous from the right at x = a, then
1
θ → n+1 as h → 0 provided f (n+1) (a) 6= 0.
In the given question, n = 2, and f (3) (x) is continuous in [a, a + h] so θ → 13 .
f (n+1) (x) is continuous from the right at x = a ⇒ there exists k, 0 < k < h, such that
f (n+1) (x) exists in [a, a + k]. Thus by the above theorem:

0 (k n−1 (n−1) k n (n)

f (a + k) = f (a) + kf (a) + . . . + f (a) + f (a + θk)
(n − 1)! n!
n n+1
(k (n) k
f (a + k) = f (a) + kf 0 (a) + . . . + f (a) + f (n+1) (a + φk)
n! (n + 1)!

where 0 < θ < 1, 0 < φ < 1. Subtracting the first from the second,
k
f (n) (a + θk) − f (n) (a) = f (n+1) (a + φk)
n+1

Now we use Lagrange’s mean value theorem for f (n) (x) in [a, a + θk] and obtain

k
θkf (n+1) (a + θθ1 k) = f (n+1) (a + φk), 0 < θ1 < 1
n+1
1
Taking limit as h → 0 i.e. k → 0, we get limh→0 θ = n+1 as f (n+1) (a+θθ1 k) and f (n+1) (a+φk)
both tend to f (n+1) (a) as k → 0, and f (n+1) (a) 6= 0.

Question 1(b) Prove that the√volume of a right circular cylinder of greatest volume which
can be inscribed in a sphere is 33 times that of a sphere.

3
 Solution. Let the radius of the sphere be a, and the radius and height of the cylinder be r
and h respectively. Then r2 + ( h2 )2 = a2 . Letting r = a cos θ, h = 2a sin θ, the volume of the
cylinder is 2πa3 cos2 θ sin θ.
dV
For extreme values, = 2πa3 [cos3 θ − 2 cos θ sin2 θ] = 0. Now cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = π2 ⇒
dθ
r = 0, which is not admissible. So cos2 θ − 2 sin2 θ = 0 ⇒ tan θ = √12 as 0 < θ < π2 . Thus
q
sin θ = √13 , cos θ = 23 .
d2 V 3
q
2
= 2πa [−3 cos θ sin θ + 2 sin θ − 4 cos θ sin θ] < 0 for sin θ = 3 , cos θ = 23 . Thus
3 2 2 √1
dθ
V is maximum when tan θ = √12 .
√
V = 2πa3 23 · √1 = 4 πa3 · 3
√ 3 3 3
3
Thus V is 3
times the volume of the sphere.

∂ 2z
Question 1(c) Show that at the point of the surface xx y y z z = c where x = y = z, =
∂x ∂y
−[x log ex]−1 .

Solution. Taking logs on both sides of xx y y z z = c, we get

z log z + y log y + x log x = log c

Differentiating with respect to x,

∂z ∂z 1 + log x log ex
(1 + log z) + (1 + log x) = 0 ⇒ =− =− (∗)
∂x ∂x 1 + log z log ez
∂z log ey
Similarly, =− .
∂y log ez
Differentiating (*) w.r.t. y,

∂ 2z 1 ∂z ∂z ∂ 2z 1 ∂z ∂z log ex log ey
(1 + log z) + =0⇒ =− =−
∂x ∂y z ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y z log ez ∂y ∂x z(log ez)3

∂ 2z log ex log ex
Letting x = y = z, we get =− = −[x log ex]−1 as required.
∂x ∂y x(log ex)3

Question 2(a) Find the surface of the solid generated by revolving x = a cos3 t, y = a sin3 t
about the x-axis.

4
 Solution. We confine ourselves to the first quadrant because of symmetry. The curve is
2 2 2
x3 + y 3 = a3 .
Z π
2 ds
S = 2 2πy dt
0 dt
Z π r 
2
3 dx 2  dy 2
= 4π a sin t + dt
0 dt dt
Z π
2 1
sin3 t (−3a cos2 t sin t)2 + (3a sin2 t cos t)2 2 dt

= 4πa
0
Z π
2
= 4πa 3a sin4 t cos t dt
0
5
 π2
2 sin t 12 2
= 12πa = πa
5 0 5

Question 2(b) If for a curve x sin θ + y cos θ = f 0 (θ) and x cos θ − y sin θ = f 00 (θ) then show
that S = f (θ) + f 00 (θ) + C.

Solution. Solving for x and y, we get

x = f 0 (θ) sin θ + f 00 (θ) cos θ

y = f 0 (θ) cos θ − f 00 (θ) sin θ
dx
= f 0 (θ) cos θ + f 00 (θ) sin θ − f 00 (θ) sin θ + f 000 (θ) cos θ
dθ
= f 0 (θ) + f 000 (θ) cos θ

dy
= −f 0 (θ) sin θ + f 00 (θ) cos θ − f 00 (θ) cos θ − f 000 (θ) sin θ
dθ
= − f 0 (θ) + f 000 (θ) sin θ


Z r 2  2 Z
dx dy  0
f (θ) + f 000 (θ) dθ

S = + dθ =
dθ dθ
00
= f (θ) + f (θ) + C

as required.
ZZZ
1
Question 2(c) Evaluate (1 − z) 2 dx dy dz over the interior of the tetrahedron with
faces x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x + y + z = 1.

5
 Solution.
Z 1 Z 1−z Z 1−y−z
1
I = (1 − z) 2 dx dy dz
z=0 y=0 x=0
Z1 Z1−z
1
= (1 − z) 2 (1 − y − z) dy dz
z=0 y=0
1
y2
Z h i1−z
1
= (1 − z) 2 y − − zy dz
z=0 2 0
Z 1
1
h (1 − z)2 i
= (1 − z) 1 − z −
2 − z(1 − z) dz
z=0 2
Z 1
3
h (1 − z) i
= (1 − z) 2 1 − − z dz
z=0 2
Z 1 1
1 5 1 −2 7 1
= (1 − z) 2 dz = (1 − z) 2 =
z=0 2 2 7 0 7

Paper II

Question 3(a) Show that the value of

ZZ
1 1
(1 − x − y)3 x 2 y 2 dx dy

taken over the interior of the triangle whose vertices are the origin and the points (0, 1) and
π
(1, 0) is 480 .

Solution. We will convert this into a Dirichlet integral. Let x + y = u, y = uv, so

∂(x, y) 1 − v −u
x = u(1 − v), and = = u. u varies from 0 to 1, and v = uy = x+y
y
also
∂(u, v) v u
varies from 0 to 1.

Z 1 Z 1
1 1 1 1
I = (1 − u)3 u 2 (1 − v) 2 u 2 v 2 u du dv
Z0 1 Z0 1
3 3
= (1 − u)4−1 u3−1 (1 − v) 2 −1 v 2 −1 du dv
0 0
Γ(4)Γ(3) Γ( 23 )Γ( 32 )
=
Γ(7) Γ(3)
3! π π
= =
6! 4 480
as Γ( 12 ).

6
Question 3(b) Obtain the largest and the least values of 2(x + y + z) − xyz on the closed
ball x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 9.

Solution. Let F (x, y, z) = 2(x + y + z) − xyz − λ(x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 9), where λ is Lagrange’s

undetermined multiplier. For extreme values:
∂F ∂F ∂F
= 2 − yz + 2λx = 0, = 2 − xz + 2λy = 0, = 2 − yx + 2λz = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Subtracting the first two, z(x − y) + 2λ(x − y) = 0 ⇒ x = y or z = −2λ. Similarly from the
other pairs, we get y = z or x = −2λ and x = z or y = −2λ.
We now explicitly find extreme vaues to get the greatest and least values of f (x, y, z) =
2(x + y + z) − xyz
√
1. x = y = z: This gives us x2 + x2 + x2 = 9, so x = ± 3.
√ √ √ √
(a) x = y = z = 3: f (x, y, z) = 6 3 − 3 3 = 3 3.
√ √ √ √
(b) x = y = z = − 3: f (x, y, z) = −6 3 + 3 3 = −3 3.

2. x = y, y = −2λ: 4λ2 + 4λ2 + z 2 = 9 ⇒ z 2 = 9 − 8λ2 . Using 2 − xy + 2λz = 0, we have

2λ2 − 1
2 − 4λ2 + 2λz = 0 ⇒ z = . Thus
λ
 2λ2 − 1 2
= 9 − 8λ2
λ
⇒ 4λ4 − 4λ2 + 1 = 9λ2 − 8λ4
⇒ 12λ4 − 13λ2 + 1 = 0
1
⇒ λ2 = 1,
12
λ = 1 ⇒ x = y = −2, z 2 = 1
λ = −1 ⇒ x = y = 2, z 2 = 1
1 1 25
λ = √ ⇒ x = y = − √ , z2 =
2 3 3 3
1 1 25
λ = − √ ⇒ x = y = √ , z2 =
2 3 3 3
We examine each of these 8 cases:

(a) x = y = −2, z = 1: f (x, y, z) = −6 − 4 = −10.

(b) x = y = −2, z = −1: f (x, y, z) = −10 + 4 = −6.
(c) x = y = 2, z = 1: f (x, y, z) = 10 − 4 = 6.
(d) x = y = 2, z = −1: f (x, y, z) = 6 + 4 = 10.
(e) x = y = − √13 , z = √5 :
3
f (x, y, z) = √6
3
− 5
√
3 3
= 13
√ .
3 3

7
 (f) x = y = − √13 , z = − √53 : f (x, y, z) = − √143 + 5
√
3 3
= − 337
√ .
3

(g) x = y = √1 , z = √5 : f (x, y, z) = 14
√ − 5
√ = 37
√ .
3 3 3 3 3 3 3

(h) x = y = √1 , z = − √53 : f (x, y, z) = − √63 + 5

√ = − 313
√ .
3 3 3 3

We need not consider the other possibilities like y = z, z = −2λ as the situation is symmetric
and no new values will result. The greatest value of f (x, y, z) is 10, and the least value is
-10.
We don’t consider d2 F , as it is not needed. We use the fact the all the maximum and
minimum values occur at the extreme values. Calculation of d2 F is a very lengthy process.

8
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1990 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 14, 2010

Question 1(a) If a function f (x) of the real variable x has the first five derivatives 0 at a
given value x = a, show that it has a maximum or a minimum at x = a according as the
sixth derivative is negative or positive. What happens if only the first four derivatives are 0,
but not the fifth?

Solution. We shall take up the general case, which would cover both the cases —
Let f (n) (a) exist and f (n) (a) 6= 0. Let f (r) (a) = 0, 1 ≤ r ≤ n − 1. Then f (a) is not an
extreme value when n is odd, and if n is even, then f has a maximum at x = a if f (n) (a) < 0
and a minimum if f (n) (a) > 0.
Thus the above result is proved when n = 6. When n = 5, f (x) has neither maximum
nor minimum at x = a.
Proof: The existence of f (n) (a) imlies that f 0 (x), f 00 (x), . . . , f (n−1) (x) all exist in a certain
neighborhood of a, say (a − δ1 , a + δ1 ).
Case (1): If f (n) (a) > 0, then f (n−1) (x) is increasing at a i.e. there exists 0 < δ < δ1
such that f (n−1) (x) < f (n−1) (a) = 0 for a − δ < x < a, and f (n−1) (x) > f (n−1) (a) = 0 for
a < x < a + δ.
Case (2): If f (n) (a) < 0, then f (n−1) (x) is decreasing at a i.e. there exists 0 < δ < δ1
such that f (n−1) (x) > f (n−1) (a) = 0 for a − δ < x < a, and f (n−1) (x) < f (n−1) (a) = 0 for
a < x < a + δ.
Let h be such that |h| < δ, then by Taylor’s theorem

hn−1 (n−1)
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf 0 (a) + . . . + f (a + θh), 0 < θ < 1
(n − 1)!

hn−1 (n−1)
Thus f (a + h) − f (a) = f (a + θh) as f (r) (a) = 0, 1 ≤ r ≤ n − 2. Since
(n − 1)!
a + θh ∈ (a − δ, a + δ), we have the following conclusions:

1
 1. n even and f (n) (a) > 0: If h < 0, then hn−1 < 0 and f (n−1) (a + θh) < 0 (by Case
(1) above, as a − δ < a + θh < a. If h > 0, then hn−1 > 0 and f (n−1) (a + θh) > 0 (as
a < a + θh < a + δ.
hn−1 (n−1)
In either case f (a + θh) > 0 for all h with |h| < δ, i.e. f (a + h) > f (a)
(n − 1)!
for |h| < δ, thus f (x) has a minimum at x = a.
hn−1 (n−1)
2. n even and f (n) (a) < 0: Using Case (2), we get f (a + θh) < 0 for all h
(n − 1)!
with |h| < δ, i.e. f (a + h) < f (a) for |h| < δ, thus f (x) has a maximum at x = a.

3. n odd and f (n) (a) > 0: If h < 0, then hn−1 > 0 and f (n−1) (a + θh) < 0, so f (a +
h) < f (a) for h < 0, |h| < δ. If h > 0, then hn−1 > 0 and f (n−1) (a + θh) > 0, so
f (a + h) > f (a) for 0 < h < δ. Thus f has neither minimum nor maximum at x = a.
The case for n odd and f (n) (a) < 0 is similar — h < 0 ⇒ f (a + h) > f (a), h > 0 ⇒
f (a + h) < f (a), so there is no extreme value at x = a.

This completes the proof.

Question 2(a) Show that

f (x) = (x − 2)2 (x2 + 2bx + c)(x + 3)3

has a critical point at x = −1 ⇔ 2b + 5c = 7.

Solution.

f 0 (x) = 2(x − 2)(x2 + 2bx + c)(x + 3)3 + (x − 2)2 (2x + 2b)(x + 3)3
+ 3(x − 2)2 (x2 + 2bx + c)(x + 3)2
f 0 (−1) = 2(−3)(1 − 2b + c)8 + 72(−2 + 2b) + 108(1 − 2b + c)
= −48 + 96b − 48c − 144 + 144b + 108 − 216b + 108c = −84 + 24b + 60c

For −1 to be a critical point, f 0 (−1) = 0 ⇔ −84 + 24b + 60c = 0 ⇔ 2b + 5c = 7.

Question 2(b) Assuming that the above condition is satisfied, examine the nature of f (x)
at its three critical points.

Solution.

f 0 (x) = 2(x−2)(x2 +2bx+c)(x+3)3 +(x−2)2 (2x+2b)(x+3)3 +3(x−2)2 (x2 +2bx+c)(x+3)2

so it follows that the three critical points are x = 2, x = −3 and x = −1 when 2b + 5c = 7.

2
1. x = 2.
(x − 2)2 (x2 + 2bx + c)(x + 3)3 = (x − 2)2 g(x)
 
f (x) =
f 0 (x) = 2(x − 2)g(x) + (x − 2)2 g 0 (x)
f 00 (x) = 2g(x) + 4(x − 2)g 0 (x) + (x − 2)2 g 00 (x)
f 00 (2) = 2g(2) = 250(4 + 4b + c)
= 250(4 + 14 − 10c + c) = 250 · 9(2 − c)
There is a maximum at x = 2 if 2 < c, and a minimum at x = 2 if 2 > c. The test
fails when c = 2. Considering f 000 (x) when x = 2, c = 2, 2b = −3,
f 000 (x) = 2g 0 (x) + 4g 0 (x) + 4(x − 2)g 00 (x) + (x − 2)2 g 000 (x) + 2(x − 2)g 00 (x)
f 000 (2) = 6 (4 + 2b)(2 + 3)3 + 3(4 + 4b + c)(2 + 3)2
 
 
= 6 125 + 75(4 − 6 + 2) 6= 0
so there is no maximum or minimum at x = 2 when c = 2.
2. x = −3
(x + 3)3 (x − 2)2 (x2 + 2bx + c) = (x + 3)3 h(x)
 
f (x) =
f 0 (x) = 3(x + 3)2 h(x) + (x + 3)3 h0 (x)
f 00 (x) = 6(x + 3)h(x) + 3(x + 3)2 h0 (x) + 3(x + 3)2 h0 (x) + (x + 3)3 h00 (x)
f 00 (−3) = 0
f 000 (x) = 6h(x) + 12(x + 3)h0 (x) + (x + 3)2 [some polynomial in x]
f 000 (−3) = 6h(−3) = 150(9 − 6b + c) = 150(9 − 21 + 15c + c) = 600(4c − 3)
So if c 6= 34 , f (x) does not have a maximum or minimum at x = −3. If c = 34 , then

f (4) (x) = 18h0 (x) + (x + 3)[some polynomial in x]

 
so f (4) (−3) = 18 2(−5)(9 − 6b + c) + 25(−6 + 2b) = 18(−240 + 110b − 10c) < 0. Hence
if c = 43 , b = 13
8
, f (x) has a maximum at x = −3.
3. x = −1. Let y = x + 3. Then we need to consider the value y = 2.
f (y) = y 3 (y − 5)2 (y 2 + (2b − 6)y + 9 − 6b + c)
= y 3 (y 2 − 10y + 25)(y 2 + (1 − 5c)y − 12 + 16c)
= y 7 + (1 − 5c − 10)y 6 + (−12 + 16c + 25 − 10 + 50c)y 5
+(120 − 160c + 25 − 125c)y 4 + (400c − 300)y 3
= y 7 − (9 + 5c)y 6 + (3 + 66c)y 5 + (145 − 285c)y 4 + (400c − 300)y 3
f 00 (y) = 42y 5 − 30(9 + 5c)y 4 + 20(3 + 66c)y 3 + 12(145 − 285c)y 2 + 6(400c − 300)y
f 00 (2) = 1344 − 480(9 + 5c) + 160(3 + 66c) + 48(145 − 285c) + 12(400c − 300)
= 864 − 720c

3
 So if c > 65 , then f 00 (−1) < 0 and f (x) has a maximum at x = −1. If c < 65 , f (x) has
a minimum at x = −1. If c = 56 , then this test fails, we consider higher derivatives at
y = 2 with c = 65 :

f 000 (y) = 210y 4 − 1800y 3 + 4932y 2 − 4728y + 1080

Now it is clear that f 000 (2) 6= 0, hence there is no maximum or minimum at x = −1

when c = 65 .

Question 2(c) Show that f (x) has at least three points of inflection irrespective of the
condition 2b + 5c = 7.

Solution. From the calculation of f 00 (−3) = 0 whether 2b + 5c = 7 or not. Since f (−3) =

f (2) = 0, there exists a real number b between −3 and 2 such that f 0 (b) = 0. Now f 0 (2) =
f 0 (b) = f 0 (−3) = 0, thus we get a1 ∈ (−3, b), a2 ∈ (b, 2) where f 00 (a1 ) = 0, f 00 (a2 ) = 0. Thus
there are least 3 points where f 00 (x) = 0.
Note: This question is not complete: A point of inflection is a point where the curvature
of a curve changes sign (the curve goes from convex to concave or vice versa). Any point a
is a point of inflection if f 00 (a) = 0 and the lowest order non-zero derivative at a is of odd
order, or equivalently, f 00 (a + ) and f 00 (a − ) have opposite signs in the neighborhood of a.
Thus f 00 (x) = 0 is a necessary condition for a point to be an inflection point, but is not
sufficient. f 00 (x) is a 5th degree curve. Take two of the roots and equate them, and two other
roots and equate them too. We can thus get two equations in b, c, which can be solved to get
their values. Now f 00 (x) = A(x − B)(x − C)2 (x − D)2 , where B, C, D are distinct. This curve
has only one point of inflection, B. For example, the similar curve g(x) = 35x3 − 21x5 + 5x7
has only one inflection point, although g 00 (x) has 3 roots.

Question 3(a) Prove that the n-th derivative of f (x)g(x) equals

n  
X n (n−i)
f (x)g (i) (x)
i=0
i

n


where f (m) denotes the m-th derivative of f (x) and i
are the binomial coefficients.

Solution. The proof is by induction on n. It is true for n = 1, as (f g)0 = f 0 g + f g 0 =

1
f (1) (x)g (0) (x) + 11 f (0) (x)g (1) (x) where f (0) (x) = f (x).



0
Induction hypothesis: Assume that the result is true for n = m.
m  
(m)
X m (m−i)
(f g) = f (x)g (i) (x)
i=0
i

4
Differentiating both sides,
m  
(m+1)
X m 
(f g) (x) = f (m−i+1) (x)g (i) (x) + f (m−i) (x)g (i+1) (x)
i=0
i
  m h   
m (m+1) (0)
X m m i (m−i+1)
= f (x)g (x) + + f (x)g (i) (x)
0 i=1
i i − 1
 
m (0)
+ f (x)g (m+1) (x)
m
  m  
m + 1 (m+1) (0)
X m + 1 (m−i+1)
= f (x)g (x) + f (x)g (i) (x)
0 i=1
i
 
m + 1 (0)
+ f (x)g (m+1) (x)
m+1
m+1
X m + 1
= f (m+1−i) (x)g (i) (x)
i=0
i

We used m0 = 1 = m+1


m
m+1

m
m

m+1


0
, m
= 1 = m+1
, i
+ i−1
= i
. The result is now
established for n = m + 1, and hence by induction for all n.

Question 3(b) Show that the m-th derivative gm (x) of g(x) = tan−1 x satisfies

(1 + x2 )gm+1 (x) + 2mxgm (x) + m(m − 1)gm−1 (x) = 0

and hence is of the form

(−1)m−1 (m − 1)!φm (x)
gm (x) =
(1 + x2 )m
where φm (x) is a polynomial of dergree m given by φ1 (x) = 1, φ2 (x) = 2x and the recursion
φm+1 (x) = 2xφm (x) − (1 + x2 )φm−1 (x).

1
Solution. g1 (x) = or (1 + x2 )g1 (x) = 1.
1 + x2
Using Leibnitz’s theorem proved above and differentiating the above equation m times,
we get      
m 2 m m
(1 + x )gm+1 (x) + 2xgm (x) + 2gm−1 (x) = 0
0 1 2
or
(1 + x2 )gm+1 (x) + 2mxgm (x) + m(m − 1)gm−1 (x) = 0
which is the required relation.
1 (−1)1−1 (1 − 1)!φ1 (x)
Now g1 (x) = = as φ1 (x) = 1.
1 + x2 (1 + x2 )1

5
 −2x (−1)2−1 (2 − 1)!φ2 (x)
g2 (x) = = as φ2 (x) = 2x.
(1 + x2 )2 (1 + x2 )2
Assume that the result is true for all n ≤ m. From the relation proved above:

(−1)m−1 (m − 1)!φm (x) (−1)m−2 (m − 2)!φm−1 (x)

(1 + x2 )gm+1 (x) + 2mx + m(m − 1) =0
(1 + x2 )m (1 + x2 )m−1
or
(−1)m (m − 1)!φm (x) (−1)m−1 (m − 2)!φm−1 (x)
gm+1 (x) = 2mx + m(m − 1)
(1 + x2 )m+1 (1 + x2 )m
m
(−1) m! h i
= 2 m+1
2xφm (x) − (1 + x2 )φm−1 (x)
(1 + x )
(−1)m m!
= φm+1 (x)
(1 + x2 )m+1

as φm+1 (x) = 2xφm (x) − (1 + x2 )φm−1 (x). This completes the proof.

Question 3(c) Find φm (x) for x ≤ 6. Can you find a general formula?

Solution.

φ1 (x) = 1
φ2 (x) = 2x
φ3 (x) = 2x · 2x − (1 + x2 ) = 3x2 − 1
φ4 (x) = 2x(3x2 − 1) − (1 + x2 )(2x) = 4x3 − 4x
φ5 (x) = 2x(4x3 − 4x) − (1 + x2 )(3x2 − 1) = 5x4 − 10x2 + 1
φ6 (x) = 2x(5x4 − 10x2 + 1) − (1 + x2 )(4x3 − 4x)
= 6x5 − 20x3 + 6x

Writing these down using binomial coefficients:

 
1 0
φ1 (x) = x
0
 
2 1
φ2 (x) = x
1
   
3 2 3 0
φ3 (x) = x − x
2 0
   
4 3 4 1
φ4 (x) = x − x
3 1

6
      
5 4 5 2 5 0
φ5 (x) = x − x + x
4 2 0
     
6 5 6 3 6 1
φ6 (x) = x − x + x
5 3 1
     
n n−1 n n−3 n
φn (x) = x − x + xn−5 − . . .
n−1 n−3 n−5
2r+1≤n   2r+1≤n  
X
r n n−2r−1
X
r n
= (−1) x = (−1) xn−2r−1
r=0
n − 2r − 1 r=0
2r + 1

Question 3(d) Show that the n-th derivative of ex tan−1 x at x = 0 equals

     
n n n
n − 2! + 4! − 6! + ...
3 5 7

Solution. Let g(x) = tan−1 (x). Using Leibnitz’s theorem, we get

n   n  
dn x −1
X n dn−r ex X n
(e tan x) = gr (x) n−r = gr (x)ex
dxn r=0
r dx r=0
r

Thus n   n  
dn x

−1
X n X n
(e tan x) = g r (0) = (−1)r−1 (r − 1)!φr (0)
dxn x=0 r=0
r r=1
r
as g(0) = 0 and gr (x) was computed above in terms of φr (x). Now φ2r (0) = 0, and φ2r+1 =
(−1)r . Thus
2r+1≤n
dn x
 X  n 
−1
(e tan x) = (2r)!(−1)r
dxn x=0 r=0
2r + 1
or
dn x
        
−1 n n n n
n
(e tan x) = 0! − 2! + 4! − 6! + ...
dx x=0 1 3 5 7
as required.

Paper II
Z π
2
Question 4(a) Discuss the convergence of the integral log(sin x) dx and if convergent,
0
evaluate it.

7
 Solution.π The integrand log sin x has a discontinuity only at x = 0. We consider the
Z
2
integral − log(sin x) dx so that the integrand is positive.
0
Let g(x) = x−m , 0 < m < 1, then

− log sin x − cos x 1 xm cos x x

lim = lim+ = lim =0
x→0+ x−m x→0 sin x −mx−m−1 x→0+ m sin x
as L’Hospital’s rule applies.
Z π Z π
2 2
But g(x) dx is convergent as 0 < m < 1, therefore − log(sin x) dx converges. Now
0 0
Z π Z π Z π Z π
2 2 2 2
log(sin 2x) dx = log 2 dx + log(cos x) dx + log(sin x) dx
0 0 0 0
Z π Z π
2 2
But log(cos x) dx = log(sin x) dx, so
0 0
Z π Z π
2 π 2
2 log(sin x) dx = − log 2 + log(sin 2x) dx
0 2 0

By putting 2x = t. π
Z Z π
2 1
log(sin 2x) dx = log(sin t) dt
0 2 0
Now substituting t = π − y, we have
π
Z π Z 0 Z
2
log(sin t) dt = log(sin y) (−dy) = log(sin y) dy
π π
2 2
0
Z π Z π
2 2
∴ log(sin 2x) dx = log(sin y) dy
0 0
Z π
2 π
⇒ log(sin x) dx = − log 2
0 2

2
Question 4(b) Find the point on the parabola
√ y = 2x, z = 0 which is nearest to the plane
z = x + 2y + 8. Show that this distance is 6.

Solution. Let the point (x, y, 0) by on the parabola. Then the distance d from the plane
z = x + 2y + 8 is given by

|x + 2y − 0 + 8| |x + 2y + 8|
d= √ = √
1+4+1 6

8
⇒ 6d2 = x2 + 4xy + 4y 2 + 16x + 32y + 64.
Put 2x = y 2 , and let F = 6d2 to get

y4 2
F = 6d = + 2y 3 + 4y 2 + 8y 2 + 32y + 64
4
We need to minimize F . The critical points are given by
dF
= y 3 + 6y 2 + 24y + 32 = 0
dy
⇒ (y + 2)(y 2 + 4y + 16) = 0

Thus y = −2 is the only real value.

d2 F
= 3y 2 + 12y + 24 = 12 − 24 + 24 > 0
dy 2
at y = −2. Hence y = −2 is a minimum. √
When y = −2, x = 2, and d = |2−4+8|
√
6
= 6 as required.

Question 4(c) Show that

ZZZ
1
(a2 b2 c2 − b2 c2 x2 − c2 a2 y 2 − a2 b2 z 2 ) 2 dx dy dz

x2 y 2 z 2 π 2 a2 b 2 c 2
over the volume bounded by 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 is equal to .
a b c 4
Solution. Let
ZZZ
1
I = 2
(a2 b2 c2 − b2 c2 x2 − c2 a2 y 2 − a2 b2 z 2 ) 2 dx dy dz
x2 2
{(x,y,z) | + y2 + z2 ≤1}
a2 b c

x2 y 2 z 2  21
ZZZ 
= 8abc 1 − 2 − 2 − 2 dx dy dz
{(x,y,z) | x2 2 2
+ y2 + z2 ≤1,x≥0,y≥0,z≥0} a b c
a2 b c

Let x = aX, y = bY, z = cZ, so that dx dy dz = abc dX dY dZ

ZZZ
2 2 2 2 2 2 21
I = 8a b c 2 2 2
(1 − X − Y − Z ) dX dY dZ
X +Y +Z ≤1
X≥0,Y ≥0,Z≥0

du dv dw
Let X 2 = u, Y 2 = v, Z 2 = w, so that dX = √ , dY
2 u
= √ , dZ
2 v
= √
2 w
and
ZZZ
1 1 1 1
2 2 2
I=a b c (1 − u − v − w) 2 u− 2 v − 2 w− 2 du dv dw
u+v+w≤1
u≥0,v≥0,w≥0

9
 We now convert this to a Dirichlet integral — let u + v + w = α, v + w = αβ, w = αβγ,
∂(u, v, w)
so that = −α2 β and
∂(α, β, γ)
Z 1Z 1Z 1
1 1 1 1
I = abc 2 2 2
(1 − α) 2 (α − αβ)− 2 (αβ − αβγ)− 2 (αβγ)− 2 α2 β dα dβ dγ
Z0 1 Z0 1 Z0 1
1 1 1 1 1
= a2 b 2 c 2 (1 − α) 2 α 2 (1 − β)− 2 (1 − γ)− 2 γ − 2 dα dβ dγ
0 0 0
3 3
2 2 2 Γ( 2 )Γ( 2 ) Γ( 21 )Γ(1) Γ( 21 )Γ( 21 )
= abc
Γ(3) Γ( 32 ) Γ(1)
1 1 4
2 2 2 2 Γ( 2 ) π 2 a2 b 2 c 2
= abc =
2 4
√
as required, as Γ( 12 ) = π.

10
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1991 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 14, 2010

Question 1(a) Sketch the curve (x2 − a2 )(y 2 − b2 ) = a2 b2 .

Solution. We note the following points:

1. The curve is symmetrical about both the coordinate axes. Enough to consider when
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
2. (0, 0) lies on the curve.
3. The coefficient of the highest power of x is y 2 − b2 . Thus y = ±b are two asymptotes
parallel to the x-axis. The coefficient of the highest power of y is x2 − a2 , thus x = ±a
are two asymptotes parallel to the y-axis. For other asymptotes of the form y =
mx + c, we know that limx→∞ xy = m. We divide by x4 and let x → ∞ to obtain
 a2  y 2 b2  a2 b2
lim 1− 2 − − 4 = m2 = 0 so the only asymptotes of the form y = mx+c
x→∞ x x2 x2 x
have m = 0, and we have already found those. Thus the curve has only 4 asymptotes.
a2 b 2 a2 b 2 b2 x 2 bx
4. y 2 − b2 = 2 2
⇒ y 2
= 2 2
+ b 2
= 2 2
⇒ y = ±√ . Since we need
x −a x −a x −a x 2 − a2
bx
to trace only in the first quadrant, we let y = √ .
x 2 − a2
dy b bx2 −a2 b
5. = √ − 3 = 3 , showing that the curve has no critical
dx x 2 − a2 (x2 − a2 ) 2 (x2 − a2 ) 2
points.
6. If x2 − a2 < 0 , then (x2 − a2 )y 2 = b2 x2 ⇒ x = 0, y = 0. Hence x2 − a2 > 0, so the
curve lies beyond the line x = ±a. Similarly it lies beyond the lines y = ±b. (0, 0) is
an isolated point.

1
 d2 y 5
7. 2
= 32 a2 b(x2 − a2 )− 2 2x > 0 for x > a, so the curve is downwards convex.
dx
A sketch is shown here:

x = −a x=a
y=b

y = −b

Question 1(b) Find the cubic curve which has the same asymptotes as the curve

x3 − 6x2 y + 11xy 2 − 6y 3 + x + y + 1 = 0

and which passes through the points (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1).

Solution. Consider the curve x3 − 6x2 y + 11xy 2 − 6y 3 + ax + by + c = 0. Since it has the

same terms of degree 3 and 2 as the given curve, it has the same asymptotes. Now since
it must pass through (0, 0), c = 0. Since it passes through (1, 0), 1 + a = 0 ⇒ a = −1,
and since it passes through (0, 1), −6 + b = 0 ⇒ b = 6. Hence the required curve is
x3 − 6x2 y + 11xy 2 − 6y 3 − x + 6y = 0.

Question 1(c) Show that the function f (x, y) = y 2 + x2 y + x4 has (0, 0) as the only critical
point and f (x, y) has a minimum at that point.

∂f ∂f
Solution. The critical points are given by = 2xy + 4x3 = 0 ⇒ x = 0, y = −2x2 , =
∂x ∂y
x2
2y + x2 = 0 ⇒ y = − .
2 2
When x = 0, y = − x2 ⇒ y = 0.
2
y = −2x2 , y = − x2 ⇒ x = 0, y = 0. Hence (0, 0) is the only critical point.

2
 ∂ 2f 2 ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
Now = 2y + 12x = 0 at (0, 0). = 2 and = 2x = 0 at (0, 0). Thus
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y
∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f  ∂ 2 f 2
− = 0 at (0, 0)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y
so we cannot say whether it is maximum or minimum. However f (x, y) = (x2 + y2 )2 + 34 y 2 ≥ 0
for all (x, y) ∈ R2 , so f (x, y) has a minimum at (0, 0).

Question 1(d) Find the percentage error in the volume of a right circular cone when an
error of 1% is made in measuring the height and an error of 0.5% is made in measuring the
base radius.

Solution.
π 2
V = r h
3
π
log V = log + 2 log r + log h
3
dV dr dh
= 2 +
V r h
dr dh dV
Now = 0.5% = 0.005, = 1% = 0.01. Thus = 0.02 = 2%. Hence the error in
r h V
measuring the volume is 2%.
ZZ
Question 2(a) Evaluate F (x + y)xm−1 y n−1 dx dy with F (u) = (1 − u)l−1 where D is
D
the interior of the triangle formed by x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 1 and l, m, n are all positive.

Solution. (Note: This is Dirichlet’s integral.)

∂(x, y) v u
Put u = x + y, uv = x ⇒ y = u − uv, so that = = −u.
∂(u, v) 1 − v −u
Z 1 Z 1
I = F (u)(uv)m−1 un−1 (1 − v)n−1 u du dv
Z0 1 Z0 1
= F (u)um+n−1 v m−1 (1 − v)n−1 du dv
0 0
Γ(m)Γ(n) 1
Z
= F (u)um+n−1 du
Γ(m + n) 0
Γ(m)Γ(n) 1
Z
= (1 − u)l−1 um+n−1 du
Γ(m + n) 0
Γ(m)Γ(n) Γ(l)Γ(m + n) Γ(m)Γ(n)Γ(l)
= =
Γ(m + n) Γ(m + n + l) Γ(m + n + l)

3
 x2 y 2 z 2
Question 2(b) Find the center of gravity of the solid bounded by the ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 =
a b c
1 and lying in the positive octant.
ZZZ
Solution. Let S be the positive octant of the ellipsoid. Let M = dx dy dz.
ZZZ ZZZ Z Z ZS
1 1 1
Then x = x dx dy dz, y = y dx dy dz, z = z dx dy dz.
M S M S M S
Now put x = aX, y = bY, z = cZ so that
ZZZ
π
M = abc dX dY dZ = abc
X≥0,Y ≥0,Z≥0,
2 2 2
6
X +Y +Z ≤1

because the volume of a sphere of radius 1 is 4π

3
.

6a2 bc
ZZZ
x= X dX dY dZ
πabc X≥0,Y ≥0,Z≥0,
2 2 2
X +Y +Z ≤1

Put X 2 = u, Y 2 = v, Z 2 = w. Then

ZZZ
6a 1 1
−1 1 −1 1 −1
x = u≥0,v≥0,w≥0, u 2 u 2 v 2 w 2 du dv dw
π D: 2 2 2
u+v+w≤1
ZZZ ZZZ
3a 1 1 3a 1 1
= u0 v − 2 w− 2 du dv dw = u1−1 v 2 −1 w 2 −1 du dv dw
4π D 4π D
1 1
3a Γ(1)Γ( 2
)Γ( 2
) 3a
= =
4π Γ(2) 4
√ RRR 1−1 1 −1 1 −1
as Γ(2) = Γ(1) = 1, Γ( 12 ) = π. Note that in evaluating D
u v 2 w 2 du dv dw we
have used Dirichlet’s integral discussed above.
 3a 3b 3c 
3b 3c
Similarly y = 4 , z = 4 , so the center of gravity is , , .
4 4 4
Question 2(c) Prove, by considering the integral
ZZ
2 2
x2m−1 y 2n−1 e−x −y dx dy
E

Γ(m)Γ(n)
where E is the square [0, R, 0, R], or otherwise, that B(m, n) = .
Γ(m + n)

Solution. Let C1 be the part of the circle x2 + y 2 ≤ R2 lying in the first quadrant, and C2
be the part of the circle x2 + y 2 ≤ 2R2 lying in the first quadrant. Then
ZZ ZZ ZZ
2m−1 2n−1 −x2 −y 2 2m−1 2n−1 −x2 −y 2 2 2
x y e dx dy ≤ x y e dx dy ≤ x2m−1 y 2n−1 e−x −y dx dy
C1 E C2

4
Put x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, so that dx dy = r dr dθ. Then
π
ZZ Z
2
Z R
2m−1 2n−1 −x2 −y 2 2
x y e dx dy = cos 2m−1
θ sin 2n−1
θ dθ r2m+2n−1 e−r dr
C1 0 0
π
√
ZZ Z
2
Z 2R
−x2 −y 2 2
x2m−1 y 2n−1 e dx dy = cos2m−1 θ sin2n−1 θ dθ r2m+2n−1 e−r dr
C2 0 0

R1
Consider B(m, n) = 0
xm−1 (1 − x)n−1 dx. Put x = cos2 θ, dx = −2 cos θ sin θ dθ, so
π
Z 0 Z
2
2m−2 2n−2
B(m, n) = cos θ sin θ(−2 cos θ sin θ) dθ = 2 cos2m−1 θ sin2n−1 θ dθ
π
2
0

R∞
Consider Γ(m) = tm−1 e−t dt. Put t = r2 , so that
0
Z ∞ Z ∞
2m−2 −r2 2
Γ(m) = r e 2r dr = 2 r2m−1 e−r dr
0 0

Thus ZZ
2 −y 2 B(m, n) Γ(m + n)
lim x2m−1 y 2n−1 e−x dx dy =
R−→∞ C1 2 2
and ZZ
2 −y 2 B(m, n) Γ(m + n)
lim x2m−1 y 2n−1 e−x dx dy =
R−→∞ C2 2 2
Thus ZZ
2 −y 2 B(m, n) Γ(m + n)
lim x2m−1 y 2n−1 e−x dx dy =
R−→∞ E 2 2
However
ZZ Z R Z R
2m−1 2n−1 −x2 −y 2 2m−1 −x2 2 Γ(m)Γ(n)
lim x y e dx dy = x e dx y 2n−1 e−y dy =
R−→∞ E 0 0 4

Γ(m)Γ(n)
Hence B(m, n) = as required.
Γ(m + n)

Paper II
∞
log(1 + a2 x2 )
Z
Question 3(a) Evaluate dx.
0 1 + b2 x 2

Solution. Let I be the given integral, then regarding I as a function of a, we get

Z ∞
dI 2ax2
= dx
da 0 (1 + a2 x2 )(1 + b2 x2 )

5
as the conditions for differentiating under the integral are satisfied.

∞ ∞
2ax2
Z Z 
dI 2a 1 1
= dx = − dx
da 0 (1 + a2 x2 )(1 + b2 x2 ) b2 − a2 0 1 + a2 x 2 1 + b 2 x 2
 −1 −1
∞
2a tan ax tan bx
= 2 2
−
b −a a b 0
 
2a π 1 1 π
= 2 − =
b − a2 2 a b b(b + a)
π π
Thus I = log(b + a) + C. Since I = 0 when a = 0, C = − log(b) and therefore
π  bb+ a  b
I = log
b b
Question 4(a) If the rectangular axes are rotated through an angle α about the origin and
the new coordinates are (x, y), then show that for any u,
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ = +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x2 ∂y 2
Solution. From standard coordinate geometry:
x = x cos α − y sin α
y = x sin α + y cos α
Thus
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u
= + = cos α + sin α
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂ 2u ∂  ∂u ∂u  ∂x ∂  ∂u ∂u  ∂y
= cos α + sin α + cos α + sin α
∂x2 ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
 ∂ 2u 2
∂ u   2
∂ u 2
∂ u 
= cos α + sin α cos α + cos α + 2 sin α sin α
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
2 2 2
∂ u 2 ∂ u ∂ u ∂ 2u 2
= cos α + cos α sin α + cos α sin α + sin α
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y 2
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u
= + = (− sin α) + cos α
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
= sin α − cos α sin α − cos α sin α + cos2 α
∂y 2 ∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y 2
Thus
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2 2 ∂ 2u 2 2 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ = (cos α + sin α) + (cos α + sin α) = +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x2 ∂y 2
as required.

6
 x2 y2
Question 4(b) A rectangle is inscribed in the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, what is the maximum
a b
possible area of the rectangle?

Solution.

If P is the point (a cos θ, b sin θ), the area

of the rectangle is A = 4ab cos θ sin θ = Q P
2ab sin 2θ, as the sides of the rectangle are
2a cos θ, 2b sin θ. Clearly the area is maxi-
mum when sin 2θ is maximum i.e. sin 2θ = θ
1 ⇒ θ = π4 . The maximum area is 2ab. O

R S

7
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1992 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 9, 2010

Question 1(a) If y = eax cos bx, prove that y2 − 2ay1 + (a2 + b2 )y = 0 and hence expand
eax cos bx in powers of x. Deduce the expansion of eax and cos bx.

Solution.

y = eax cos bx ⇒ y(0) = 1

y1 = eax (a cos bx − b sin bx) ⇒ y1 (0) = a
y2 = aeax (a cos bx − b sin bx) + eax (−ab sin bx − b2 cos bx)
= eax ((a2 − b2 ) cos bx − 2ab sin bx)
Thus y2 − 2ay1 + (a2 + b2 )y
= eax ((a2 − b2 ) cos bx − 2ab sin bx − 2a(a cos bx − b sin bx) + (a2 + b2 ) cos bx) = 0

as required.
Thus y2 = 2ay1 − (a2 + b2 )y. Differentiating n − 2 times, yn = 2ayn−1 − (a2 + b2 )yn−2 .
Thus we have a recurrence relation for yn , which we can use to compute yn (0).

y(0) = 1
y1 (0) = a
y2 (0) = 2ay1 (0) − (a2 + b2 )y(0) = a2 − b2
y3 (0) = 2ay2 (0) − (a2 + b2 )y1 (0) = 2a3 − 2ab2 − a3 − ab2 = a3 − 3ab2
y4 (0) = 2a4 − 6a2 b2 − a4 + b4 = a4 − 6a2 b2 + b4
...
r≤ n
2  
X n n−2r 2r
r
yn (0) = (−1) a b
r=0
2r

1
The last formula can be proved by induction — the coefficient of an−2r b2r in yn (0) from the
RHS of the recurrence relation is
     
r n−1 r n−2 r−1 n − 2
2(−1) − (−1) − (−1)
2r 2r 2r − 2
          
r n−1 n−2 n−2 n−2 n−2
= (−1) 2 − − + +
2r 2r 2r − 1 2r − 1 2r − 2
      
n−1 n−1 n−1
= (−1)r 2 − +
2r 2r 2r − 1
   
n−1 n−1
= (−1)r +
2r 2r − 1
 
n
= (−1)r
2r
Now by the Taylor-Maclaurin formula
∞
ax
X xn
y = e cos bx = yn (0)
n=0
n!

where the yn are given as above.

Putting b = 0, all terms except the first in each of yn (0) vanish, so
∞
ax
X xn
e = an
n=0
n!

Putting a = 0, all terms in the odd yn (0) vanish, and all but the last in the even ones
vanish: ∞
X x2r
cos bx = (−1)r b2r
r=0
(2r)!
Note: It is possible to expand eax cos bx in powers of x directly without using the formula
y2 = 2ay1 − (a2 + b2 )y as shown below — however in this question we are required to use
the formula and proceed as above.
Put a = r cos θ, b = r sin θ, so that

y1 = eax r(cos θ cos bx − sin θ sin bx) = reax cos(bx + θ)

y2 = reax r(cos θ cos(bx + θ) − sin θ sin(bx + θ)) = r2 eax cos(bx + 2θ)
...
yn = rn eax cos(bx + nθ)

Thus yn (0) = rn cos nθ. Using the standard formula for cos nθ, and then using a = r cos θ, b =
r sin θ, we see that this is the same as the above result (or alternatively using these results
we have derived the standard formula for cos nθ).

2
Question 1(b) If x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ then prove that
dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = dr2 + r2 dθ2 + r2 sin2 θ dφ2
Solution.
dx = sin θ cos φ dr + r cos θ cos φ dθ − r sin θ sin φ dφ
dy = sin θ sin φ dr + r cos θ sin φ dθ + r sin θ cos φ dφ
dz = cos θ dr − r sin θ dθ
We square and add these three equations.
Coefficient of dr2 = sin2 θ cos2 φ + sin2 θ sin2 φ + cos2 θ = 1
Coefficient of dθ2 = r2 cos2 θ cos2 φ + r2 cos2 θ sin2 φ + r2 sin2 θ = r2
Coefficient of dφ2 = r2 sin2 θ sin2 φ + r2 sin2 θ cos2 φ = r2 sin2 θ
Coefficient of 2 dr dθ = r sin θ cos θ(cos2 φ + sin2 φ) − r sin θ cos θ = 0
Coefficient of 2 dr dφ = −r sin2 θ cos φ sin φ + r sin2 θ cos φ sin φ = 0
Coefficient of 2 dθ dφ = −r2 cos θ cos φ sin θ sin φ + r2 cos θ sin φ sin θ cos φ = 0
Thus dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = dr2 + r2 dθ2 + r2 sin2 θ dφ2 .

Question 1(c) Find the dimensions of the rectangular parallelopiped inscribed in the ellip-
x2 y 2 z 2
soid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 that has the greatest volume.
a b c
2a √
Solution. See 1997 question 1(b). The dimensions are √
3
, 2b3 , √2c3 .

Question 2(a) Prove that the volume enclosed by the cylinders x2 + y 2 = 2ax and z 2 = 2ax
is 128
15
a3 .
√ √
Solution.
√ Clearly
√ on the given volume z varies from − 2ax to 2ax, y varies from
− 2ax − x2 to 2ax − x2 and x varies from 0 to 2a (note that x2 + y 2 = 2ax is a circle in
the XY-plane in which x varies from 0 to 2a).
Z 2a Z √2ax−x2 Z √2ax Z 2a Z √2ax−x2 √
V = √ √
dz dy dx = 2 √
2ax dy dx
0 − 2ax−x2 − 2ax 0 − 2ax−x2
Z 2a √ √ √ Z 2a √
= 4 2
2ax 2ax − x dx = 4 2a x 2a − x dx
0 0
2
Put x = 2a sin θ
√ Z π2 √
= 4 2a 2a sin2 θ 2a cos θ 4a sin θ cos θ dθ
0
Z π
2 2·1 128 3
= 64a3 sin3 θ cos2 θ dθ = 64a3 = a
0 5·3·1 15

3
Question 2(b) Find the center of gravity of the volume formed by revolving the area bounded
by the parabolas y 2 = 4ax and x2 = 4by about the x-axis.

Solution.

To find the intersection points of the

parabolas: x4 = 16b2 (4ax) ⇒ x = 0, x3 = x2 = 4by
1
64ab2 ⇒ x = 0, 4(ab2 ) 3 Thus the centroid is
given by (x, 0), where
R 4(ab2 ) 13
0
x(y12 − y22 ) dx
x = R 1
4(ab2 ) 3
0
(y12 − y22 ) dx
R 4(ab2 ) 13 x4
O
0
x 4ax − dx
= 16b2
R 4(ab2 ) 31 x4

0
4ax − dx
16b2
4(ab2 ) 13
4ax3 x6

− y 2 = 4ax
3 96b2 0
=  4(ab2 ) 13
5
x
2ax2 −
80b2 0
4a · 64ab2 (64ab2 )2 256 2 2 256a2 b4
− ab − 2 2
= 3  96b2  = 3 6b2  = 128a b · 5 = 20 (ab2 ) 31
64ab2 2

2 2
2 ) 3 2a −
4a 48(ab2 ) 3 6a 9
16(ab2 ) 3 2a − 2
16(ab
80b 5
 20 1 2 
Hence the center of gravity is a3 b3 , 0 .
9
Question 2(c) Evaluate the following integral in terms of the Gamma function
Z 1
(1 + x)p (1 − x)q dx (p > −1, q > −1)
−1

and prove that Γ( 13 )Γ( 32 ) = 2π

√
3
.
Z b
Solution. Consider the integral (x − a)m (b − x)n dx. Put
a

x = a sin θ + b cos2 θ
2

⇒ dx = (2a sin θ cos θ − 2b cos θ sin θ)dθ = 2(a − b) sin θ cos θ dθ

x−a = b cos2 θ − a(1 − sinθ ) = (b − a) cos2 θ
b−x = b(1 − cos2 θ) − a sin2 θ = (b − a) sin2 θ

4
and x = a ⇒ θ = π2 , x = b ⇒ θ = 0. Thus
Z 0
I = 2 (b − a)m+n+1 cos2m θ sin2n θ(− sin θ cos θ)dθ
π
2
Z π
2
m+n+1
= 2(b − a) cos2m+1 θ sin2n+1 θ dθ
0
2m+1
m+n+1 Γ( 2 + 21 )Γ( 2n+1
2
+ 12 )
= (b − a)
Γ( 2m+1
2
+ 2n+12
+ 1)
Γ(m + 1)Γ(n + 1)
= (b − a)m+n+1 = (b − a)m+n+1 B(m + 1, n + 1)
Γ(m + n + 2)
Substituting a = −1, b = 1, m = p, n = q we have
Z 1
Γ(p + 1)Γ(q + 1)
(1 + x)p (1 − x)q dx = 2p+q+1
−1 Γ(p + q + 2)

Now put p = − 23 , q = − 13 to get

π 1
Γ( 31 )Γ( 23 ) 1
Z Z
− 23 − 13
2 sin 3 θ
= (1 + x) (1 − x) dx = 2 1 dθ
Γ(1) −1 0 cos 3 θ
Putting tan θ = z, Z ∞
1 2 1 dz
Γ( )Γ( ) = 2 z3
3 3 0 1 + z2
2
Put z = t to get
∞ 1 ∞ 2
t 3 −1
Z Z
1 2 t 6 dt 2π
Γ( )Γ( ) = 2 = dt = √
3 3 0 1 + t 2t 21 0 1+t 3
by proceeding as 1994, question 2(a).

Paper II

Question 3(a) Examine f (x, y, z) = 2xyz − 4xz − 2yz + x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 4y − 4z for

extreme values.

Solution. For extreme values,

fx = 2yz − 4z + 2x − 2 = 0 ⇒ yz − 2z + x − 1 = 0 (i)
fy = 2zx − 2z + 2y − 4 = 0 ⇒ xz − z + y − 2 = 0 (ii)
fz = 2xy − 4x − 2y + 2z − 4 = 0 ⇒ xy − 2x − y + z − 2 = 0 (iii)

Subtracting (ii) from (i) we get

z(y − x − 1) + x − y + 1 = 0 ⇒ (x − y + 1)(1 − z) = 0 ⇒ z = 1 or x − y + 1 = 0

5
Putting z = 1 in (i) and (iii) we get 2y + 2x − 6 = 0 ⇒ x = 3 − y and xy − 2x − y − 1 =
0 ⇒ y(3 − y) − 2(3 − y) − y − 1 = 0 ⇒ y 2 − 4y + 7 = 0. This gives imaginary values, showing
that z = 1 is not possible.
Putting x = y − 1 in equation (iii) we get y(y − 1) − 2(y − 1) − y + z − 2 = 0 ⇒
y 2 − 4y + z = 0 ⇒ z = 4y − y 2 . Substituting x = y − 1, z = 4y − y 2 in (i) we get
y(4y −y 2 )−2(4y −y 2 )+y −1−1 = 0 ⇒ 4y 2 −y 3 −8y +2y√ 2
+y −2 = 0 ⇒ y 3 −6y 2 +7y +2 = 0.
2
Factorizing this, (y − 2)(y − 4y − 1) = 0 ⇒ y = 2, 2 ± 5.
Case 1: y = 2, x = 1, z = 4. fxx = 2, fyy = 2, fzz = 2, fxy = 2z, fxz = 2y − 4, fyz = 2x − 2.
Thus the matrix associated with the quadratic form

d2 f = fxx (dx)2 + fyy (dy)2 + fzz (dz)2 + 2fxy dx dy + 2fxz dx dz + 2fyz dy dz

when x = 1, y = 2, z = 4 is given by
 
2 8 0
8 2 0
0 0 2

2 0 2 8
of which the principle minors are , or 4, −60, showing that the quadratic form
0 2 8 2
d2 f is indefinite. Thus
√ the point√ (1, 2, 4) is neither maximum
√ nor √ minimum.
Case 2: x = 1 + 5, y = 2 + 5, z = y(4 − y) = (2 + 5)(2 − 5) = −1. The matrix B
associated with d2 f in this case is
 √ 
2 −2 2√5
 −2 2 2 5
√ √
2 5 2 5 2

2 −1 √ √
which again is indefinite as one principle minor is = 0. Thus (1 + 5, 2 + 5, −1)
−2 2
is also not a maximum√ or minimum.√ √ √
Case 3: x = 1 − 5, y = 2 − 5, z = y(4 − y) = (2 − 5)(2 + 5) = −1. The matrix B
associated with d2 f in this case is
 √ 
2 −2 −2√5
 −2 2√ −2 5
√
−2 5 −2 5 2
√ √
which again is indefinite for the same reason as Case 2. Thus (1 − 5, 2 − 5, −1) is also
not a maximum or minimum.

6
 Note: Consider the similar question: Examine f (x, y, z) = 2xyz − 4xz − 2yz + x2 + y 2 +
2
z − 2x − 4y + 4z for extreme values.
For extreme values,
fx = 2yz − 4z + 2x − 2 = 0 ⇒ yz − 2z + x − 1 = 0 (i)
fy = 2zx − 2z + 2y − 4 = 0 ⇒ xz − z + y − 2 = 0 (ii)
fz = 2xy − 4x − 2y + 2z + 4 = 0 ⇒ xy − 2x − y + z + 2 = 0 (iii)
Adding (ii) and (iii) we get x(z + y − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or y + z = 2.
Case (1): x = 0. Putting x = 0 in (i), (ii) we get yz − 2z − 1 = 0, and −z + y − 2 = 0.
Solving these, we get (z + 2)z − 2z − 1 = 0 ⇒ z 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ z = ±1 ⇒ y = 3, 1. Thus
(0, 3, 1), (0, 1, −1) are extreme values.
Case (2): y + z = 2. From (i) we get x = 1 + 2z − z(2 − z). Using (ii) we get
z(1 + z 2 ) − z + 2 − z − 2 = 0 ⇒ z 3 − z = 0 ⇒ z = 0, ±1. Thus (1, 2, 0), (2, 1, 1), (2, 3, −1) are
also extreme values.
Now fxx = 2, fyy = 2, fzz = 2, fxy = 2z, fxz = 2y − 4, fyz = 2x − 2.
Case (i): x = 0, y = 3, z = 1. The matrix associated with d2 f is
 
2 2 2
2 2 −2
2 −2 2

2 2
d2 f is indefinite as one principle minor is = 0, so there is neither a minimum nor
2 2
maximum at (0, 3, 1).
Case (ii): x = 0, y = 1, z = −1. The matrix associated with d2 f is
 
2 −2 −2
−2 2 −2
−2 −2 2

2 −2
d2 f is indefinite as one principle minor is = 0, so there is neither a minimum nor
−2 2
maximum at (0, 1, −1).
Case (iii): x = 1, y = 2, z = 0. The matrix associated with d2 f is
 
2 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 2

d2 f is positive definite so there is a minimum at (1, 2, 0).

Case (iv): x = 2, y = 1, z = 1. The matrix associated with d2 f is
 
2 2 −2
2 2 2
−2 2 2

7
 2 2
d2 f is indefinite as one principle minor is = 0, so there is neither a minimum nor
2 2
maximum at (2, 1, 1).
Case (v): x = 2, y = 3, z = −1. The matrix associated with d2 f is
 
2 −2 2
−2 2 2
2 2 2

2 −2
d2 f is indefinite as one principle minor is = 0, so there is neither a minimum nor
−2 2
maximum at (2, 3, −1).

Question 4(a) Find the upper and lower Riemann integral for the function defined in the
interval [0, 1] as follows (√
1 − x2 , x ∈ Q
f (x) =
1 − x, x 6∈ Q
and show that f (x) is not Riemann integrable in [0, 1].
√
Solution. For 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, (1 − x)2 = 1 − 2x + x2√ ≤ 1 − 2x2 + x2 = 1 − x2 , so 1 − x ≤ 1 − x2 .
For any interval [a, b] ⊆ [0, 1], 1 − b ≤ 1 − x ≤ 1 − x2 , a ≤ x ≤ b. Thus for any partition
P = {0 = t0 < t1 < . . . < tn = 1} ofP [0, 1], we have
Lower Riemann Sum L(f, P ) = ni=1 (1 − ti )(ti − ti−1 ) = L(g, P ) where g(x) = 1 − x, 0 ≤
x ≤ 1. Thus Z 1 Z 1
f (x) dx = sup L(f, P ) = sup L(g, P ) = g(x) dx
0 P P 0

as g is Riemann integrable. Therefore

1 1 1
x2
Z Z
1
f (x) dx = (1 − x) dx = x − =
0 0 2 0 2
. √ √ √
Similarly, for any [a, b] ⊆ [0, 1], 1 − a2 ≥ 1 − x2 and since 1 − x2 is integrable over
[0, 1], we get
1 π
Z √ Z 1 √ Z
2 π
2
f (x) dx = inf U (f, P ) = inf U ( 1 − x , P ) = 2
1 − x dx = cos2 θ dθ =
0 P P 0 0 4
R1 R1
Thus f (x) dx 6= 0
f (x) dx, showing that f (x) is not Riemann integrable on [0, 1].
0

8
Question 4(b) Evaluate
ZZ s
a2 b 2 − b 2 x 2 − a2 y 2
dx dy
a2 b 2 + b 2 x 2 + a2 y 2
x2 y 2
over the positive quadrant of the ellipse + 2 = 1.
a2 b
Solution. Put x = aX, y = bY so that the given integral
r
1 − X2 − Y 2
ZZ
I = ab dX dY
X 2 +Y 2 ≤1 1 + X2 + Y 2
X≥0,Y ≥0

Transforming to polar coordinates by setting X = r cos θ, Y = r sin θ so that

Z π Z 1r Z 1r
2 1 − r2 π 1 − r2
I = ab r dr dθ = ab r dr
0 0 1 + r2 2 0 1 + r2

Put r2 = cos t so that 2r dr = − sin t and

Z 0r Z πs
π 1 − cos t (− sin t) π 2 1 − cos2 t
I = ab dt = ab 2
sin t dt
2 π
2
1 + cos t 2 4 0 (1 + cos t)
Z π Z π
πab 2 sin2 t πab 2
= dt = (1 − cos t) dt
4 0 1 + cos t 4 0
  π2  
πab πab π πab
= t − sin t = −1 = (π − 2)
4 0 4 2 8

which is the required value.

9
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1993 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 9, 2010

Question 1(a) Prove that f (x) = x2 sin x1 , x 6= 0, f (0) = 0 is continuous and differentiable
at x = 0, but its derivative is not continuous at x = 0.
√
Solution. Let  > 0, take δ =  > 0. Now |x| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (0)| = |x2 sin x1 | ≤ |x2 | < ,
so f (x) is continuous at x = 0.
x2 sin x1 − 0
f 0 (x) = 2x sin x1 − cos x1 when x 6= 0, and f 0 (0) = lim = 0, so f is differen-
x→0 x
tiable.
The derivative is not continuous at 0 because limx→0 f 0 (x) does not exist — the exis-
tence of limx→0 f 0 (x) implies the existence of limx→0 cos x1 , as limx→0 x sin x1 exists. However
limx→0 cos x1 does not exist.
Proof: Let limx→0 cos x1 = m, then given 0 <  < 1 there exists δ > 0 such that
0 < |x| < δ ⇒ | cos x1 − m| < /2. If 0 < |x1 | < δ, 0 < |x2 | < δ then | cos x11 − m| <
/2, | cos x12 − m| < /2 ⇒ | cos x11 − cos x12 | = | cos x11 − m + m − cos x12 | < .
2 1
But for any δ > 0, we can find x1 = (2n+1)π , x2 = 2nπ such that 0 < |x1 | < δ, 0 < |x2 | < δ.
However | cos x1 − cos x2 | = 1 6< . Thus limx→0 cos x and hence limx→0 f 0 (x) does not exist,
1 1 1

so f 0 (x) is not continuous at x = 0.

Question 1(b) If f (x), φ(x), ψ(x) have derivatives when a ≤ x ≤ b, show that there is
c ∈ [a, b] such that
f (a) φ(a) ψ(a)
f (b) φ(b) ψ(b) = 0
f 0 (c) φ0 (c) ψ 0 (c)
Solution. Consider the function
f (a) φ(a) ψ(a)
F (x) = f (b) φ(b) ψ(b) , a ≤ x ≤ b
f (x) φ(x) ψ(x)

1
Clearly F (a) = F (b) = 0. Also, F (x) is the linear combination of functions f (x), φ(x), ψ(x),
so is differentiable, and therefore continuous in [a, b]. Thus F (x) satisfies the requirements
of Rolle’s theorem, so there is a point c ∈ [a, b] such that F 0 (c) = 0. Hence

f (a) φ(a) ψ(a)

f (b) φ(b) ψ(b) = 0
f 0 (c) φ0 (c) ψ 0 (c)

Note that if we expand the determinant defining F (x) by the last row, we get F (x) =
Af (x) + Bφ(x) + Cψ(x), where A, B, C are constants. Hence F 0 (x) = Af 0 (x) + Bφ0 (x) +
f (a) φ(a) ψ(a)
0
Cψ (x) = f (b) φ(b) ψ(b)
f 0 (x) φ0 (x) ψ 0 (x)

Question 1(c) Find the triangle of maximum area which can be inscribed in a circle.

Solution.
A
Let the triangle be ABC inscribed in the
circle of radius r and center O. Let the an-
gles subtended by sides AB, BC, CA at the
center be β, α, γ respectively, as shown. Area β γ
O
of 4OBC = 24OBD = 2( 12 r2 cos α2 sin α2 ) = α
r2
2
sin α.
2
Thus the area of 4ABC = r2 [sin α +
B D C
sin β + sin γ]. Since α + β + γ = 2π, we get
2
4ABC = r2 [sin α + sin β − sin(α + β)]

Thus we want to maximize F = sin α + sin β − sin(α + β), subject to 0 < α < 2π, 0 < β <
2π, 0 < α + β < 2π. For extreme values,
∂F
= cos α − cos(α + β) = 0
∂α
∂F
= cos β − cos(α + β) = 0
∂β

Thus cos α = cos β = cos(α + β). From the first equality, α = β or α = 2π − β. However the
second solution violates α + β < 2π, so α = β. From the second, β = 2β or β = 2π − 2β.
The first gives β = 0, which is not possible, so α = β = 2π3
, γ = 2π − (α + β) = 2π
3
. Thus
α = β = γ, so the triangle must be equilateral.

2
 2π
To show that this is a maximum, when α = β = 3
—

∂ 2F √
= − sin α + sin(α + β) = − 3 < 0
∂α2
∂ 2F √
= − sin β + sin(α + β) = − 3 < 0
∂β 2
√
∂ 2F 3
= sin(α + β) = −
∂α ∂β 2
2
∂ 2F ∂ 2F ∂ 2F

3
⇒ 2 2
− =3+ >0
∂α ∂β ∂α ∂β 4

Thus the area of the inscribed triangle is maximum when the triangle is equilateral.
Z ∞ √ Z ∞
−ax2 π 2
Question 2(a) Prove that e dx = √ (a > 0) and deduce that x2n e−x dx =
√ 0 2 a 0
π
(1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1)).
2n+1
√ √
Solution. Put t = ax, dt = a dx and
∞ ∞ 2 √
e−t
Z Z
−ax2 π
e dx = √ dt = √
0 0 a 2 a
Z ∞ √
2 π
because e−x dx = — see 2002, question 1(b).
0 Z ∞ 2
2
Let F (2n) = x2n e−x dx. Integrating by parts, we get
0

∞ ∞ ∞
x2n+1 x2n+1
Z Z
2n −x2 −x2 2 2
F (2n) = x e dx = e + 2xe−x dx = F (2n + 2)
0 2n + 1 0 0 2n + 1 2n + 1
2n+1
Hence F (2n + 2) = 2
F (2n). Using this formula repeatedly on F (2n), we get

(2n − 1) · (2n − 3) · · · 3 · 1
F (2n) = F (0)
2n
√
π
However, from above F (0) = 2
by letting a = 1. Thus
Z ∞ √
2n −x2 π
F (2n) = x e dx = (1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1))
0 2n+1

as required.

3
Question 2(b) Define the Gamma function and prove that
√
1 π
Γ(n)Γ(n + ) = 2n−1 Γ(2n)
2 2
Solution. See 1997 question 2(c).
Question 2(c) Show that the volume common to the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 and the
3
cylinder x2 + y 2 = ax is 2a9 (3π − 4).
RRR p
pSolution. Clearly V = dx dy dz, where the limits of z are from − a2 − x2 − y 2 to
a2 − x2 − y 2 and x, y vary over the cylinder D given above. Thus
ZZ p
V =2 a2 − x2 − y 2 dx dy
D

Because of symmetry, it is enough to compute the integral in the first quadrant. Let x =
r cos θ, y = r sin θ, dx dy = r dr dθ. x2 + y 2 = ax ⇒ r2 = ar cos θ ⇒ r = a cos θ, so the limits
of integration are 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 , 0 ≤ r ≤ a cos θ.

π
Z
2
Z a cos θ
1
V = 4 (a2 − r2 ) 2 r dr dθ
0 0
Z π  1 a cos θ
2 2 2 2 23
= 4 (a − r ) · − dθ
0 3 2 0
Z π
4 2 3
= (a − a3 sin3 θ) dθ
3 0
4 3π 4 3 2 2a3
= a − a · = (3π − 4)
3 2 3 3 9
as required.
Paper II
Question 3(a) Find all the maxima and minima of
f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 63(x + y) + 12xy
Solution. For extreme values
fx = 3x2 − 63 + 12y = 0
fy = 3y 2 − 63 + 12x = 0
fx − fy = 0 ⇒ 3(x2 − y 2 ) + 12(y − x) = 0 ⇒ y − x = 0, 3(x + y) − 12 = 0.
Case 1. x = y ⇒ 3x2 + 12x − 63 = 0 ⇒ x2 + 4x − 21 = 0 ⇒ x = −7, 3. Thus in this case
the critical points are (−7, −7) and (3, 3).
Case 2. x + y = 4 ⇒ x2 − 21 + 4(4 − x) = 0 ⇒ x2 − 4x − 5 = 0 ⇒ x = −1, 5. Thus in
this case the critical points are (−1, 5) and (5, −1).
Now fxx = 6x, fxy = 12, fyy = 6y.

4
 2
1. x = −7, y = −7 ⇒ fxx < 0, fxx fyy − fxy = (−42)2 − (12)2 > 0. Therefore (−7, −7) is
a maximum.
2
2. x = 3, y = 3 ⇒ fxx > 0, fxx fyy − fxy = (18)2 − (12)2 > 0. Therefore (3, 3) is a
minimum.
2
3. x = −1, y = 5 ⇒ fxx < 0, fxx fyy − fxy = −180 − (12)2 < 0. Therefore (−1, 5) is neither
a minimum nor a maximum.
2
4. x = 5, y = −1 ⇒ fxx > 0, fxx fyy − fxy = −180 − (12)2 < 0. Therefore (5, −1) is neither
a minimum nor a maximum.

So the only maximum is (−7, −7) and the only minimum is (3, 3).

Question 4(a) Examine the Riemann integrability over [0, 2] of the function f defined on
[0, 2] by (
x + x2 , x ∈ Q
f (x) =
x2 + x3 , x 6∈ Q
(
x − x3 > 0 for 0 < x < 1
Solution. Clearly (x + x2 ) − (x2 − x3 ) =
x − x3 < 0 for 1 < x < 2

1 1 1
x2 x3
Z Z
2 1 1 5
f (x) dx = (x + x ) dx = + = + =
0 0 2 3 0 2 3 6
Z 1 Z 1 3 4
1
x x 1 1 7
f (x) dx = (x2 + x3 ) dx = + = + =
0 0 3 4 0 3 4 12
Z 2 Z 2 3 4
2
x x 8 1 1 73
f (x) dx = (x2 + x3 ) dx =
+ = +4− − =
1 1 3 4 1 3 3 4 12
Z 2 Z 2 2
x2 x3

8 1 1 23
f (x) dx = (x + x2 ) dx = + = +2− − =
1 1 2 3 1 3 2 3 6
Z 2 Z 2
7 23 53 5 73 83
f (x) dx = + = , f (x) dx = + =
0
12 6 12 0 6 12 12
Z 2 Z 2
Thus f in not Riemann integrable over [0.2] because f (x) dx 6= f (x) dx.
0 0
Z 1 n
X
2 3 2
(Note: For any [a, b] ⊆ [0, 1], x + x < x + x so f (x) dx = inf U (f, P ) = inf (ti −
0 P P
i=0
Z 1
ti−1 )(ti + t2i ) = (x + x2 ) dx.)
0

5
 ZZZ
dx dy dz
Question 4(b) Evaluate over the volume bounded by the coordinate
x+y+z+1
planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and the plane x + y + z = 1.

Solution. Use the substitution x + y + z = u, y + z = uv, z = uvw, as in 1994, question

4(b), the given integral becomes
Z 1Z 1Z 1
1
I = u2 v du dv dw
0 0 0 u+1
1 1 u2
Z
= du (Put u + 1 = t, du = dt)
2 0 u+1
1 2 t2 − 2t + 1 1 2
Z Z
1
= dt = t − 2 + dt
2 1 t 2 1 t
 2 2  
1 t 1 1
= − 2t + log t = 2 − − 4 + 2 + log 2
2 2 1 2 2
1 1 1 1 4
= log 2 − = [2 log 2 − 1] = log
2 4 4 4 e

6
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1994 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 9, 2010

Question 1(a) Let f (x) be defined by


1 2 2
 2 (b − a ),
 0<x≤a
2 a3
f (x) = 12 b2 − x6 − 3x
, a<x≤b
 1 b3 −a3

3 x
, x>b

Prove that f (x), f 0 (x) are continuous but f 00 (x) is discontinuous.

Solution. Clearly f (x) is continuous for 0 < x < a, a < x < b and x > b. The problem
points are x = a, b.
1. x = a:
1 1
lim− f (x) = lim (b2 − a2 ) = (b2 − a2 )
x→a x→a 2 2
1 2 x2 a3 1 a2 a3 1
lim+ f (x) = lim b − − = b2 − − = (b2 − a2 )
x→a x→a 2 6 3x 2 6 3a 2
1
Since lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = f (a) = (b2 − a2 ), f (x) is continuous at x = a.
x→a x→a 2
2. x = b:
1 2 b 2 a3 1
lim− f (x) = b − − = (b3 − a3 )
x→b 2 6 3b 3b
3 3
1 b −a
lim+ f (x) =
x→b 3 b
1 3
Again lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = f (b) = (b − a3 ), so f (x) is continuous at x = b.
x→b x→b 3b

1
Thus f (x) is continuous everywhere.
Clearly f (x) is differentiable for all x > 0 except possibly at x = a, x = b, which we
examine next:
d 1 2 2

1. L.H.D at x = a is (b − a ) = 0.
dx 2
d  1 2 x2 a3  a a3
R.H.D at x = a is b − − = − + 2 = 0.
dx 2 6 3x x=a 3 3a
Thus the L.H.D = R.H.D at x = a, therefore f (a) exists and f 0 (a) = 0.
0

d  1 2 x2 a3  b a3 a3 − b 3
2. L.H.D at x = b is b − − =− + 2 = .
dx 2 6 3x x=b 3 3b 3b2
1 b 3 − a3 a3 − b 3
R.H.D at x = b is − = .
3 b2 3b2
Thus f (x) is differentiable at x = b also.

Moreover it can easily be seen that


0,
 0<x≤a
0 x a3
f (x) = − 3 + 3x2 , a < x ≤ b
 1 a3 −b3

3 x2
, x>b

It is obvious that f 0 (x) is continuous for 0 < x < a, a < x < b and x > b.

a a3
lim− f 0 (x) = 0, lim+ f 0 (x) = − + 2 = 0 = f 0 (a)
x−→a x−→a 3 3a
3 3 3
b a a −b
lim− f 0 (x) = − + 2 = 2
= lim+ f 0 (x) = f 0 (b)
x−→b 3 3b 3b x−→b

Thus f 0 (x) is continuous at a and b also, so it is continuous everywhere.


0,
 0<x<a
00 1 2a3
f (x) = − 3 − 3x3 , a < x < b
 2 a3 −b3

− 3 x3 , x > b
f 00 (x) does not exist at x = a, because LHD of f 0 (x) at x = a is 0, while RHD of f 0 (x)
2a3
at x = a is − 31 − 3a3 = −1.
3
f (x) does not exist at x = b, because LHD of f 0 (x) at x = b is − 31 − 2a
00
3b3
, while RHD of
0 2 a3 −b3 2a3 2
f (x) at x = b is − 3 b3 = − 3b3 + 3 .
Hence f ”(x) is not continuous at x = a and x = b, since it is not defined at these values.

2
Question 1(b) If α, β lie between the greatest and the least values of a, b, c, prove that

f (a) f (b) f (c) f (a) f 0 (α) f 00 (β)

φ(a) φ(b) φ(c) = K φ(a) φ0 (α) φ00 (β)
ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ(c) ψ(a) ψ 0 (α) ψ 00 (β)

where K = 21 (b − c)(c − a)(a − b).

Solution. (Note: The question should have been more clearly worded as : Show that there
exist α, β lying between the greatest and the least values of a, b, c, such that . . . .)
Consider the function
f (a) f (b) f (x) f (a) f (b) f (c)
(x − a)(x − b)
F (x) = φ(a) φ(b) φ(x) − φ(a) φ(b) φ(c)
(c − a)(c − b)
ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ(x) ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ(c)

Clearly, F (x) is the linear combination of functions f (x), φ(x), ψ(x) and a polynomial, so
it is twice differentiable — note that it is implied from the statement of the question that
f (x), φ(x), ψ(x) are twice differentiable. Since F (a) = F (b) = F (c) = 0, it follows that F (x)
satisfies the requirements of Rolle’s theorem in the intervals [a, c], [c, b] (we assume wlog
a < c < b). Thus there exist x1 , x2 such that a < x1 < c, c < x2 < b and F 0 (x1 ) = F (x2 ) = 0.
Applying Rolle’s theorem to F 0 (x) in the interval [x1 , x2 ] we get a real number β ∈ (x1 , x2 )
such that F 00 (β) = 0.
Now
f (a) f (b) f 00 (x) f (a) f (b) f (c)
00 00 2
F (x) = φ(a) φ(b) φ (x) − φ(a) φ(b) φ(c)
(c − a)(c − b)
ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ 00 (x) ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ(c)
from which it follows that
f (a) f (b) f 00 (β) f (a) f (b) f (c)
00 2
φ(a) φ(b) φ (β) = φ(a) φ(b) φ(c)
(c − a)(c − b)
ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ 00 (β) ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ(c)

f (a) f (b) f (x)

Note that if H(x) = φ(a) φ(b) φ(x) = Af (x) + Bφ(x) + Cψ(x) (say), then H 0 (x) =
ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ(x)
f (a) f (b) f 00 (x) !
Af 0 (x)+Bφ0 (x)+Cψ 0 (x), H 00 (x) = Af 00 (x)+Bφ00 (x)+Cψ 00 (x) ⇒ H 00 (x) = φ(a) φ(b) φ00 (x) .
ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ 00 (x)
Now we consider
f (a) f (x) f 00 (β) f (a) f (b) f (c)
00 2(x − a)
g(x) = φ(a) φ(x) φ (β) − φ(a) φ(b) φ(c)
00 (c − b)(b − a)(c − a)
ψ(a) ψ(x) ψ (β) ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ(c)

3
Clearly g(a) = 0 and g(b) = 0, as proved above. Thus using Rolle’s theorem for g(x) in the
interval [a, b] we get α ∈ (a, b) such that g 0 (α) = 0. Thus

f (a) f (α) f 00 (β) f (a) f (b) f (c)

0 2
g (α) = φ(a) φ(α) φ00 (β) − φ(a) φ(b) φ(c) = 0
00 (c − b)(b − a)(c − a)
ψ(a) ψ(α) ψ (β) ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ(c)
or
f (a) f (b) f (c) f (a) f 0 (α) f 00 (β)
1
φ(a) φ(b) φ(c) = (b − c)(c − a)(a − b) φ(a) φ0 (α) φ00 (β)
2
ψ(a) ψ(b) ψ(c) ψ(a) ψ 0 (α) ψ 00 (β)
as required.

Question 1(c) Prove that of all rectangular parallelopipeds of the same volume, the cube
has the least surface.
V
Solution. Let V = xyz, then S = 2(xy + yz + zx) = 2(xy + x
+ Vy ).

∂S  V  ∂S  V
=2 y− 2 , =2 x− 2
∂x x ∂y y

For extreme values, ∂S∂x

= ∂S∂y
= 0. Thus x2 y = xy 2 = V = xyz ⇒ x = y = z (as x 6= 0, y 6= 0
being the sides of a parallelopiped).
 2 2
∂ 2S 4V ∂ 2 S 4V ∂ 2 S ∂ 2S ∂ 2S ∂ S 16V 2
Now = , = , = 2 ⇒ − = − 4 = 16 − 4 >
∂x2 x3 ∂y 2 y 3 ∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y x3 y 3
0, because V 2 = x2 y · xy 2 = x3 y 3 .
Thus S is minimum when x = y = z, V = x3 i.e. when the parallelopiped is a cube.

Question 2(a) Show by means of the beta function that

Z z
dx π
I= 1−α α
= , 0<α<1
t (z − x) (x − t) sin πα

Solution. Put x − t = u in I.
Z z−t
du
I = . Put u = (z − t)v. Then
0 (z − t − u)1−α uα
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
(z − t) dv dv
I = 1−α (z − t)1−α (z − t)α v α
= 1−α v α
= v −α (1 − v)−1+α dv
0 (1 − v) 0 (1 − v) 0
= B(−α + 1, α) = B(α, 1 − α)
Γ(α)Γ(1 − α) π
= = Γ(α)Γ(1 − α) =
Γ(α + 1 − α) sin πα
The last step follows from a standard result, which we prove here.

4
 Z 1
B(m, 1 − m) = Γ(m)Γ(1 − m) = xm−1 (1 − x)(1−m−1) dx
0
2
Put x = sin θ so that dx = 2 sin θ cos θ dθ.
Z π Z π
2 2
2m−2 −2m
B(m, 1 − m) = sin θ cos θ 2 sin θ cos θ dθ = 2 tan2m−1 θ dθ
0 0
dz
Put tan θ = z ⇒ sec2 θ dθ = dz ⇒ dθ = 1+z 2
.
Z ∞
dz
B(m, 1 − m) = 2 z 2m−1
0 1 + z2
2
Put z = t, so that 2z dz = dt. Thus
∞
tm−1
Z
B(m, 1 − m) = dt 0<m<1
0 1+t
t
xm−1
Z
Consider the integral dx. Put x = y1 so that dx = − dy
y2
, and
1 1+x
Z t m−1 Z 1 1
m−1 Z 1 −m
x t
y −dy t y
dx = = − dy
1 1+x 1 1 + y1 y 2 1 1+y
Z ∞ m−1 Z 1 −m
x y
Letting t → ∞, we get dx = dy. Thus
1 1+x 0 1+y
Z ∞ m−1 Z 1 m−1 Z 1 −m Z 1 −m
x x y y + y m−1
I= dx = dx + dy = dy
0 1+x 0 1+x 0 1+y 0 1+y
k+1 k+1
Taylor’s expansion gives us (1 + y)−1 = 1 − y + y 2 − . . . + (−1)k y k + (−1)1+θyy , 0 < θ < 1.
Since
Z 1 k+1−m Z 1
y + y k+1+m−1 1 1
dy < (y k+m + y k−m+1 ) dy = +
0 1 + θy 0 k+m+1 k+2−m
1 1
Clearly k+m+1 + k+2−m → 0 as k → ∞, so we get
Z ∞ m−1 Z 1
x
dx = lim [y m−1 − y m + y m+1 − . . . + (−1)k y k+m−1 ] dy
0 1 + x k→∞ 0
Z 1 
−m 1−m 2−m k k−m
+ [y − y +y − . . . + (−1) y ] dy
0
(−1)k (−1)k
   
1 1 1 1
= lim − + ... + + − + ... +
k→∞ m m+1 k+m 1−m 2−m k+1−m
∞   ∞
1 X 1 1 1 X 2m π
= + (−1)k − = + (−1)k 2 2
=
m k=1 m+k k−m m k=1 m −k sin mπ

by using the identity csc z = z1 + ∞ k 2z

P
k=1 (−1) z 2 −k2 π 2

5
 ZZZ
dx dy dz
Question 2(b) Prove that the value of taken over the volume bounded
(x + y + z + 1)3
1  5 1 256
by the coordinate planes and the plane x + y + z = 1 is log 2 − = log 5
2 8 16 e
Solution.
Z 1 Z 1−x Z 1−x−y
dz
I = dx dy
0 0 0 (1 + x + y + z)3
1−x−y
1 1
Z Z 1−x
−2
= − dx (1 + x + y + z) dy
2 0 0 0
1 1
Z Z 1−x  
−2 1
= dx (1 + x + y) − dy
2 0 0 4
1−x
1 1 (1 + x + y)−1 y
Z 
= − dx
2 0 −1 4 0
1 1
Z  
−1 1 1−x
= (1 + x) − − dx
2 0 2 4
1
3x x2

1
= log(1 + x) − +
2 4 8 0
 
1 5
= log 2 −
2 8

as required.

Question 2(c) The sphere x2 +y 2 +z 2 = a2 is pierced by the cylinder (x2 +y 2 )2 = a2√

(x2 −y 2 ).
8a3  π 5 4 2 
Prove that the volume of the sphere that lies inside the cylinder is + −
3 4 3 3
RRR p
pSolution. Clearly V = dx dy dz, where the limits of z are from − a2 − x2 − y 2 to
a2 − x2 − y 2 and x, y vary over the cylinder D given above. Thus
ZZ p
V =2 a2 − x2 − y 2 dx dy
D

Because of symmetry, it is enough to compute the integral in the first octant. Let x =
r cos θ, y = r sin θ, dx dy = r dr dθ. (x2 + y 2 )2 = a2 (x2 − y 2 )√⇒ r4 = a2 r2 cos 2θ ⇒ r2 =
a2 cos 2θ, so the limits of integration are 0 ≤ θ ≤ π4 , 0 ≤ r ≤ a cos 2θ.

6
 π
√
Z
4
Z a cos 2θ
1
V = 8 (a2 − r2 ) 2 r dr dθ
0 0
√
π
Z
42 2

3
 1 a cos 2θ
= 8 (a − r2 ) 2 · − dθ
0 3 2 0
Z π
8 4 3 3

= a − a3 (1 − cos 2θ) 2 dθ
3 0
Z π
8a3 h π 4 3
3
i
= − 2 sin θ dθ
2
3 4 0
Z π
8a3 h π 3 4
i
= − 22 sin θ(1 − cos2 θ) dθ
3 4 0
8a3 h π 3
h cos3 θ i π4 i
= − 2 2 − cos θ +
3 4 3 0
3h
8a π 3
h 1 1 1 ii
= −2 1− √ + √ −
2
3 4 2 6 2 3
3
√ 
8a π 5 4 2
= + −
3 4 3 3
as required.
Paper II
Question 3(a) Let the function f be defined on [0, 1] by the conditionZ 1 f (x) = 2rx when
2
1 π
r+1
< x < 1r , r > 0, show that f is Riemann integrable in [0, 1] and f (x) dx = .
0 6
Solution. Clearly f (x) = 2(r − 1)x when 1r < x < r−1 1
, therefore
limx→ 1 +0 f (x) = limh→0 2(r − 1)( r + h) = 2(r − 1) r = 2 − 2r .
1 1
r
limx→ 1 −0 f (x) = limh→0 2r( 1r + h) = 2r 1r = 2.
r
Thus f ( 1r − 0) 6= f ( 1r + 0), so f is discontinuous at x = 1r , r = 2, 3, . . .. Since the points
of discontinuity have only one limit point, f is Riemann integrable. Now
Z 1 ∞ Z 1 ∞  r1
X r X
2
f (x) dx = 2rx dx = rx
1 1
0 r=1 r+1 r=1 r+1
∞  
X 1 1
= 2
r−
r=1
r (r + 1)2
     
1 1 2 2 3 3
= − + − + − + ...
12 22 22 32 32 42
1 1 1 π2
= 2 + 2 + 2 + ... =
1 2 3 6

7
Question
Z ZZ 3(b) By means of the substitution x + y + z = u, y + z = uv, z = uvw evaluate
(x+y+z)n xyz dx dy dz taken over the volume bounded by x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x+y+z =
1.

Solution. Clearly the region of integration is the interior of the tetrahedron bounded by
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x + y + z = 1. The substitution x + y + z = u, y + z = uv, z = uvw
implies 0 ≤ u ≤ 1, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1, 0 ≤ w ≤ 1, and conversely, when (u, v, w) is in the unit cube,
then (x, y, z) falls in the interior of the tetrahedron. Moreover

vw wu uv vw wu uv
∂(z, y, x)
= v − vw u − uw −uv = v u 0 = −u2 v
∂(u, v, w)
1−v −u 0 1 − v −u 0
Hence
ZZZ
I = (x + y + z)n xyz dx dy dz
x+y+z≤1
x≥0,y≥0,z≥0
Z 1Z 1Z 1
= n
u (u − uv)(uvw)(uv − uvw)u2 v du dv dw
Z0 1 Z0 1 Z0 1
= un+5 (1 − v)v 3 (1 − w)w du dv dw
0 0
Z 10 Z 1
1 4−1 2−1
= v (1 − v) dv w2−1 (1 − w)2−1 dw
n+6 0 0
1 Γ(4)Γ(2) Γ(2)Γ(2) 1 1
= =
n + 6 Γ(6) Γ(4) n + 6 5!

8
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1995 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 9, 2010

Question 1(a) If g is the inverse of f and f 0 (x) = 1

1+x3
, then prove that g 0 (x) = 1+(g(x))3 .
Solution. Let f : D −→ R, g : R −→ D so that y = f (x), x = g(y), and (g ◦ f )(x) = x for
x ∈ D, and (f ◦ g)(y) = y for y ∈ R. Then by the chain rule
1 = (g ◦ f )0 (x) = g 0 (f (x))f 0 (x)
1
⇒ g 0 (f (x)) = 0
= 1 + x3 = 1 + (g(f (x)))3
f (x)
0
⇒ g (y) = 1 + (g(y))3 ∵ x = g(y)
which was to be proved.
Question 1(b) Taking the n’th derivative of (xn )2 in two different ways, prove that
n2 n2 (n − 1)2 n2 (n − 1)2 (n − 2)2 (2n)!
1+ 2
+ 2 2
+ 2 2 2
+ . . . + (n + 1 terms) =
1 1 ·2 1 ·2 ·3 (n!)2
Solution.
dn 2n (2n)! n
n
(x ) = 2n · (2n − 1) . . . (2n − n + 1)xn = x (1)
dx n!
dr n!
Note that r (xn ) = n · (n − 1) . . . (n − r + 1)xn−r = xn−r . Let f (x) = g(x) = xn .
dx (n − r)!
dn dn
Then n (x2n ) = n (f g). Applying Leibnitz’s formula
dx dx
n   n
dn 2n dn X n n−r r X n! n! r n!
n
(x ) = n
(f g) = f g = x xn−r
dx dx r=0
r r=0
r!(n − r)! r! (n − r)!
n n
X (n!)2 X n2 (n − 1)2 . . . (n − r + 1)2
= n!xn = n!x n
(2)
r=0
(r!)2 ((n − r)!)2 r=0
12 · 22 . . . r2

1
Equating the right hand sides in (1), (2) and dividing thoughout by n!xn , we have the desired
result.

Question 1(c) Let f (x, y), which possesses continuous partial derivatives of degree 2, be a
homogeneous function of x and y of degree n. Prove that

∂ 2f ∂ 2f 2
2∂ f
x2 + 2xy + y = n(n − 1)f
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2

Solution. See 2006 question 2(b).

Question 2(a) Find the area bounded by the curve

2
x2 y 2 x2 y 2

+ = −
4 9 4 9
ZZ
x y
Solution. Let X = 2
,Y
= so that dx dy = 6 dX dY , and the required area
3
dx dy =
ZZ
6 dX dY , where the right integral is over the region bounded by (X 2 + Y 2 )2 = X 2 − Y 2 .
We now switch over to polar coordinates X = r cos θ, Y = r sin θ, so (X 2 + Y 2 )2 =
X 2 − Y 2 ⇒ r4 = r2 cos2 θ − r2 sin2 θ ⇒ r2 = cos 2θ. Thus the required area = 6× the area
bounded by r2 = cos 2θ = 24× the area bounded by r2 = cos 2θ in the first quadrant, as the
curve is symmetrical about both coordinate axes.
Z π 2 Z π  π
4 r 4 cos 2θ sin 2θ 4
The required area = 24 dθ = 24 dθ = 24 = 6.
0 2 0 2 4 0

Question 2(b) Let f (x), x ≥ √ 1 be such √ that the area bounded by the curve y = f (x) and
2
the lines x = 1 and x = b is 1 + b − 2 for all b ≥ 1. Does f attain its minimum, if so,
what is its value.
Z b √ √ Z √
Solution. The given area is f (x) dx = 1 + b2 − 2 ⇒ f (x) dx = 1 + x2 .
1 √
x 0
1 + x2 − x 2√2x
1+x2 1
Differentiating, we get f (x) = √ . Clearly f (x) = 2
= 3 >
1+x 2 1+x (1 + x2 ) 2
0. Thus f is monotonically increasing, hence its minimum value is f (1) = √12 .

2
Question 2(c) Show that
1 2 3  n − 1  (2π) n−12
Γ Γ Γ ...Γ = √
n n n n n
1 2 3 n − 1
Solution. Let P = Γ Γ Γ ...Γ , so that
n n n n
1  1 2  2 n − 1  n − 1
2
P =Γ Γ 1− Γ Γ 1− ...Γ Γ 1−
n n n n n n
(We have paired the first term with the last and so on.).
π
We now use Γ(x)Γ(1 − x) = so that
sin xπ
π π π
P2 = π 2π . . .
sin n sin n sin n−1
n
π
π 2π n−1 n π n−1 2n−1
We shall now prove that sin sin . . . sin π = n−1 , so that P 2 = ⇒
n−1
n n n 2 n
(2π) 2
P = √ as required.
n
π 2π n−1 n
Proof of sin sin . . . sin π = n−1 :
n n n 2
Consider F (x) = xn − 2 cos nθ + x−n . If x = cos θ + i sin θ, then xn = cos nθ + i sin nθ for
all n, so xn + x−n = 2 cos nθ. This shows that x − 2 cos θ + x1 is a factor of F (x). The same is
true if we replace θ by θr = θ + 2πr , 0 ≤ r ≤ n − 1. Hence F (x) = n−1 (x − 2 cos θr + x1 ). Put
Q
n r=0
x = 1, then 2 − 2 cos nθ = r=0 (2 − 2 cos θr ) ⇒ 4 sin2 (nθ/2) = 22n nr=0 sin2 (θr /2). Thus
Qn−1 Q

n
sin2 (nθ/2) 2n−2
Y
2 = 2 sin2 (θr /2)
sin (θ/2) r=1

Letting θ −→ 0, we have the result.

Paper II

Question 3(a) Find and classify the extreme values of the function f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 + x +
y + xy.

Solution. The extreme values are given by

∂f ∂f
= 2x + 1 + y = 0, = 2y + 1 + x = 0
∂x ∂y
Solving these, we get x = − 13 , y = − 13 . Thus there exists only one extreme value at
∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f  ∂ 2 f 2
(− 13 , − 13 ). Now = 2, = 2, = 1. Since > 0, − =3>0
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y
at (− 13 , − 13 ), it follows that f has a minimum at (− 31 , − 31 ).

3
Question 3(b) Suppose α is real and different from nπ, n ∈ Z, then prove that
Z ∞Z ∞
2 2 α
I= e−(x +2xy cos α+y ) dx dy =
0 0 2 sin α

Solution. The region of integration is the first quadrant. Switching to polar coordinates,
we have
Z πZ ∞
2 2
I = e−r (1+2 cos θ sin θ cos α) r dr dθ
0 0
Z π  −r2 (1+2 cos θ sin θ cos α)  ∞
2 e 1
= − dθ
0 1 + 2 cos θ sin θ cos α 2 0
Z π Z π
1 2 dθ 1 2 sec2 θ dθ
= = (Put tan θ = z)
2 0 1 + 2 cos θ sin θ cos α 2 0 sec2 θ + 2 tan θ cos α
1 ∞ 1 ∞ 1 ∞
Z Z Z
dz dz dz
= 2
= 2 2
= 2
2 0 1 + z + 2z cos α 2 0 1 − cos α + (z + cos α) 2 0 sin α + (z + cos α)2
 ∞
1 1  z + cos α 
= tan−1
2 sin α sin α
  0  
1 1 π −1 1 1 π π π 
= − tan cot α = − −α ∵ cot α = tan −α
2 sin α 2 2 sin α 2 2 2
α
= as required.
2 sin α

4
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1996 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 9, 2010

Question 1(a) Find the asymptotes of the curve

4(x4 + y 4 ) − 17x2 y 2 − 4x(4y 2 − x2 ) + 2(x2 − 2) = 0

and show that they pass through the points of intersection of the curve with the ellipse x2 +
4y 2 = 4.

Solution. The curve has no asymptotes parallel to the coordinate axes as the coefficients
of x4 and y 4 are constants, note that these are the highest powers of x, y present in the
equation.
If y = mx + c is an asymptote, then m is a root of Φ4 (m) = 4(1 + m4 ) − 17m2 = 0 —
this can be obtained by dividing by x4 and letting x −→ ∞, noting that xy −→ m.
Thus 4m4 − 17m2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ m2 = 4, m2 = 14 ⇒ m = 2, −2, 21 , − 21 .
Let Φ3 (m) = −4(4m2 − 1), then c is given as follows (provided it is determinate):

Φ3 (m) 16m2 − 4
c=− =
Φ04 (m) 16m3 − 34m

Thus
64 − 4
m=2 ⇒ c= =1
128 − 68
64 − 4
m = −2 ⇒ c = = −1
−128 + 68
1 4−4
m= ⇒ c= =0
2 2 − 17
1 4−4
m=− ⇒ c= =0
2 −2 + 17

1
Hence the asymptotes are y = 2x + 1, y = −2x − 1, 2y = x, 2y + x = 0.
Let P4 = 0 be the joint equation of the asymptotes, then
P4 = (y − 2x − 1)(y + 2x + 1)(2y − x)(2y + x)
= (y 2 − (2x + 1)2 )(4y 2 − x2 )
= 4y 4 − 17x2 y 2 − 16xy 2 − 4y 2 + 4x4 + 4x3 + x2
Thuis the points of intersection of the given curve (f (x, y) = 0) and the joint equation of
the asymptotes lie on f (x, y) − P4 = 0 = x2 + 4y 2 − 4. Thus the points of intersection lie on
the ellipse x2 + 4y 2 = 4.

Question 1(b) Show that any continuous function defined for all real x and satisfying
f (x) = f (2x + 1) must be a constant function.
n
Solution. Clearly f (x) = f ( x−1
2
) = f ( x2 − 12 ) = f ( 2x2 − 14 − 12 ) = . . . = f ( 2xn − 2 2−1
n ) =
x−1
f ( 2n − 1).
Since f is continuous, limn→∞ f (xn ) = f (limn→∞ xn ) for any convergent sequence of real
numbers. Thus
x − 1   x − 1 
f (x) = lim f − 1 = f lim − 1 = f (−1)
n→∞ 2n n→∞ 2n
Thus f is a constant function.

Question 1(c) Show that the maximum and minimum of the radii vectors of the sections
of the surface
x2 y 2 z 2
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )2 = 2 + 2 + 2
a b c
by the plane λx + µy + νz = 0 are given by the equation
a2 λ 2 b 2 µ2 c2 ν 2
+ + =0
1 − a2 r 2 1 − b 2 r 2 1 − c 2 r 2
Solution. We have to find extreme values of r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 subject to the constraints
x2 y 2 z 2
φ1 = 2
+ 2 + 2 − (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )2 = 0
a b c
φ2 = λx + µy + νz = 0
Let F (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + λφ1 + λφ2 , where λ1 , λ2 are the undetermined Lagrange
multipliers. For extreme values:
 
∂F 2x 2
= 2x + λ1 2 − 4xr + λ2 λ = 0 (i)
∂x a
 
∂F 2y 2
= 2y + λ1 2 − 4yr + λ2 µ = 0 (ii)
∂y b
 
∂F 2z 2
= 2z + λ1 2 − 4zr + λ2 ν = 0 (iii)
∂z c

2
The operation x × (i) + y × (ii) + z × (iii) gives us
 2
y2 z2

2 x 4
2r + 2λ1 2 + 2 + 2 − 2r + λ2 (λx + µy + νz) = 0
a b c
1
Thus r2 + λ1 (r4 − 2r4 ) = 0 ⇒ λ1 r4 = r2 ⇒ λ1 = r2
. Now from (i), (ii), (iii), we get

λ2 λ λ2 λ λ2 µ λ2 ν
x= 1
= , y = , z =
4r2 − a22 − 2r2 2 1 − a21r2 2 1 − b21r2 2 1 − c21r2






r2

Substituting x, y, z in λx + µy + νz = 0, we get that r2 is given by the equation

a2 λ2 r2 b2 µ 2 r 2 c2 ν 2 r 2
+ + =0
a2 r 2 − 1 b 2 r 2 − 1 c 2 r 2 − 1
or
a2 λ 2 b 2 µ2 c2 ν 2
+ + =0
1 − a2 r 2 1 − b 2 r 2 1 − c 2 r 2
as r2 6= 0. Note that extreme values do exist and are roots of the given equation.
x2 y 2 z 2
Additional: If the surface under consideration is 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 instead on the one
a b c
2 λ2 λ λ2 µ λ2 ν
above, then λ1 = −r , x = r2
, y = r2
, z = r2
and the equation giving
2 a2 − 1 2 b2 − 1 2 c2 − 1
radius vectors of the sections is
a2 λ 2 b 2 µ2 c2 ν 2
+ + =0
r2 − a2 r2 − b2 r2 − c2
x2 y 2 z 2
Particular case: If the surface is + + = 1 then a2 = 4, b2 = 5, c2 = 25. If the
4 5 25
plane is z − x − y = 0, then λ = −1, µ = −1, ν = 1. The above equation becomes
4 5 25
+ 2 + 2 =0
r2 − 4 r − 5 r − 25
or
4[r4 − 30r2 + 125] + 5[r4 − 29r2 + 100] + 25[r4 − 9r2 + 20] = 0
75
or 34r4 − 490r2 + 1500 = 0 ⇒ r2 = 10, 17 .
x y z
∂u ∂u ∂u
Question 2(a) If u = f , , , prove that x +y +z = 0.
y z x ∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution. This follows from Euler’s theorem on homogeneous functions.
Theorem (Euler): If f (x, y, z) is a homogeneous function of degree n i.e.f (λx, λy, λz) =
λn f (x, y, z) then
∂f ∂f ∂f
x +y +z = nf (x, y, z)
∂x ∂y ∂z

3
 Proof: Differentiating f (λx, λy, λz) = λn f (x, y, z) partially with respect to λ, we get

∂f ∂f ∂f
x (λx, λy, λz) + y (λx, λy, λz) + z (λx, λy, λz) = nλn−1 f (x, y, z)
∂x ∂y ∂z

(assuming of course that differentiation is possible.) Putting λ = 1, we get

∂f ∂f ∂f
x +y +z = nf
∂x ∂y ∂z
Q.E.D.
In the current case, n = 0 because
λx λy λz x y z
f( , , ) = λ0 f ( , , )
λy λz λx y z x

Thus x ∂u
∂x
+ y ∂u
∂y
+ z ∂u
∂z
= 0u = 0.
Note: The converse of Euler’s theorem is also true — if f (x, y, z) has continuous partial
derivatives of the second order, and
∂f ∂f ∂f
x +y +z = nf
∂x ∂y ∂z
then f is a homogeneous function of degree n.
Proof: Let (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ∈ R3 . Let φ(λ) = f (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 ), defined for λ > 0. Then

∂f ∂f ∂f n
φ0 (λ) = x0 (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 ) + y0 (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 ) + z0 (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 ) = f (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 )
∂x ∂y ∂z λ

from x ∂f
∂x
+ y ∂f
∂y
+ z ∂f
∂z
= nf , which evaluated at the point λx0 , λy0 , λz0 ) becomes

∂f ∂f ∂f
λx0 (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 ) + λy0 (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 ) + λz0 (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 ) = nf (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
Thus
λφ0 (λ) = nf (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 ) = nφ(λ)
Differentiating λ−n φ(λ) with respect to λ, we get

d −n
(λ φ(λ) = λ−n φ0 (λ) − nλ−n−1 φ(λ) = λ−n [φ0 (λ) − nλ−1 φ(λ)] = 0
dλ
Thus λ−n φ(λ) = C some constant, so φ(λ) = Cλn . For λ = 1, φ(1) = C = f (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
Thus
φ(λ) = f (λx0 , λy0 , λz0 ) = λn f (x0 , y0 , z0 )
Thus f is homogeneous of degree n.

4
Question 2(b) Evaluate
∞ ∞
e−y
Z Z
dy dx
0 x y
Solution. See 2006 question 2(c).
Question 2(c) The area cut off from the parabola y 2 = 4ax by the chord joining the vertex
to an end of the latus rectum is rotated through 4 right angles about the chord. Find the
volume of the solid so formed.
Solution.
(a, 2a)L
R a The volume
2
of the resulting solid is V =
0
π(P M ) d(OM ) where P M is perpendicu- P
lar to the chord y = 2x. M
Let P = (x, y). Then
|y − 2x|
PM = √
5 O (a, 0)
(OM )2 = (OP )2 − (P M )2
y 2 − 4xy + 4x2
= x2 + y 2 −
5
4y 2 + 4xy + x2
=
5 √
2y + x 4 ax + x √
OM = √ = √ ∵ y = 2 ax
5 5
√
√ √
2 √xa + 1 2 a+ x
d(OM ) = √ dx = √ dx
5 5x
√
y 2 − 4xy + 4x2 4ax − 4x 4ax + 4x2
(P M )2 = =
Z 5a √
5√ √
4π 2 2 a+ x
V = √ (ax − x 4ax + x ) √ dx
5 5 Z0 x
4π a √ √
= √ (a − 4ax + x)(2 ax + x) dx
5 5 Z0
a √
4π
= √ (x2 − 4ax + ax + 2a ax) dx
5 5 0
4π h x3 3ax2 3 3 2 ia
= √ − + 2a 2 x 2 ·
5 5 3 2 3 0
3 3
4π a h 3a 4 i 4π a3 2πa3
= √ − + a3 = √ = √
5 5 3 2 3 5 5 6 15 5

5
 Paper II

Question 3(a) A function f is defined in the interval (a, b) as follows:


1 p
 q2 , when x = q

 q
f (x) = q13 , when x = pq


0, otherwise

where p, q are relatively prime integers. Is f Riemann integrable? Justify your answer.

Solution. See 2001, question 4(a).

Z π Z π
2 2
Question 3(b) Evaluate sin x sin−1 (sin x sin y) dx dy
0 0

Z π
2
Solution. We first evaluate I1 = sin x sin−1 (sin x sin y) dy.
0
Let sin x sin y = sin z, so that sin x cos y dy = cos z dz, when y = 0, z = 0 and when
y = π2 , sin z = sin
Z xx ⇒ z = x, as in the given Zintegral 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 , 0 ≤ y ≤ π2 .
x
z cos z dz z sin x cos z
Thus I1 = sin x q = p dz and the given integral
2 2 2
0 sin x 1 − sinsin z
2x
0 sin x − sin z
Z πZ x
2 z sin x cos z
becomes p dz dx.
0 0 sin2 x − sin2 z
We now change the order of integration in
the right hand side. Now x varies from z to
π z ( π2 , π2 )
2
and z varies from 0 to π2 . Thus the given
integral is x=z
π π π
x=
Z Z
2 2 sin x 2
z cos z p dx dz
0 z sin x − sin2 z
2
Z π Z π
2 2 sin x
= z cos z √ dx dz
0 z cos z − cos2 x
2
z=0 x
Z π   π Z π
2
 cos x  2 2
= z cos z − sin−1 dz = z cos z sin−1 (1) dz
0 cos z z 0
Z π   π2
π 2 π π π 
= z cos z dz = z sin z + cos z = −1
2 0 2 0 2 2

6
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1997 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 9, 2010

d −1
Question 1(a) Suppose f (x) = 17x12 − 124x9 + 16x3 − 129x2 + x − 1. Determine (f )
dx
at x = −1, if it exists.

Solution. Clearly f (0) = −1 and f 0 (x) = 204x11 − 1116x8 + 48x2 − 258x + 1. Since
f 0 (0) = 1 and f 0 is continuous, there exists a neighborhood of 0 in which f 0 (x) > 0, so f is
strictly increasing in a neighborhood of 0, thus f is one-one in a neighborhood of 0.
Now we use:
Theorem: If f : (a, b) −→ R is continuous and one-one, and f 0 (c) 6= 0 for all c ∈ (a, b),
then f −1 is differentiable at f (c) and

df −1 1
at f (c) = 0
dx f (c)

Thus,
df −1 1
at − 1 = 0 =1
dx f (0)

Question 1(b) Prove that the volume of the greatest parallelopiped that can be inscribed in
x2 y 2 z 2 8abc
the ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 is √ .
a b c 3 3
Solution. Let the sides of the parallelopiped be 2x, 2y, 2z. We have to maximize V = 8xyz
x2 y 2 z 2
subject to the conditions 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 and x > 0, y > 0, z > 0.
a b c

1
  2
y2 z2

x
Let F = 8xyz + λ 2 + 2 + 2 − 1 , where λ is Lagrange’s undetermined multiplier.
a b c
For extreme values,
∂F x
= 8yz + 2λ =0 (i)
∂x a2
∂F y
= 8xz + 2λ 2 = 0 (ii)
∂y b
∂F z
= 8xy + 2λ 2 = 0 (iii)
∂z c
x × (i) + y × (ii) + z × (iii) gives us
 2
y2 z2

x
24xyz + 2λ 2 + 2 + 2 = 0
a b c
x2 y 2 z 2 x2 x2 1
Since 2
+ 2
+ 2
= 1 we get λ = −12xyz. From (i) we now get 8yz−24 2
yz = 0 ⇒ 2
=
a b c a a 3
a b c 8abc
as y > 0, z > 0. Thus x = √ . Similarly, y = √ , z = √ and V = √ . This is the
3 3 3 3 3
maximum volume.
Check:
4abc x2 y 2 z 2
 
F = 8xyz − √ + 2 + 2 −1
3 a2 b c
 2
∂ ∂ ∂
d2 F = dx + dy + dz F
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2
∂ F 2 ∂ F 2 ∂ 2F 2 ∂ 2F ∂ 2F ∂ 2F
= (dx) + (dy) + (dz) + 2 dx dy + 2 dy dz + 2 dx dz
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z
2λ 2λ 2λ
= 2
(dx)2 + 2 (dy)2 + 2 (dz)2 + 16(z dx dy + x dy dz + y dx dz)
a b c
2 2 2
x y z x dx y dy z dz a b c
Now since 2 + 2 + 2 −1 = 0, 2 + 2 + 2 = 0, and putting x = √ , y = √ , z = √
a b c a b c 3 3 3
dx dy dz dx dy dz
we get + + = 0 or − − = . Substituting this and the values of λ, x, y, z,
a b c a b c
we get
2
8abc (dx)2 (dy)2
     
2 dx dy dx dy dy dx dy dx dx dy
dF = −√ + 2 + + −2 +2 + +2 +
3 a2 b a b ab b a b a a b
2 2
 
8abc (dx) (dy) dx dy
= − √ 4 2 +4 2 +4
3 a b ab
 2  2 
32abc dx dy 3 dy
= − √ + +
3 a 2b 4 b
a b c 8abc
Clearly d2 F < 0 when x = √ , y = √ , z = √ . Hence V = √ is a maximum.
3 3 3 3 3

2
Question 1(c) Show that the four asymptotes to the curve

(x2 − y 2 )(y 2 − 4x2 ) + 6x3 − 5x2 y − 3xy 2 + 2y 3 − x2 + 3xy − 1 = 0

cut the curve again in eight points which lie on a circle of radius 1.

Solution. Here φ4 = (x2 − y 2 )(y 2 − 4x2 ) and φ3 = 6x3 − 5x2 y − 3xy 2 + 2y 3 .

Thus the slopes of the asymptotes are given by φ4 (m) = (1 − m2 )(m2 − 4) = 0 ⇒ m =
±1, ±2.
Now φ3 (m) = 6 − 5m − 3m2 + 2m3 . φ3 (1) = 6 − 5 − 3 + 2 = 0, φ3 (−1) = 6 + 5 − 3 − 2 =
6, φ3 (2) = 6 − 10 − 12 + 16 = 0, φ3 (−2) = 6 + 10 − 12 − 16 = −12.
φ04 (m) = −2m(m2 − 4) + 2m(1 − m2 ) = −4m3 + 10m. Thus φ04 (1) = 6, φ04 (−1) =
−6, φ04 (2) = −12, φ04 (−2) = 12.
For asymptotes y = mx + c, the constant term c is given by cφ04 (m) + φ3 (m) = 0 ⇒ c =
−φ3 (m)
.
φ04 (m)
Thus m = 1 ⇒ c = 0, m = −1 ⇒ c = 1, m = 2 ⇒ c = 0, m = −2 ⇒ c = 1.
Thus the four asymptotes are y = x, y = −x + 1, y = 2x, y = −2x + 1. The combined
equation of the asymptotes is

(y − x)(y + x − 1)(y − 2x)(y + 2x − 1) = 0

⇒ (y 2 − x2 − y + x)(y 2 − 4x2 − y + 2x) = 0
⇒ (y 2 − x2 )(y 2 − 4x2 ) − y 3 + 4x2 y + y 2 − 2xy + xy 2 − 4x3 − xy
+2x2 − y 3 + x2 y + 2xy 2 − 2x3 = 0
⇒ (y 2 − x2 )(y 2 − 4x2 ) − 6x3 + 5x2 y + 3xy 2 − 2y 3 − 3xy + y 2 = 0

Let Pn = (y 2 − x2 )(y 2 − 4x2 ) − 6x3 + 5x2 y + 3xy 2 − 2y 3 − 3xy + y 2 . The joint equation of
the asymptotes is Pn = 0.
Now the equation of the given curve is Pn +x2 +y 2 −1 = 0, thus the points of intersection
of the asymptotes and the curve must satisfy Pn = 0, Pn + x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0,
so all the intersection points must lie on the curve x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0, which is clearly a circle
of radius 1.
Note that any point where an asymptote cuts the circle satisfies the curve as well, so
each point where an asymptote intersects the circle is a point of intersection with the curve.
It can be easily checked that each asymptote cuts the circle twice, so there are eight points
of intersection (two of these coincide at (0, 1), so there are really only 7 distinct points of
intersection).

Question 2(a) An area bounded by a quadrant of a circle of radius a and the tangents at
its extremities revolves around one of the tangents. Find the volume thus generated.

Solution.

3
 If P is (x, y), and the circle is x2 +y 2 = a2 , (0, a)
B L
then P M = a − x. P N = y.
Area AM LBA revolving around AL has P M
volume
Z Z a
2
V = π (P M ) d(AM ) = π (a − x)2 dy
0

Using the parametric equation of x2 +y 2 = a2 O N A (a, 0)

i.e. x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ,

Z π
2
V = π (a − a cos θ)2 a cos θ dθ
0
Z π
2
3
1 − 2 cos θ + cos2 θ cos θ dθ


= πa
0   
3 1π 2 3 5 π
= πa 1 − 2 · + = πa −
2 2 3 3 2

To find the surface area of the above solid of revolution, we proceed as follows:

Z Z π
ds 2
S = 2π P M ds = 2π (a − a cos θ) dθ
0 dθ
s 
2   2
ds dx dy p
= + = a2 sin2 θ + a2 cos2 θ = a
dθ dθ dθ
Z π
2
S = 2π (a − a cos θ)a dθ
0
h i π2
= 2πa2 θ − sin θ = πa2 (π − 2)
0
Z ∞ Z ∞
Question 2(b) Show how the change of order in the integral e−xy sin x dy dx leads
Z ∞ 0 0
sin x
to the evaluation of dx. Hence evaluate it.
0 x
Solution.
∞ Z ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
e−xy
Z  Z  Z
−xy sin x
I = e
sin x dy dx = sin x − dx = dx
0 0 0 x 0 0 x
Z ∞ Z ∞ 
−xy
I = e sin x dx dy
0 0

4
Now
Z Z
−xy −xy
e sin x dx = −e (−y)e−xy cos x dx
cos x +
 Z 
−xy −xy −xy
= −e cos x − y e sin x − (−y)e sin x dx
Z
2
⇒ (1 + y ) e−xy sin x dx = −e−xy cos x − ye−xy sin x
e−xy
Z
⇒ e−xy sin x dx = − (cos x + y sin x)
1 + y2
Z ∞
1
⇒ e−xy sin x dx =
0 1 + y2
as e−xy (cos x +
Z y∞sin x) −→ 0 as x −→∞ ∞ and e Z
−xy
(cos x + y sin x) −→ 1 as x −→ 0.
∞
dy −1 π sin x π
Thus I = 2
= tan y = , hence dx =
0 1+y 0 2 0 x 2

Question 2(c) Show that

√
1 π
Γ(n)Γ(n + ) = 2n−1 Γ(2n), n > 0
2 2
Solution. We consider the well known identity
Z 1 Z π
Γ(m)Γ(n) m−1 n−1
2
B(m, n) = = x (1 − x) dx = 2 sin2m−1 θ cos2n−1 θ dθ (1)
Γ(m + n) 0 0

on substituting x = sin2 θ.
Put n = 21 in (1). We get
π
Γ(m)Γ( 12 )
Z
2
=2 sin2m−1 θ dθ
Γ(m + 12 ) 0

Put m = n in (1). We get

Z π
(Γ(m))2 2
= 2 (sin θ cos θ)2m−1 dθ
Γ(2m) 0
Z π
2 2
= 2m−1 (sin 2θ)2m−1 dθ
2 0
Z π Z π
1 2m−1 1 2
= 2m−2 (sin φ) dφ = 2m−1 (sin φ)2m−1 dφ
2 0 2 0

Thus
Γ(m)Γ( 12 ) (Γ(m))2 2m−1
= 2
Γ(m + 12 ) Γ(2m)

5
or √
1 π
Γ(m)Γ(m + ) = 2m−1 Γ(2m)
2 2
as required.

Paper II

a2 b 2 c 2
ZZZ
Question 3(a) Show that xyz dx dy dz = where the domain D is given by
D 6
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2 ≤ 1.
a2 b c
Solution. Note: There seems to be a misprint in this question — the integral
as given is actually 0. This is because the integrand is an odd function of x, y, z,
and the domain of integration is symmetric about the origin. We will compute
the integral for the positive octant only.
x2 y2 z2 a du b dv c dw
Put 2 = u, 2 = v, 2 = w so that dx = √ , dy = √ , dz = √ and the positive
a b c 2 u 2 v 2 w
octant of D is transformed to u + v + w ≤ 1, u ≥ 0, u ≥ 0, v ≥ 0, w ≥ 0.
The given integral is thus transformed into
ZZZ
1 1 1 abc 1 1 1
I = abc u 2 v 2 w 2 u− 2 v − 2 w− 2 du dv dw
u+v+w≤1 8
u≥0,v≥0,w≥0
a2 b2 c2 1 1−u 1−u−v
Z Z Z
= dw dv du
8 0 0 0
a2 b2 c2 1 1−u
Z Z
= (1 − u − v) dv du
8 0 0
a2 b 2 c 2 1 h (1 − u)2 i
Z
= (1 − u) − u(1 − u) − du
8 0 2
a2 b 2 c 2 1 a2 b2 c2
Z
= (1 − u)2 du =
16 0 48

a2 b 2 c 2
ZZZ
In fact, this shows that |xyz| dx dy dz = .
D 6
1
Question 3(b) If u = sin−1 (x2 + y 2 ) 5 , prove that

∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2∂ u 2
x2 2
+ 2xy + y 2
= tan u(2 tan2 u − 3)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 25

6
 Solution. If f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n possessing continuous partial
derivatives of degree 2, then by the result from 2006, question 2(b), we have

∂ 2f ∂ 2f 2
2∂ f
x2 + 2xy + y = n(n − 1)f
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
1
Let v = sin u = (x2 + y 2 ) 5 , then v is homogeneous of degree 25 and therefore by the above
theorem,
2
∂ 2v 2
 
2∂ v 2∂ v 2 2
x + 2xy +y = −1 v
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 5 5
∂v
Now v = sin u, ∂x = cos u ∂u , ∂v = cos u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂y
and
 2
∂ 2v ∂u ∂ 2u
= − sin u + cos u
∂x2 ∂x ∂x2
2
∂ 2v ∂ 2u
 
∂u
= − sin u + cos u
∂y 2 ∂y ∂y 2
∂ 2v ∂ 2u
  
∂u ∂u
= − sin u + cos u
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Substituting these in the above result, we have

2
  2  2 
∂ 2u 2
    
2∂ u 2∂ u 2 ∂u ∂u ∂u 2 ∂u 6
cos u x 2
+2xy +y 2
−sin u x +2xy +y = − sin u
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 25
or 2
2
∂ 2u 2

2∂u 2∂ u 6 ∂u ∂u
x + 2xy +y = − tan u + tan u x +y
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 25 ∂x ∂y
But
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v 2 2
x cos u + y cos u =x +y = v = sin u
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y 5 5
therefore
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2∂ u 6 4 2
x2 2
+ 2xy + y 2
= − tan u + tan3
u = tan u(2 tan2 u − 3)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 25 25 25
as required.

7
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1998 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 2, 2010

Question 1(a) Find the asymptotes of the curve

(2x − 3y + 1)2 (x + y) − 8x + 2y − 9 = 0
and show that they intersect the curve again in three points which lie on a straight line.
Solution. The given equation is
(2x − 3y)2 (x + y) + 2(2x − 3y)(x + y) + x + y − 8x + 2y − 9 = 0
Now x3 φ3 ( xy ) = homogeneous terms of degree 3 = (2x − 3y)2 (x + y). If y = mx + c is an
asymptote, then m is a root of φ3 (m) = (2 − 3m)2 (1 + m) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, m = 32 , 23 , so we
may have two parallel asymptotes.
For m = −1, c = − φφ02 (−1)
(−1) 0
= φ0 (−1) = 0, as φ03 (−1) 6= 0. Thus x + y = 0 is one asymptote.
3 3
For parallel asymptotes y = 23 x + c, c is the root of
c2 00 2 2 2
φ3 ( ) + cφ02 ( ) + φ1 ( ) = 0
2! 3 3 3

φ3 (m) = (2 − 3m)2 (1 + m)
φ03 (m) = (2 − 3m)2 − 6(2 − 3m)(1 + m)
 
2
φ003 (m) = −12(2 − 3m) + 18(1 + m) − 6(2 − 3m) ⇒ φ003 = 30
3
φ2 (m) = 2(1 + m)(2 − 3m)
 
2
φ02 (m)= −6(1 + m) + 2(2 − 3m) ⇒ φ02 = −10
3
 
2
φ1 (m) = −7 + 3m ⇒ φ1 = −5
3

1
Thus 15c2 − 10c − 5 = 0 ⇒ c = 1, − 13 . So the asymptotes are y = 32 x + 1, y = 32 x − 13 or
2x − 3y + 3 = 0, 2x − 3y − 1 = 0.
The joint equation of the asymptotes is Pn = (x + y)(2x − 3y + 3)(2x − 3y − 1) = 0
or Pn = (2x − 3y)2 (x + y) + 2(2x − 3y)(x + y) − 3(x + y) = 0. The equation of the curve
is f (x, y) = Pn − 4x + 6y − 9 = 0. This implies that the points of intersection of f (x, y)
and Pn lie on 4x − 6y + 9 = 0, which is a straight line. But this line is parallel to the
two parallel asymptotes, which means that the two aymptotes do not cut the curve — this
can be verified by solving the simultaneous equations f (x, y) = 0, 2x − 3y + 3 = 0 and
9 9
f (x, y) = 0, 2x − 3y − 1 = 0. The asymptote x + y = 0 cuts the curve at (− 10 , 10 ), which
lies on the line 4x − 6y + 9 = 0.
(It seems that there is an error in the question. The following statement however is true
— if there are 3 points at which the asymptotes of a cubic curve intersect it, then these must
lie in a straight line.)

Question 1(b) A thin closed rectangular box is to have one edge n times another edge,
and the volume of the box is given to be V . Prove that the least surface S is given by
nS 3 = 54(n + 1)2 V 2 .
2 V
Solution. Let the edgesbe given by x, nx,  y, so that V = nx y ⇒ y = nx2 . Then
(n + 1)V
S = 2(nx2 + xy + nxy) = 2 nx2 + . For critical points,
nx
 
dS (n + 1)V
= 2 2nx − =0
dx nx2
(n + 1)V
⇒ 2n2 x3 − (n + 1)V = 0 ⇒ x3 =
2n2
2
 
dS 2(n + 1)V (n + 1)V
2
= 2 2n + 3
= 2(2n + 4n) > 0(when x3 = )
dx nx 2n2
(n + 1)V
Thus S is minimum when x3 = .
2n2
2 2 3 3(n + 1)V
S= (n x + (n + 1)V ) = , so n3 x3 S 3 = 27(n + 1)3 V 3 ⇒ n(n + 1)V S 3 /2 =
nx nx
27(n + 1)3 V 3 ⇒ nS 3 = 54(n + 1)2 V 2 as required.

Question 1(c) If x + y = 1, prove that

 2  2
dn n n
 
n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n
(x y ) = n! y − y x+ y x + . . . + (−1) x
dxn 1 2
Solution. By the Leibnitz formula
n  
dn X n
(uv) = un−r vr
dxn r=0
r

2
Let u = xn , v = y n = (1 − x)n , then
n! r
un−r = n(n − 1) . . . (n − (n − r) + 1)xn−(n−r) = x
r!
n!
vr = (−1)r n(n − 1) . . . (n − r + 1)(1 − x)n−r = (−1)r y n−r
(n − r)!
     2
n n n! r r n! n−r r n
un−r vr = x (−1) y = (−1) n! xr y n−r
r r r! (n − r)! r
n  2
dn n n
X
r n
⇒ n ((x y ) = n! (−1) xr y n−r
dx r=0
r
  2  2 
n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n
= n! y − y x+ y x + . . . + (−1) x
1 2

Question 2(a) Show that

∞
xp−1
Z
dx = B(p, q)
0 (1 + x)p+q
Z 1
1 −dy
Solution. By definition, B(p, q) = xq−1 (1 − x)p−1 dx. Let x = , dx = .
0 1+y (1 + y)2
0 p−1
−dy
Z
1 1
B(p, q) = 1 −
(1 + y)q−1 1+y (1 + y)2
Z∞∞
y p−1
= dy
0 (1 + y)p+q
as required.

π2
ZZZ
dx dy dz
Question 2(b) Show that p = where the integral is over all
1 − x2 − y 2 − z 2 8
positive values of x, y, z for which the expression is real.
Solution. Switching over to polar coordinates, x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ cos φ, z =
r cos φ, ∂(x,y,z)
∂(r,θ,φ)
, we get
π π
Z
2
Z
2
Z 1
1
I = (1 − r2 )− 2 r2 sin θ dr dθ dφ
0 0 0
Z 1
π 1
= (1 − r2 )− 2 r2 dr
2 0
Put r2 = t
Z 1 1
π − 12 t2
= (1 − t) dt
2 0 2

3
 π 1
Z
1 3
= (1 − t) 2 −1 t 2 −1 dt
4 0
π  3 1  π Γ( 32 )Γ( 12 ) π 1   1 2 π 2 1 √
= B , = = Γ = ∵Γ = π
4 2 2 4 Γ(2) 4 2 2 8 2

Question 2(c) The ellipse b2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b2 is divided into two parts by the line x = a/2
and the smaller part is rotated through four right angles about this line. Prove that the volume
generated is  √ 
2 3 3 π
πa b −
4 3
Solution.

The part rotated is LL0 AL, the coordi- L

nates of L are ( a2 , y) where y is given√ by M 0 P
2
a2
4a2
+ yb2 = 1. Thus L √is the point ( a2 , 23 b)
and L0 is the point ( a2 , − 23 b). P is the generic
point (x, y) so that OM = x, N M = x − a2 =
A0 O N M A
P M 0 . The required volume
a
x= 2
√
3
Z Z
2
b  a 2
V = 0 2 0
π(P M ) d(N M ) = 2 π x− dy L0
0 2
Put x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ, so that θ varies from 0 to π3 .
Z π
3 a 2
V = 2π a cos θ − b cos θ dθ
0 2
Z π
2πa2 b 3
= (2 cos θ − 1)2 cos θ dθ
4 0
Z π
πa2 b 3
4 cos θ(1 − sin2 θ) − 4 cos2 θ + cos θ dθ


=
2 0
π Z π
2
4 sin3 θ 3 πa2 b 3 1 + cos 2θ

πa b
= 5 sin θ − −4 dθ
2 3 0 2 0 2
 π3
πa2 b 4 sin3 θ

= 5 sin θ − − 2θ − sin 2θ
2 3
2
 √ √ √  0
πa b 3 43 3 π 3
= 5 − −2 −
2 2 3 8 3 2
2
 √   √ 
πa b 3 3 π 2 3 3 π
= −2 = πa b −
2 2 3 4 3

4
 Paper II

Question 3(a) Show that the function f (x, y) = 2x4 − 3x2 y + y 2 has (0, 0) as the only
critical point but the function has neither a minimum nor a maximum at (0, 0).

Solution. For critical points, ∂f ∂x

= 8x3 − 6xy = 0, ∂f
∂y
= −3x2 + 2y = 0. ∂f∂x
= 0 ⇒ x = 0 or
6y = 8x . But 6y = 8x is not compatible with the second equation 2y = 3x2 . Thus x = 0,
2 2

which implies y = 0, hence (0, 0) is the only critical point.

√ √
Now f (0, 0) = 0, f (δ, 0) = 2δ 4 > 0. Let us take y = 3x2 , f (x, y) = 2x4 − 3 3x4 + 3x4 <
0. Now whatever neighborhood of (0, 0) we take, it has √ points of the form (δ, 0) for suitable
2
δ > 0, as well as points that lie on the parabola y = 3x , thus f (x, y) takes positive as well
as negative values in any neighborhood of (0, 0), hence has neither maximum nor minimum
at (0, 0).

5
 UPSC Civil Services Main 1999 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 2, 2010

x
Question 1(a) Determine the set of all points where the function f (x) = is differ-
1 + |x|
entiable.
x (1 + x) − x 1
Solution. If x > 0, then f (x) = ⇒ f 0 (x) = 2
= , so f is
1+x (x + 1) (x + 1)2
differentiable for all x > 0.
x (1 − x) − x(−1) 1
If x < 0, then f (x) = ⇒ f 0 (x) = 2
= , so f is differentiable
1−x (1 − x) (1 − x)2
for all x < 0. x
1+x
−0
If x = 0, f (x) = 0. Right hand derivative at x = 0 is lim+ = 1. The Left hand
x
x→0 x
−0
1−x
derivative at x = 0 is lim− = 1.
x→0 x
Thus f (x) is differentiable everywhere.

Question 1(b) Find 3 asymptotes of the curve

x3 + 2x2 y − 4xy 2 − 8y 3 − 4x + 8y − 10 = 0

Also find the intercept of one asymptote between the other two.

Solution. Substituting y = mx + c, we get

x3 + 2x2 (mx + c) − 4x(mx + c)2 − 8(mx + c)3 − 4x + 8(mx + c) − 10 = 0

The coefficient of x3 is 1 + 2m − 4m2 − 8m3 = 0 ⇒ (4m2 − 1)(2m + 1) = 0 ⇒ m =

− 12 , m = ± 21 . So we have two parallel asymptotes.

1
 Setting the coefficient of x2 to 0 we get 2c − 8mc − 24m2 c = 0. When m = 12 , we have
−8c = 0 ⇒ c = 0, so one asymptote is y = 21 x, or x − 2y = 0.
When m = − 12 , the coefficient of x2 is identically 0. So we set the coefficient of x to 0, i.e.
−4c2 − 24mc2 + 8m − 4 = 0 ⇒ 8c2 − 8 = 0 ⇒ c = ±1. So the asymptotes are y = − 21 x ± 1,
or x + 2y + 2 = 0, x + 2y − 2 = 0.
To determine the intercept, we first find the points of intersection. y = 21 x = − 12 x ± 1 ⇒
x = ±1 ⇒ y = ± 12 , so the points of intersection are (1, 21 ), (−1, − 12 ). The distance between
q √
them is (1 − (−1))2 + ( 12 − (− 12 ))2 = 5, which is the required intercept.

Question 1(c) Find the dimensions of the right circular cone of minimum volume which
can be circumscribed about a sphere of radius a.

Solution.

Let r be the radius of the cone, h be the A

height and α be the semi-vertical angle. Vol- α
ume of the cone is 31 πr2 h. Let AO = y, then
h = a + y. Now sin α = OD OA
= ay . Clearly
BF
= tan α, or r = BF = AB tan α = D E
AB a a
(a + y) √ 2a 2 . Thus the volume of the cone O
y −a
can be written as h
F r B G
π (a + y)2 a2 (a + y) πa2 (a + y)2
V = =
3 y 2 − a2 3 y−a
dV πa 2(y − a)(y + a) − (y + a)2
2
πa2 (y − 3a)(y + a)
= =
dy 3 (y − a)2 3 (y − a)2

Thus dV
dy
= 0 ⇒ y = 3a, y = −a (not permissible). Clearly dV dy
< 0 when 0 < y < 3a, and
dV
dy
> 0 when y > 3a, so the sign changes from negative to positive, so V is a minimum when
√
y = 3a. h = 4a, r = 4a √a8a = a 2. V = 83 πa3 , and α = sin−1 13 .

Question 2(a) If f (x) is Riemann integrable over every interval of finite length and f (x +
y) = f (x) + f (y) for every x, y ∈ R, shaw that f (x) = cx where c = f (1).

Solution. x = y = 0 ⇒ f (0) = 0. 0 = f (1 − 1) = f (1) + f (−1) ⇒ f (−1) = −f (1).

Thus f (n) = nf (1) for every n ∈ Z. If x = m
n
, then nx = m ⇒ f (nx) = nf (x) = f (m) =
mf (1) ⇒ f (x) = xf (1).
Let α ∈ R. Let xn ∈ Q, xn −→ α. Then lim f (xn ) = lim xn f (1) = αf (1). If f is
n→∞ n→∞
continuous, then xn −→ α ⇒ f (xn ) −→ f (α), so f (α) = cf (1). In this case f is Riemann
Integrable, so we proceed as follows:

2
 Z x Z x+y
Let F (x) = f (t) dt, then F is a continuous function. F (x + y) = f (t) dt, let
0 0
(x + y)z = t, so t = 0 ⇔ z = 0, t = x + y ⇔ z = 1. It is enough to consider x > 0, because
f (x + (−x)) = f (0) = 0 = f (x) + f (−x), so f is an odd function of x.
Z 1
F (x + y) = f (xz + yz)(x + y) dz
0
Z 1 Z 1
F (x + y)
= f (xz) dz + f (yz) dz
x+y 0 0
( Let xz = u, yz = v)
Z x Z y
du dv
= f (u) + f (v)
0 x 0 y
F (x) F (y)
= +
x y

Thus the function G(x) = F (x)x

is continuous and satisfies G(x + y) = G(x) + G(y). So
G(x) = xG(1), and F (x) = x G(1). Differentiating both sides, f (x) = F 0 (x) = 2xG(1), so
2

f (x) = cx, which proves the result.

sin3 t
Question 2(b) Show that the area between the cissoid x = a sin2 t, y = a and its
cos t
3πa2
asymptote is .
4
Solution.

a2 sin6 t x3 x3
y2 = = = .
cos2 t a(1 − sin2 t) a−x x=a
Thus y 2 (a − x) = x3 , so x = a is an asymp-
tote. Z a
Required Area = 2 y dx. Sub- y
0
stituting for y and x using the
O δx A
parametric πequations, the area be-
Z 3
2 sin t
comes 2 a 2a sin t cos t dt =
0 cos t
Z π
2 3·1 π 3πa2
4a2 sin4 t dt = 4a2 = as re-
0 4·2 2 4
quired.

3
 x2
ZZ
Question 2(c) Show that xm−1 y n−1 dxdy over the positive quadrant of the ellipse +
a2
y2 am bn Γ( m2 )Γ( n2 )
= 1 is .
b2 4 Γ( m2 + n2 + 1)
∂(x,y)
Solution. Put X = ax, Y = by, ∂(X,Y )
= ab. Thus
ZZ
I= am−1 X m−1 bn−1 Y n−1 ab dX dY
X≥0,Y ≥0
X 2 +Y 2 ≤1

∂(X, Y ) cos θ −r sin θ

Put X = r cos θ, Y = r sin θ ⇒ = = r. Then
∂(r, θ) sin θ r cos θ
Z πZ 1
2
m n
I = a b rm+n−2 sinm−1 θ cosn−1 θ r dr dθ
0 0
m n Z π2
a b
= sinm−1 θ cosn−1 θ dθ
m+n 0
am bn Γ( n−1+1 2
)Γ( m−1+1
2
)
= n−1 m−1
m + n 2Γ( 2 + 2 + 1)
am bn Γ( n2 )Γ( m2 )
=
4 m+n
2
Γ( n2 + m2 )
am bn Γ( n2 )Γ( m2 )
=
4 Γ( n2 + m2 + 1)
Here we used xΓ(x) = Γ(x + 1) and
Z π
2
m n Γ( n+1
2
)Γ( m+1
2
)
sin θ cos θ dθ = n m
0 2Γ( 2 + 2 + 1)

Paper II

Question 3(a) Find the shortest distance from the origin to the hyperbola x2 + 8xy + 7y 2 =
225, z = 0.

Solution. We have to minimize f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 subject to the constraint x2 + 8xy + 7y 2 −

225 = 0. Let F (x, y) = x2 + y 2 + λ(x2 + 8xy + 7y 2 − 225) where λ is Lagrange’s undetermined
multiplier. For extreme values
∂F
= 2x + 2λx + 8λy = 0
∂x
∂F
= 2y + 8λx + 14λy = 0
∂y

4
 −y − 7λy
From the second equation we get x = . Substituting the value of x in the first
4λ
−(1 + λ)(1 + 7λ)y
equation, we get + 8λy = 0 or 16λ2 − (1 + 7λ)(1 + λ) = 0, since y 6= 0 —
2λ
note that y = 0 ⇒ x = 0 which is not possible because x2 + 8xy + y 2 = 225. Thus we get
9λ2 − 8λ − 1 = 0, so λ = 1, − 19 .
We shall now show that λ = 1 is not possible. λ = 1 ⇒ 4x + 8y = 0 ⇒ x = −2y ⇒
4y − 16y 2 + 7y 2 = 225, which is not possible, thus λ 6= 1.
2

λ = − 91 ⇒ 2x − 29 x − 89 y = 0 ⇒ 16x − 8y = 0 ⇒ y = 2x. Thus x2 + 16x2 + 28y 2 = 225 ⇒

√ √ √ √ √ √
x = ± 5, y = ±2 5. Thus stationary points are ( 5, 2 5), (− 5, −2 5).

1
F (x, y) = x2 + y 2 − (x2 + 8xy + 7y 2 − 225)
9
1h 2 i
= 8x + 2y 2 − 8xy + 225
9
1h i
= 2(2x − y)2 + 225
9
√
which is minimized when 2x = y. Thus the shortest distance is 25 = 5.

x−y
ZZ
Question 3(b) Show that the double integral dx dy does not exist over R =
R (x + y)3
[0, 1 : 0, 1].
x−y
Solution. For a fixed x 6= 0, the function (x+y)3
is a bounded function of y and

1 Z 1 
x−y
Z
x+y 2x
dy = − + dy
0 (x + y)3 0 (x + y)3 (x + y)3
1
1 2x 1 x 1
= + 2
= − 2
=
x + y −2(x + y) 0 1 + x (1 + x) (1 + x)2

Now Z 1 Z 1  
dx −2 1 1 1
= lim (1 + x) dx = lim+ − + =
0 (1 + x)2 →0+  →0 2 1+ 2
1 1
x−y
Z Z
1
Thus 3
dy dx = .
0 0 (x + y) 2
Similarly, if y 6= 0,
Z 1 Z 1 
x−y x+y 2y
3
dx = − dx
0 (x + y) 0 (x + y)3 (x + y)3
1
1 2y 1
= − − 2
=−
x + y −2(x + y) 0 (1 + y)2

5
 1 1 Z 1
x−y
Z Z
1 dy 1
Thus 3
dx dy = − , as 2
= as above.
0 Z0 Z (x + y) 2 Z Z0 (1 + y) 2
1 1 1 1
x−y x−y
Thus 3
dy dx 6= 3
dx dy showing that the double integral
0 0 (x + y) 0 0 (x + y)
does not exist, because if the double integral exists and the two repeated integrals exist,
x−y
these have to be equal. The reason is that the function (x+y) 3 is not bounded in the square

R[0, 1 : 0, 1].

6
 UPSC Civil Services Main 2000 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 2, 2010

Question 1(a) Use the mean value theorem to prove that

2 2
≤ log 1.4 ≤
7 5
Solution. Let f (x) = log(1 + x). Consider the interval [0, x]. Clearly the mean value
1
theorem applies: log(1 + x) − log 1 = 1+ζ x for some ζ ∈ [0, x]. Take x = 0.4.

2
0 ≤ ζ ≤ 0.4 =
5
7
⇒1 ≤ 1+ζ ≤
5
5 1
⇒ x ≤ x≤x
7 1+ζ
2 2
⇒ ≤ log 1.4 ≤
7 5

Question 1(b) Show that

ZZ
1 Γ(l)Γ(m)
x2l−1 y 2m−1 dx dy = r2(l+m)
A 4 Γ(l + m + 1)

where A consists of all positive values of x, y lying insode the circle x2 + y 2 = r2 .

1
Solution. Switching to polar coordinates, x = R cos θ, y = R sin θ and
Z rZ π
2
I = R2l−1 cos2l−1 θ R2m−1 sin2m−1 θ R dθ dR
0 0
Z r Z π
2
2l+2m−1
= R dR cos2l−1 θ sin2m−1 θ dθ
0 0
r 2l+2m Γ( 2 )Γ( 2m
2l
2
)
= 2l−1 2m−1
2l + 2m 2Γ( 2 + 2 + 1)
r2(l+m) Γ(l)Γ(m) 1 Γ(l)Γ(m)
= = r2(l+m)
4(l + m) Γ(l + m) 4 Γ(l + m + 1)

x2 y 2 z 2
Question 2(a) Find the center of gravity of the positive octant of the ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 =
a b c
1, if the density varies as xyz.

Solution. ZZZ
M ass = x2 2 2 xyz dx dy dz
+ yb2 + zc2 ≤ 1
a2
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0
Let x = aX, y = bY, z = cZ. We get:
ZZZ
2 2 2
M ass = a b c XY Z dX dY dZ
X2 + Y 2 + Z2 ≤ 1
X ≥ 0, Y ≥ 0, Z ≥ 0
Z 1 Z √1−x2 Z √1−x2 −y2
= a2 b 2 c 2 x y z dz dy dx
0 0 0
√
2 2 2 Z 1 Z 1−x2
abc
= x y(1 − x2 − y 2 ) dy dx
2 0 0
1 √1−x2
a2 b 2 c 2 y 2 x2 y 2 y 4
Z 
= x − − dx
2 0 2 2 4 0
a2 b 2 c 2 1
Z
x 2(1 − x2 ) − 2x2 (1 − x2 ) − (1 − x2 )2 dx


=
8 0
2 2 2 Z 1
abc
= (x − 2x3 + x5 ) dx
8 0
2 2 2
 2 1
abc x x4 x6
= −2 +
8 2 4 6 0
2 2 2
a2 b 2 c 2
 
abc 1 1 1
= − + =
8 2 2 6 48

2
 If (x, y, z) are the coordinates of the center of gravity, then
ZZZ
M ass × x = x2 y2 z2 x2 yz dx dy dz
a2 + b2 + c 2 ≤ 1
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0
ZZZ
3 2 2
= abc X 2 Y Z dX dY dZ
X2 + Y 2 + Z2 ≤ 1
X ≥ 0, Y ≥ 0, Z ≥ 0
3 2 2 Z 1
abc
= (x2 − 2x4 + x6 ) dx
8
0
a3 b 2 c 2 1 2 1 a3 b 2 c 2

= − + =
8 3 5 7 105

a3 b 2 c 2
 
48 16 16a 16b 16c
Thus x = × 2 2 2 = a. By symmetry, the center of gravity is , , .
105 abc 35 35 35 35

(
0, x irrational
Question 2(b) Let f (x) =
1, x rational
Show that f is not integrable on [a, b].

Solution. Let P = {a = x0 < x1 < x2 < . . . xn = b} be any partition of [a, b]. In any
interval [xi−1 , xi ], 1 ≤ i ≤ n, there exist rationals as well as irrationals.
Thus mi = minxi−1 ≤x≤xi f (x) = 0, Mi = max Pn xi−1 ≤x≤xi f (x) = 1.
The Lower Riemann Pn Sum = L(P, f ) = i=1 mi (xi − xi−1 ) = 0. The Upper Riemann
Sum = U (P, f ) = i=1 Mi (xi − xi−1 ) = b − a.
Z b Z b
Thus f (x) dx = 0 and f (x) dx = b − a, showing that f is not Riemann integrable
a a
on [a, b].

Question 2(c) Show that

dn log x
   
n n! 1 1 1
= (−1) n+1 log x − 1 − − − . . . −
dxn x x 2 3 n

Solution. We can prove this by induction. It is obviously true for n = 0. Suppose it is

true for n :
dn log x
   
n n! 1 1 1
= (−1) n+1 log x − 1 − − − . . . −
dxn x x 2 3 n

3
Differentiating both sides, we get

dn+1 log x
    
n d 1 1 1 1
= (−1) n! log x − 1 − − − . . . −
dxn+1 x dx xn+1 2 3 n
    
n −(n + 1) 1 1 1 1 1
= (−1) n! n+2
log x − 1 − − − . . . − + n+1
x 2 3 n x x
   
n+1 1 1 1 1 1
= (−1) (n + 1)! n+2 log x − 1 − − − . . . − − n+2
x 2 3 n x (n + 1)
 
(n + 1)! 1 1 1 1
= (−1)n+1 n+2 log x − 1 − − − . . . − −
x 2 3 n n+1

which proves the result for n + 1, and thus by induction for all n.
An alternate method is to use the Leibniz rule:
n   n−r
dn X n d u dr v
(uv) =
dxn r=0
r dxn−r dxr

and letting u = x1 , v = log x.

Question 2(d) Find constants a, b which minimize

Z π

2
F (a, b) = sin x − (ax2 + bx) dx
0

Solution.
Z π
sin2 x − 2(ax2 + bx) sin x + (ax2 + bx)2 dx


F (a, b) =
π Z0 π  π
1 − cos 2x
Z
x sin 2x π
sin2 x dx = dx = − =
0 0 2 2 4 0 2
Z π π Z π
(ax2 + bx) sin x dx = −(ax2 + bx) cos x + (2ax + b) cos x dx
0 0 0
 π Z π
2
= (aπ + bπ) + (2ax + b) sin x − 2a sin x dx
0 0
π
= (aπ + bπ) + 2a cos x = aπ 2 + bπ − 4a
2

0
π
a2 π 5 abπ 4 b2 π 3
Z
(a2 x4 + 2abx3 + b2 x2 ) dx = + +
0 5 2 3
π a2 π 5 abπ 4 b2 π 3
⇒ F (a, b) = − 2(aπ 2 + bπ − 4a) + + +
2 5 2 3
1h 5 2 i
= 6π a + 15π 4 ab + 10π 3 b2 − (60π 2 − 240)a − 60πb + 15π
30

4
Let G(a, b) = 30F (a, b). Then at the maximum:
∂G
= 12π 5 + 15π 4 b − (60π 2 − 240) = 0
∂x
∂G
= 15π 4 a − 20π 3 b − 60π = 0
∂y
240 − 12π 2 20π 2 − 320
Solving these for a, b we get b = , a = .
π4 π5  2 2
∂ 2G 5 ∂ 2G 3 ∂ 2G 4 ∂ 2G ∂ 2G ∂ G
Now = 12π > 0, = 20π > 0, = 15π ⇒ − =
∂a2 ∂b2 ∂a ∂b ∂a2 ∂b2 ∂a ∂b
12π 5 × 20π 3 − (15π 4 )2 = 15π 8 > 0. Thus G(a, b) and hence F (a, b) is minimum when
240 − 12π 2 20π 2 − 320
b= , a = .
π4 π5
Paper II

Question 3(a) 1. Suppose f is real-valued twice differentiable on (0, ∞) and M0 , M1 , M2

the least upper bounds of |f (x)|, |f 0 (x)|, |f 00 (x)| respectively in (0, ∞). Prove that for
each x > 0, h > 0
f (x + 2h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = − hf 00 (u)
2h
for some u ∈ (x, x + 2h). Hence show that M12 ≤ 4M0 M2 .
ZZ
2. Evaluate (x3 dy dz + x2 y dz dx + x2 z dx dy) by transforming it into a triple integral
S
where S is the closed surface formed by the cylinder x2 + y 2 = a2 , 0 ≤ z ≤ b and the
circular discs x2 + y 2 ≤ a2 , z = 0 and x2 + y 2 ≤ a2 , z = b.

Solution.
1. Clearly f (x) satisfies the requirements of Taylor’s theorem in [x, x + 2h]. Therefore
2
f (x + 2h) = f (x) + 2hf 0 (x) + (2h)
2!
f 00 (u) for some u ∈ (x, x + 2h). Thus

f (x + 2h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = − hf 00 (u)
2h
as required.
Now
|f (x + 2h)| + |f (x)| M0 + M0 M0
|f 0 (x)| ≤ + h|f 00 (u)| ≤ + hM2 = + hM2
2h 2h h
for all x and h > 0. Therefore
 
0 M0
sup |f (x)| ≤ inf + hM2
x>0 h>0 h

5
 2
√ √
q q
M0 M0
But h
+ hM2 = h
− M2 h + 2 M0 M2 , so for h = M 0
M2
, we have M0
h
+ hM2 =
√ √
 
M0
2 M0 M2 ⇒ inf h>0 h
+ hM2 ≤ 2 M0 M2 . Thus

 
0 M0 p
M1 = sup |f (x)| ≤ inf + hM2 ≤ 2 M0 M2
x>0 h>0 h

so M12 ≤ 4M0 M2 .

2. By Green’s theorem
ZZ
(x3 dy dz + x2 y dz dx + x2 z dx dy)
Z ZSZ  
∂ 3 ∂ 2 ∂ 2
= x + x y + x z dx dy dz
x2 +y 2 ≤a2 ∂x ∂y ∂z
0≤z≤b
ZZ Z b  ZZ
2
= 5x dz dy dx = 5b x2 dy dx
x2 +y 2 ≤a2 0 x2 +y 2 ≤a2
Z a Z 2π 4
a 5
= 5b r2 cos2 θ r dθ dr = 5b π = πa4 b
0 0 4 4

6
 UPSC Civil Services Main 2001 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 2, 2010

Question 1(a) Let f be defined on R by setting f (x) = x if x is rational, and f (x) = 1 − x

if x is irrational. Show that f is continuous at 21 but discontinuous at any other point.

Solution. f is continuous at 12 : Clearly

(
1 1 |x − 21 |, x rational 1
f (x) − f ( ) = f (x) − = = x −
2 2 |1 − x − 21 |, x irrational 2

Thus for any given  > 0, we can choose δ = , and we get |x − 12 | < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f ( 12 )| < ,
so f is continuous at x = 21 .
f is discontinuous at x0 6= 21 : We know that both rationals and irrationals are dense in
R, so there exists a sequence of rationals {xn } such that lim xn = x0 and a sequence of
n→∞
irrationals {yn } such that lim yn = x0 .
n→∞
If x0 is rational, consider the sequence of irrationals {yn }. lim f (yn ) = lim (1 − yn ) =
n→∞ n→∞
1 − x0 6= x0 = f (x0 ), because x0 6= 12 . Thus f is discontinuous at x0 .
If x0 is irrational, consider the sequence of rationals {xn }. lim f (xn ) = lim xn = x0 6=
n→∞ n→∞
1 − x0 = f (x0 ), because x0 6= 12 . Thus again f is discontinuous at x0 .
Note: We use the fact that a function f is continuous at xo if and only if for all sequences
xn −→ x0 ⇒ f (xn ) −→ f (x0 ).

1
sin x1
Z
Question 1(b) Test the convergence of √ dx
0 x

1
 1 1 Z 1 Z 1
√
Z
dx 1 dx dx
Solution. Consider √ = 2x 2 = 2 − 2  ⇒ lim+ √ = 2, so √ is
 x  →0  x 0 x
sin x1
Z 1 Z 1
dx
convergent. Now √ dx ≤ √ , so the given integral is absolutely convergent, and
0 x 0 x
hence convergent.

Question 2(a) Find the equation of the cubic curve which has the same asymptotes as

2x(y − 3)2 = 3y(x − 1)2

and which passes through the point (1, 1) and has the x-axis as tangent at the origin.

Solution. The equation of the given curve is

2xy 2 − 3yx2 − 6xy + 18x − 3y = 0

By dividing throughout by y 2 and letting y → ∞ , it is clear that x = 0 is an asymptote.

Substituting y = mx + c, and equating the coefficients of the two highest powers of x to
0, we get 2m2 − 3m = 0, 4cm − 3c − 6m = 0. From the first equation we get m = 0, 23 , and
the corresponding values of c are 0, 3. Thus the asymptotes are x = 0, y = 0, 3x − 2y + 6 = 0.
Any curve with the same asymptotes is of the form 2xy 2 − 3yx2 − 6xy + ax + by + c = 0.
Since it passes through (0, 0), c = 0. It passes through (1, 1), a + b − 7 = 0. The slope
of the tangent at (0, 0) is − ffxy (0,0)
(0,0)
= − ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0, b = 7. Thus the required curve is
2xy 2 − 3yx2 − 6xy + 7y = 0.
Note: For this problem, we did not need to compute the asymptotes — merely ensure
that the terms with the highest and second highest powers of x, y be the same — so we
could start with the curve 2x(y − 3)2 − 3y(x − 1)2 ) + ax + by + c = 0, and then make it pass
through (1, 1) with y = 0 as a tangent at (0, 0).

Question 2(b) Find the minimum and maximum radii vectors of

(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )2 = a2 x2 + b2 y 2 + c2 z 2

by the plane lx + my + nz = 0.

Solution. We have to minimize or maximize

r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
subject to φ1 = a2 x2 + b2 y 2 + c2 z 2 − (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )2 = 0
φ2 = lx + my + nz = 0

Let F = r2 + λ1 φ1 + λ2 φ2 , where λ1 , λ2 are Lagrange multipliers. For extreme values:

2
 ∂F
= 2x + λ1 [2a2 x − 4xr2 ] + λ2 l = 0 (1)
∂x
∂F
= 2y + λ1 [2b2 y − 4yr2 ] + λ2 m = 0 (2)
∂y
∂F
= 2z + λ1 [2c2 z − 4zr2 ] + λ2 n = 0 (3)
∂z
Multiplying (1) by x, (2) by y, (3) by z and adding, we get
2r2 + λ1 [2(a2 x2 + b2 y 2 + c2 z 2 ) − 4r4 ] + λ2 φ2 = 0
which gives us 2r2 +λ1 [2r4 −4r4 ] = 0, because a2 x2 +b2 x2 +c2 z 2 = (x2 +y 2 +z 2 )2 = r4 , φ2 = 0.
Thus λ1 = r12 .
λ2 lr2 λ2 mr2 λ2 nr2
Substituting this back, we get x = 1 (4r2λ−2a
2l
2 )−2 = 2(r 2 −a2 ) , and y = 2(r 2 −b2 ) , z = 2(r 2 −c2 ) .
r2
Since lx + my + nz = 0, we get
l2 m2 n2
+ + =0
r2 − a2 r2 − b2 r2 − c2
This is a quadratic equation in r2 , its roots give us the required extremum values. Note that
the extremum values have to exist.
ZZZ
Question 2(c) Evaluate (x + y + z + 1)2 dx dy dz over the region defined by x ≥ 0, y ≥
0, z ≥ 0, x + y + z ≤ 1.
Solution.
ZZZ
I = (x + y + z + 1)2 dx dy dz
Z 1 Z 1−x Z 1−x−y
= (x + y + z + 1)2 dz dy dx
0 0 0
Z 1 Z 1−x 1−x−y
(x + y + z + 1)3
= dy dx
0 0 3 0
Z 1 Z 1−x 
8 (x + y + 1)3

= − dy dx
0 0 3 3
Z 1 1−x
8 (x + y + 1)4
= y− dx
0 3 12 0
Z 1
16 (x + 1)4

8
= (1 − x) − + dx
0 3 12 12
1
16 8 x2 (x + 1)5
= x− −
12 3 2 60 0
16 8 32 1 31
= − + − =
12 6 60 60 60

3
 Note: This is actually Dirichlet’s Integral :

Γ(p)Γ(q)Γ(r) 1
ZZZ Z
p−1 q−1 r−1
F (x + y + z)x y z dx dy dz = F (u)up+q+r−1 du
A Γ(p + q + r) 0

where p, q, r are all positive, and A is the volume consisting of all positive values of x, y, z
subject to the condition x + y + z ≤ 1. The result is obtained by substituting x + y + z =
u, y + z = uv, z = uvw.
In this case, p = q = r = 1, F (u) = (u + 1)2 , so
1 1
1 u5 u4 u3
Z   
1 2 2 1 1 1 1 31
I= (u + 1) u du = + + = + + =
Γ(3) 0 2! 5 2 3 0 2 5 2 3 60

as before.

Question 2(d) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the cardiod r = a(1 −
cos θ) around the initial line.

Solution.

Z A
V = πy 2 dx
B

x = r cos θ = a(1 − cos θ) cos θ, so dx

dθ
=
−a sin θ(1 − 2 cos θ). At A, θ = 0, and at
B, θ = π. Thus B A

Z 0
V = − πa2 (1 − cosθ)2 sin2 θ a sin θ(1 − 2 cos θ) dθ
π
Z π
3
= πa (1 − 2 cos θ + cos2 θ) sin3 θ(1 − 2 cos θ) dθ
Z0 π
= πa3 (1 − 4 cos θ + 5 cos2 θ − 2 cos3 θ) sin3 θ dθ
"0Z π Z π #
2 2
= πa3 2 sin3 θ dθ + 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ dθ (The other terms give us 0)
0 0
 
3 2 2 8
= 2πa +5 = πa3
3 5·3·1 3

4
 Note: An easier way is to use the standard formula for the volume:
Z 0
2
V = π r3 sin θ dθ
3 π
Z π
2
= π a3 (1 − cos θ)3 sin θ dθ
3 0
2 3 2 3
Z
= πa z dz (Substituting z = 1 − cos θ)
3 0
8 3
= πa
3

Paper II
π
xn
Z
2
Question 3(a) Show that dx exists if and only if m < n + 1.
0 sinm x
π
xm
Z
2
n−m
Solution. Let I = x dx.
0 sinm x  x m
Case (1): n−m ≥ 0. In this case the integral is a proper integral because lim+ =
x→0 sin x
1 and therefore there is no discontinuity.
Case (2): n − m < 0. Here 0 is the only point of discontinuity.
 x  Note that the integrand is
n m
m
positive when x > 0. Since sinxm x = sinxm x × xn−m , and lim+ = 1, the given integral
Z π x→0 sin x
2
converges if and only if xn−m dx converges.
Z π 0   
2 1 π n−m+1
Now xn−m dx = − n−m+1
, which tends to a finite limit as
 n−m+1 2
 → 0+ ⇔ n − m + 1 > 0 ⇔ m < n + 1.
Thus the given integral converges if and only if m < n + 1.

Question 4(a) A function f is defined in the interval (a, b) as follows:


1 p
 q2 , when x = q

 q
f (x) = q3 , when x = pq
1


0, otherwise

where p, q are relatively prime integers. Is f Riemann integrable? Justify your answer.

5
 Solution. (1) Let α ∈ Q, f (α) 6= 0. Since (α − n1 , α + n1 ) contains uncountably many
q
p
irrationals not of the form q
(there are only countably many of those), we can get a
sequence {αn } such that |α − αn | < n1 i.e. αn −→ α. But f (αn ) = 0 6−→ f (α) 6= 0, therefore
f is q
discontinuous at α. The same argument shows that f (α) is discontinuous whenever
α = pq .
(2) f is continuous at all those α for which f (α) = 0. Let  > 0. Let n be chosen that q
1
n
< . Since there are only finitely many q ≤ n, there are only finitely many numbers pq , pq
q
in [a, b]. Let δ = inf{|α − pq |, |α − pq |, q ≤ n}, then δ > 0. Now if x ∈ (α − δ, α + δ), we have
f (x) = 0, q12 , q13 with q > n. In all cases |f (x) − f (α)| = 0, q12 , q13 < n1 < , so f is continuous
at x = α.
Since the discontinuities of the given function in [a, b] are countable, they form a set
of measure zero, it follows that f is Riemann integrable — here we use the result that a
bounded function f is Riemann integrable on [a, b] if and only if the discontinuities of f form
a set of measure 0.
Alternate solution. Let  > 0. Let us call a number α ∈ [a, b] exceptional if α = pq
q
or pq and 1q > 2(b−a) 
(here if (b − a) < 1, we can always take 1q > 2 , and the rest of the
proof goes through). These α are finite in number. We enclose all these points in intervals

whose total length is < 2(b−a) . Since the oscillation of f in these intervals is < 1, therefore

the contribution to U (f, P ) − L(f, P ) =upper Riemann sum - lower Riemann sum < 2(b−a) ,
where P is a partition which the finite number of intervals containing the exceptional points
give rise to. Now the oscillation of f in any interval not containing the exceptional points

< 2(b−a) , because 1q < 2(b−a)

for any points pq that occur in that interval. Since the total length

of these intervals is ≤ (b − a), the total contribution to U (f, P ) − L(f, P ) < 2(b−a) (b − a).
Hence U (f, P ) − L(f, P ) < , so f is Riemann integrable.

Question 4(b) Show that U = xy + yz + zx has a maximum value when the three variables
are connected by the relation ax + by + cz = 1, and a, b, c are positive constants satisfying
the condition 2(ab + bc + ca) > a2 + b2 + c2 .

Solution. Let F = U + λ(ax + by + cz − 1) where λ is Lagrange’s undetermined multiplier.

For extreme values:
∂F
= y + z + λa = 0
∂x
∂F
= x + z + λb = 0
∂y
∂F
= x + y + λc = 0
∂z
∂F ∂F ∂F λ
⇒ + − = 2z + λ(a + b − c) = 0 ⇒ z = (c − a − b)
∂x ∂y ∂z 2

6
By symmetry, x = λ2 (a − b − c), y = λ2 (b − a − c). Substituting these values in the constraint,
we get λ2 (a2 − ab − ac + b2 − ba − bc + c2 − ca − cb) = 1 so
2
λ=
a2 + b2 + c2 − 2ab − 2bc − 2ca
Moreover, for these values x ∂F
∂x
+ y ∂F
∂y
+ z ∂F
∂z
= 2U + λ(ax + by + cz) = 0 ⇒ U = − λ2 =
1
2ab+2bc+2ca−(a2 +b2 +c2 )
.
2
Now d F = 2 dx dy + 2 dy dz + 2 dz dx and a, dx + b dy + c dz = 0 as ax + by + cz = 1.
Substituting the value of dz in d2 F , we get
a dx + b dy
d2 F = 2 dx dy + 2(dy + dx)
−c
2a 2b h b ai
= − (dx)2 − (dy)2 + 2 dx dy 1 − −
c c c c
2a h a + b − c b i
= − (dx)2 + dx dy + (dy)2
c a a
2a h a+b−c  2  b (a + b − c)2  2
i
= − dx + dy + − (dy)
c 2a a 4a2
2 2 2 2
Now ab − (a+b−c)
4a2
= 4ab−a −b −c4a−2ab+2bc+2ac
2 > 0 because 2(ab + bc + ca) > a2 + b2 + c2 . Hence
1
d2 F < 0, so U has a maximum value 2ab+2bc+2ca−(a 2 +b2 +c2 ) .

ZZZ
Question 4(c) Evaluate (ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 ) dx dy dz taken throughout the region x2 +
y 2 + z 2 ≤ R2 .
Solution. Switching to polar coordinates, x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ cos φ, z = r sin θ sin φ and
dx dy dz = r2 sin θ dφ dθ dr, we get
Z R Z π Z 2π
I = (ar2 cos2 θ + br2 sin2 θ cos2 φ + cr2 sin2 θ sin2 φ)r2 sin θ dφ dθ dr
0 0 0
Z R Z π
= r4 dr (2aπ cos2 θ sin θ + bπ sin3 θ + cπ sin3 θ) dθ
0 0
πR5 π
Z
= (2a cos2 θ sin θ + (b + c) sin3 θ) dθ
5 0
πR5 π
Z
= ((2a − b − c) cos2 θ sin θ + (b + c) sin θ) dθ
5 0
π
πR5 − cos3 θ

= (2a − b − c) + (b + c)(− cos θ)
5 3 0
5 5
 
πR 2(2a − b − c) + 6(b + c) 4πR (a + b + c)
= =
5 3 15

7
 UPSC Civil Services Main 2002 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 1, 2010

b−a b−a
Question 1(a) Show that √ ≤ sin−1 b − sin−1 a ≤ √ for 0 < a < b < 1
1 − a2 1 − b2
Solution. Consider the function f (x) = sin−1 x on the interval [a, b]. Clearly f (x) is
differentiable on (a, b) and continuous on [a, b]. Thus f (x) satisfies the requirements of
Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem on [a, b]. Therefore
1
f (b) − f (a) = sin−1 b − sin−1 a = (b − a) √
1 − c2
for some point a ≤ c ≤ b. Since
b−a b−a b−a
√ ≤√ ≤√
1 − a2 1 − c2 1 − b2
it follows that
b−a b−a
√ ≤ sin−1 b − sin−1 a ≤ √
1−a 2 1 − b2

Z ∞ Z ∞
2 +y 2 ) π
Question 1(b) Show that e−(x dx dy = .
0 0 4
Z R Z R
2 +y 2 )
Solution. Consider the integral IR = e−(x dx dy. Let C1 be part of the circle
0 0
x2 + y 2 = R2 in the first quadrant and let C2 be part of the circle x2 + y 2 = 2R2 in the first
2 2
quadrant. Since the integrand f (x, y) = e−(x +y ) > 0, it follows that
ZZ ZZ
f (x, y) dx dy ≤ IR ≤ f (x, y) dx dy
C1 C2

1
Put x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, we get
π 2 R
R
π e−r
ZZ Z Z
2
−r2 π 2
f (x, y) dx dy = e r dr dθ = = 1 − e−R
C1 θ=0 r=0 2 −2 0 4
Similarly √
π
ZZ Z Z 2R
2 2 π 2
f (x, y) dx dy = e−r r dr dθ = 1 − e−2R
C2 θ=0 r=0 4
Thus by the squeeze principle,
Z ∞ Z ∞
2 +y 2 ) π
lim IR = e−(x dx dy =
R→∞ 0 0 4
Z ∞ Z R
−x2 2
Note: Consider the integral I = e dx, IR = e−x dx, so that
0 0 Z ∞ 2
Z RZ R
2 2 2
−(x +y ) 2 −x2 π
(IR ) = e dx dy. As shown above lim (IR ) = e dx = , so
Z ∞ 0 0 √ R→∞ 0 4
2 π
I= e−x dx = as I > 0.
0 2
(
xp sin x1 , x 6= 0
Question 2(a) Let f (x) =
0, x=0
Obtain a condition on p such that (i) f is continuous at x = 0 (ii) f is differentiable at
x = 0.

Solution. (i) f (x) is continuous at x = 0 when p > 0, because |xp sin x1 | ≤ |xp | <  for
1
|x| < δ, δ =  p (or lim |x|p = 0, p > 0 as | sin x1 | ≤ 1.
x→0
When p ≤ 0, f (x) is not continuous — if p = 0, it oscillates between 1 and −1, and when
p < 0, it oscillates between −∞ and ∞ infinitely often as x approaches 0.
(ii) f (x) is differentiable at x = 0 when f (x)−f
x
(0)
= xp−1 sin x1 has a limit, which is true if
p − 1 > 0 ⇒ p > 1. If p ≤ 1, this limit does not exist, as shown above.

Question 2(b) Consider the set of triangles having a given base and a given vertex angle.
Show that the triangle having maximum area will be isosceles.

Solution. Given ∠A and a as shown in the figure, the area of 4ABC = y = 12 bc sin A.
Now
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
1 a2 sin B sin C
Therefore y = 2 sin A
. But C = π − (A + B) ⇒ sin C = sin(A + B). Thus

1 a2
y= sin B sin(A + B)
2 sin A

2
 A

c b

B a C

(Here B is the dependent variable.)

dy 1 a2 h i 1 a2
= cos B sin(A + B) + sin B cos(A + B) = sin(A + 2B)
dB 2 sin A 2 sin A
dy π
Now dB = 0 ⇒ sin(A + 2B) = 0 ⇒ A + 2B = π (A + 2B = 0 ⇒ B < 0). So B = 2
− A2 , C =
π − (A + B) = π2 − A2 = B ⇒ the triangle is isosceles.

d2 y 1 a2 a2
= 2 cos(A + 2B) = cos(π) < 0
dB 2 2 sin A sin A
so y is at a maximum when B = C = π2 − A2 .
Thus the triangle having maximum area is isosceles.

Question 2(c) If the roots of the equation

(λ − u)3 + (λ − v)3 + (λ − w)3 = 0

in λ are x, y, z, show that

∂(x, y, z) 2(u − v)(v − w)(w − u)

=−
∂(u, v, w) (x − y)(y − z)(z − x)

Solution. See 2004, question 2(a).

 x  23  y  23
Question 2(d) Find the center of gravity of the region bounded by the curve + =
a b
1 and both axes in the first quadrant, the density being ρ = kxy, where k is a constant.

Solution. If the center of gravity is (x, y), then

RR RaRy Ra 2 2
xρ dA x(kxy) dy dx x y dx
x = RRA = 0R a0R y = R0 a 2
A
ρ dA 0 0
kxy dy dx 0
xy dx

Setting x = a cos3 θ, y = b sin3 θ, we get

R0 2 6 2 6 2 Rπ
π a cos θ b sin θ(−3a cos θ sin θ) dθ 2
cos8 θ sin7 θ dθ
2 0
x = R0 6
= aR π
3 2 2
π a cos θ b sin θ(−3a cos θ sin θ) dθ
0
2
cos5 θ sin7 θ dθ
2

3
 π
Γ( p+1 )Γ( q+1 )
Z
2
p q 2 2
Using the result cos θ sin θ dθ = p+q+2 , we have
0 2Γ( 2 )

Γ( 29 )Γ(4)Γ(7) 7 · 5 · 3 · 1 · 720 · 28 128

x = a 17 =a 4
= a
Γ( 2 )Γ(4)Γ(3) 15 · 13 · 11 · 9 · 7 · 5 · 3 · 1 · 2 · 2 429
2 2
If X = xa and Y = yb , then the curve is X 3 +Y 3 = 1, so it is symmetric about X = Y , and
the density is kabXY , which is also symmetric about X = Y . Therefore Y = yb = X = xa .
Thus yb = xa = 128
429
128
. Thus x = 429 a, y = 128
429
b.

Paper II
Z ∞
Question 3(a) Prove that the integral xm−1 e−x dx converges if and only if m > 0.
0

Solution. See 2005 question 4(b).

Question 4(a) Obtain the maxima and minima of

x2 + y 2 + z 2 − yz − zx − xy

subject to the condition x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 2y + 6z + 9 = 0.

Solution. Let F = x2 + y 2 + z 2 − yz − zx − xy − λ(x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 2y + 6z + 9). For

extreme values:
∂F
= 2x − z − y − 2λx + 2λ = 0 ⇒ (2 − 2λ)x − y − z = −2λ (1)
∂x
∂F
= 2y − z − x − 2λy − 2λ = 0 ⇒ −x + (2 − 2λ)y − z = 2λ (2)
∂y
∂F
= 2z − y − x − 2λz − 6λ = 0 ⇒ −x − y + (2 − 2λ)z = 6λ (3)
∂z
The determinant of the coefficient matrix of equations (1), (2) and (3) is

2 − 2λ −1 −1
−1 2 − 2λ −1
−1 −1 2 − 2λ
= (2 − 2λ)3 − (2 − 2λ) − (2 − 2λ) − 1 − 1 − (2 − 2λ)
= (2 − 2λ)[(2 − 2λ)2 − 3] − 2
= (2 − 2λ)[4λ2 − 8λ + 1] − 2
= −8λ3 + 24λ2 − 18λ + 2 − 2 = −2λ(2λ − 3)2

4
Thus the determinant is 0 when λ = 0, which is not admissible, or when λ = 32 — however
in this case −x − y − z = −3 from (1), and −x − y − z = 3 from (2), hence λ = 32 is also not
admissible. Thus the system of equations is solvable, we use Cramer’s rule.

−2λ −1 −1 1 1 1
−1 1
x = 2λ 2 − 2λ −1 = 1 2 − 2λ −1
2λ(2λ − 3)2 (2λ − 3)2
6λ −1 2 − 2λ 3 −1 2 − 2λ
1 0 0
1 1  2  2λ + 3
= 1 1 − 2λ −2 = 4λ − 1 − 8 =
(2λ − 3)2 (2λ − 3)2 2λ − 3
3 −4 −1 − 2λ
2 − 2λ −2λ −1 2 − 2λ −1 −1
−1 −1
y = −1 2λ −1 = −1 1 −1
2λ(2λ − 3)2 (2λ − 3)2
−1 6λ 2 − 2λ −1 3 2 − 2λ
2 − 2λ 1 − 2λ −3 + 2λ
−1 −1  2

= −1 0 0 = (3 − 2λ) = −1
(2λ − 3)2 (2λ − 3)2
−1 2 3 − 2λ
2λ+3
6λ + x + y 6λ + 2λ−3 −1 12λ2 − 18λ + 6 3(1 − 2λ)
z = = = =
2 − 2λ 2 − 2λ (2 − 2λ)(2λ − 3) 2λ − 3

Substituting the values of x, y, z in the constraint x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 2y + 6z + 9 = 0 =

(x − 1)2 + (y + 1)2 + (z + 3)2 − 2 we get 62 + 62 − 2(2λ − 3)2 = 0 ⇒ 2λ − 3 = ±6 ⇒ λ = 92 , − 23 .
If λ = 92 , then x = 2, y = −1, z = −4 ⇒ x2 + y 2 + z 2 − yz − zx − xy = 27.
If λ = − 23 , then x = 0, y = −1, z = −2 ⇒ x2 + y 2 + z 2 − yz − zx − xy = 3.
Thus the maximum value of x2 + y 2 + z 2 − yz − zx − xy is 27 and the minimum value is
3.
Note: We need not check d2 F here as extreme values occur when λ = 29 , − 32 , which give
us the maximum and minimum. However it is not difficult to carry out the check.

d2 F = (2 − 2λ)(dx)2 + (2 − 2λ)(dy)2 + (2 − 2λ)(dz)2 − 2dx dy − 2dy dz − 2dz dx

The constraint gives us 2(x − 1) dx + 2(y + 1) dy + 2(z + 3) dz = 0. For λ = 29 , x = 2, y =

−1, z = −4 we get dx = dz, and d2 F = −16(dx)2 − 7(dy)2 − 4 dx dy < 0, thus the maximum
occurs at λ = 92 .
For λ = − 32 , x = 0, y = −1, z = −2 we get dx = dz, and d2 F = 8(dx)2 +5(dy)2 −4 dx dy =
(2dx − dy)2 + 4(dx)2 + 4(dy)2 > 0, thus the minimum value occurs at λ = − 23 .

Question 4(b) A solid hemisphere H of radius a has density depending on the distance
R from the center, given by ρ = k(2a − R), where k is a constant. Find the mass of the
hemisphere by the method of multiple integration.

Solution. In polar coordinates, the hemisphere is given by r ≤ a, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . Writing the

5
equation for the mass:
π
Z a Z
2
Z 2π
M = k(2a − r)r2 sin θ dφ dθ dr
0 0 0
π
Z a Z
2
= 2kπ (2a − r)r2 sin θ dθ dr
Z0 a 0

= 2kπ (2a − r)r2 dr

0 3 a
2ar r4 5a4 5πa4 k
= 2kπ − = 2kπ =
3 4 0 12 6

6
 UPSC Civil Services Main 2003 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 1, 2010

Question 1(a) Let f be real function defined as follows — f (x) = x, −1 ≤ x < 1, f (x+2) =
x, ∀x ∈ R. Show that f is discontinous at every odd integer.

Solution. The result is obvious from the graph of the function.

(-2,0) (-1,0) (0,0) (1,0) (2,0) (3,0) (4,0)

Let n be any odd integer, n = 2m + 1. Then f (n + h) = f (2m + 1 + h) = f (−1 +

h + (2m + 2)) = −1 + h. So lim+ f (n + h) = −1. f (n − h) = f (2m + 1 − h) = 1 − h, so
h→0
lim− f (n + h) = lim+ f (n − h) = 1. Thus lim− f (n + h) 6= lim+ f (n + h), showing that f is
h→0 h→0 h→0 h→0
not continuous at x = n, n odd.

Question 1(b) For all real numbers x, f (x) is given as

(
ex + a sin x, x<0
f (x) =
b(x − 1)2 + x − 2, x ≥ 0

Find values of a, b for which f is differentiable at x = 0.

1
Solution. For f (x) to be differentiable at x = 0, it has to be continuous at x = 0. Thus

lim f (x) = lim b(x − 1)2 + (x − 2) = b − 2 = lim− f (x) = lim ex + a sin x = 1

x→0+ x→0 x→0 x→0

Thus b − 2 = 1 ⇒ b = 3. Now the right hand derivative of f (x) at x = 0 is the derivative of

b(x − 1)2 + x − 2 at x = 0, which is 2b(x − 1) + 1 = −2b + 1 = −5. The left hand derivative
of f (x) at x = 0 is derivative of ex + a sin x, which is ex + a cos x = 1 + a. Thus for f (x) to
be differentiable at x = 0, we must have b = 3, a + 1 = −5 ⇒ a = −6.

Question 2(a) A rectangular box, open at the top is to have a volume 4m3 . Using La-
grange’s method of multipliers find the dimensions of the box so that the material of a given
type required to construct it may be the least.

Solution. Let x, y, z be the length, breadth and the height of the box respectively. Then we
have to minimize S = xy + 2xz + 2yz subject to the constraints xyz = 4, x > 0, y > 0, z > 0.
Let λ be Lagrange’s undetermined multiplier. Then

F = xy + 2xz + 2yz + λ(xyz − 4)

For extreme values,

∂F
= 2z + y + λyz = 0
∂x
∂F
= 2z + x + λxz = 0
∂y
∂F
= 2x + 2y + λxy = 0
∂z
x ∂F
∂x
− y ∂F
∂y
= 2z(x − y) = 0. But z > 0, so x = y. From ∂F ∂z
= 0, we get λx2 = −4x ⇒
λ = − x4 and using xyz = 4, we get z = x42 . Substituting these values in ∂F
∂x
= 0, we get
8 4 4 3
x2
+ x − x x x2 = 0 ⇒ x = 8 ⇒ x = 2. Thus x = 2, y = 2, z = 1, λ = −2.
Now

d2 F = 0(dx)2 + 0(dy)2 + 0(dz)2 + 2(1 + λz) dx dy + 2(2 + λx) dy dz + 2(2 + λy) dz dx

= −2 dx dy − 4 dy dz − 4 dx dz

Also xyz = 4 ⇒ yz dx + zx dy + xy dz = 0 ⇒ 2 dx + 2 dy + 4 dz = 0. Substituting for dz, we

get d2 F = −2 dx dy + dy(2 dx + 2 dy) + dx(2 dx + 2 dy) = 2(dx)2 + 2(dy)2 + 2 dx dy > 0.
Thus S is minimum when x = y = 2, z = 1.
Note: For a simpler solution, see 1980 question 2(a), here we had to give this solution
as asked in the question.

2
Question 2(b) Test the convergence of the integrals
Z 1 Z ∞
dx sin2 x
(1) 1 (2) dx
2
0 x 3 (1 + x ) 0 x2
Z 1 1 Z 1
− 13 3 2
− 13 3 2 1
Solution. (1) Let φ(x) = x , then x dx = x 3 = (1 −  ). Thus lim
3 x− 3 dx
 2  2 →0 
Z 1
1 1 1
exists, so x− 3 dx is convergent. Since lim 1 = 1, it follows that the integral
0 x→0 x 3 (1 + x ) φ(x)
2
Z 1 Z 1
dx
1 is convergent at x = 0 if and only if φ(x) dx is convergent. Since the
2
0 x 3 (1 + x ) 0
Z 1 Z 1
dx dx
integral 1 is proper for any δ > 0, it follows that the integral 1 is
2 2
δ x 3 (1 + x ) 0 x 3 (1 + x )
convergent. Z ∞
sin2 x sin2 x
(2) For the integral dx, the point 0 is not a singularity, since lim = 1.
Z z z0 x2 Z ∞ x→0 x2
dx 1 1 dx
Moreover 2
=− = 1 − , showing that is convergent. Since
1 x x 1 z 1 x2
∞ ∞
sin2 x
Z Z
dx
dx ≤
1 x2 1 x2
∞
sin2 x
Z
it follows that 2
dx is absolutely convergent, and therefore convergent. Since
Z 1 1 x
sin2 x
dx is a proper integral, the given integral is convergent.
0 x2

Question 2(c) Evaluate the integral

Z aZ y
y dx dy
p
0 y2
a
(a − x) ax − y 2

Solution.

The region of integration is the shaded re- (a, a)

2
gion where x varies from ya √to y. In the same
y=x
region y varies from x to ax and x varies
from 0 to a. Changing the order of integra-
tion, we get:

y 2 = ax
3
 Z a Z y
y dx dy
I = p
0 (a − x) ax − y 2
y2
a
Z a Z √ax 
1 y dy
= p dx
0 a−x x ax − y 2
Z a  p √ax 
1
= − ax − y 2 dx
0 a−x x
a
√ Z a √
ax − x2
Z
x
= dx = √ dx
0 a−x 0 a−x
2
Substitute x = a sin θ to get
Z π √ Z π
2 a sin θ 2a sin θ cos θ 2 π πa
I= √ dθ = 2a sin2 θ dθ = 2a =
0 a cos θ 0 4 2

Question 2(d) Find the volume generated by revolving the area bounded by the curves (x2 +
4a2 )y = 8a3 , 2y = x and x = 0 about the y-axis
Solution.
A(0, 2a)

L(2a, a)
M
2y = x
O
The volume generated by the region OLM O is
Z a Z a a
2 2 4y 3 4πa3
V1 = πx dy = π 4y dy = π =
0 0 3 0 3
The volume generated by the region M LAM is
Z 2a Z 2a  3 
2 8a 2
V2 = πx dy = π − 4a dy
a a y
2a
= π 8a3 log y − 4a2 y a


= 8a3 π(log 2a − log a) − 4πa3 = 8πa3 log 2 − 4πa3

The required volume = V1 + V2 = πa3 8 log 2 − 4 + 43 = 8πa3 log 2 − 13

Paper II
Question 3(a) Let a be a positive real number and xn a sequence of rational numbers such
that limn→∞ xn = 0, show that limn→∞ axn = 1.
Solution. If f (x) is continuous at x = a and xn is a sequence of real numbers such that
limn→∞ xn = a, then limn→∞ f (xn ) = f (a). Let f (x) = ax , f is a continuous function,
therefore limn→∞ axn = alimn→∞ xn = a0 = 1.

4
Question 3(b) If a continuous function of x satisfies the functional equation f (x + y) =
f (x) + f (y), then show that f (x) = αx where α is a constant.

Solution. See 1999, question 2(a).

Question 4(a) Show that the maximum value of x2 y 2 z 2 subject to the condition x2 + y 2 +
z 2 = c2 is c6 /27. Interpret the result.

Solution. By symmetry around the origin, we can assume w.l.o.g that x, y, z are all non-
negative.
Let F (x, y, z) = x2 y 2 z 2 − λ(x2 + y 2 + z 2 − c2 ), where λ is Lagrange’s undetermined
multiplier. For extreme values, we have
∂F
= 2xy 2 z 2 − 2λx = 0
∂x
∂F
= 2x2 yz 2 − 2λy = 0
∂y
∂F
= 2x2 y 2 z − 2λz = 0
∂z
∂F ∂F ∂F
⇒ x +y +z = 3x2 y 2 z 2 − λ(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
λc2
⇒ x2 y 2 z 2 =
3
√c c4
Since x, y, z cannot all be 0, λ = y 2 z 2 = z 2 x2 = x2 y 2 ⇒ x = 3
= y = z, λ = 9
.
Now
2 ∂ 2F 2 ∂ 2F 2 ∂ 2F 2 ∂ 2F ∂ 2F ∂ 2F
dF = (dx) + (dy) + (dz) + 2 dx dy + 2 dy dz + 2 dx dz
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
and ∂∂xF2 = ∂∂yF2 = ∂∂zF2 = 0 when x = y = z = √c3 . Also, ∂x
∂ F
∂y
∂ F
= ∂y ∂z
∂ F
= ∂x ∂z
= 4c9 . Finally,
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = c2 ⇒ 2x dx + 2y dy + 2z dz = 0, or dz = − 2x dx+2y2z
dy
= −dx − dy because
x = y = z.
Thus
8c4
d2 F =


dx dy + dy(−dx − dy) + dx(−dx − dy)
9
8c4
(dx)2 + (dy)2 + dx dy


= −
9 
8c4 

dy 2 3 2
= − dx + + (dy)
9 2 4
which is negative definite. Thus x2 y 2 z 2 is maximum subject to the constraint x2 +y 2 +z 2 = c2
c6
when x = y = z = √c3 and the maximum value is 27 (of course we can change the sign of
any of x, y, z and still get the same maximum value).

5
 Interpretation: The maximum volume of a parallelopiped contained in the sphere x2 +
3
y + z 2 = c2 is √8c27 , since its volume will be 8xyz, whose maximum value is computed as
2

above.

Question 4(b) The axes of two equal cylinders intersect at right angles. If a be their radius,
find the volume common to the cylinders by the method of multiple integrals.

Solution. Let the equations of the √

RRR x2 + y 2 = a2 , x2 + z 2 = a2 .√Then V =
cylinders be √
2 2 2 2 2 2
√ dx dy dz, where z varies from − a − x to a − x , y varies from − a − x to
a2 − x2 , and x varies from −a to a.
Z a Z √a2 −x2 √ Z a √ Z a
2
Thus V = 2 dx √ a2 − x2 dy = 4 ( a2 − x2 ) dx = 4 (a2 − x2 ) dx =
−a − a2 −x2 −a −a
3 a
 
x 16
4 a2 x − = a3
3 −a 3

6
 UPSC Civil Services Main 2004 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 1, 2010

Question 1(a) Prove that the functionR 4 f defined on [0, 4] by f (x) = [x], the greatest integer
≤ x, is integrable on [0, 4] and that 0 f (x) dx = 6.

Solution. 

 0, 0≤x<1

1, 1≤x<2



f (x) = 2, 2≤x<3

3, 3≤x<4





4, x=4
Clearly f (x) has only finitely many discontinuities in [0, 4], namely at 1, 2, 3, 4. Therefore f
is integrable in [0, 4]. Note that f (x) is bounded in [0, 4]. Now
Z 4 Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4
f (x) dx = 0 dx + 1 dx + 2 dx + 3 dx = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
0 0 1 2 2

x2 x2
Question 1(b) Show that x − 2
< log(1 + x) < x − 2(1+x)
,x > 0.

2
Solution. Let f (x) = x − x2 − log(1 + x), then f (x) satisfies the requirements of Lagrange’s
Mean Value Theorem in the interval [0, x] and therefore
x2
f (x) − f (0) x− − log(1 + x) 1
= 2
= f 0 (ζ) = 1 − ζ −
x x 1+ζ

1
 ζ 2 2
1
for some ζ ∈ (0, x). Clearly 1−ζ − 1+ζ = − 1+ζ < 0. Therefore for x > 0, x− x2 −log(1+x) <
2
0 ⇒ x − x2 < log(1 + x).
x2
Now let f (x) = x − 2(1+x) − log(1 + x). Again it satisfies the requirements of Lagrange’s
Mean Value Theorem in the closed interval [0, x], so
x2
f (x) − f (0) x− 2(1+x)
− log(1 + x) 1 ζ ζ2
= = f 0 (ζ) = 1 − − +
x x 1 + ζ 1 + ζ 2(1 + ζ)2
1 ζ ζ2 ζ2 x2
for some ζ ∈ (0, x). But 1 − 1+ζ
− 1+ζ
+ 2(1+ζ)2
= 2(1+ζ)2
> 0, so x − 2(1+x)
− log(1 + x) >
x2
0 ⇒ log(1 + x) < x − 2(1+x)
. Combining the two inequalities, we get the result.
Question 2(a) Let the roots of the equation in λ
(λ − x)3 + (λ − y)3 + (λ − z)3 = 0
be u, v, w. Prove that
∂(u, v, w) (y − z)(z − x)(x − y)
= −2
∂(x, y, z) (u − v)(v − w)(w − u)
Solution.
(λ − x)3 + (λ − y)3 + (λ − z)3 = 3λ3 − 3λ2 (x + y + z) + 3λ(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − (x3 + y 3 + z 3 )
= 3(λ − u)(λ − v)(λ − w)
Comparing coefficients of like powers, we get
F1 = u + v + w − (x + y + z) = 0
F2 = uv + vw + wu − (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 0
x3 + y 3 + z 3
F3 = uvw − =0
3
−1 −1 −1 1 0 0
∂(F1 , F2 , F3 )
Now = −2x −2y −2z = −2 x y − x z−x
∂(x, y, z) 2 2 2
−x −y −z x y − x z 2 − x2
2 2 2

1 0 0
= −2(y − x)(z − x) x 1 1
x2 y + x z + x
= −2(x − y)(y − z)(z − x)
1 1 1 1 0 0
∂(F1 , F2 , F3 )
= v+w u+w u+v = v+w u−v u−w
∂(u, v, w)
vw uw uv vw w(u − v) v(u − w)
= (u − v)(u − w)(v − w) = −(u − v)(v − w)(w − u)
∂(F1 ,F2 ,F3 )
∂(u, v, w) ∂(x,y,z) (y − z)(z − x)(x − y)
Thus = (−1)3 ∂(F1 ,F2 ,F3 ) = −2
∂(x, y, z) (u − v)(v − w)(w − u)
∂(u,v,w)

as required.

2
Question 2(b) Prove that an equation of the form xn = α where n ∈ N and α > 0 is a real
number has a positive root.

Solution. We divide the set of real numbers R into two sets X and Y such that X =
{x ∈ R | x ≤ 0 or x > 0, xn ≤ α} and Y = R − X. Clearly X 6= ∅. Y 6= ∅ as
any real number β > max(1, α) belongs to Y . Let x ∈ X, y ∈ Y , then x < y, otherwise
y ≤ x ⇒ y n ≤ xn ≤ α ⇒ y ∈ X. Thus the sets X and Y determine a section of real numbers.
Dedekind’s theorem says that there exists a real number β such that x < β ⇒ x ∈ X, and
y > β ⇒ y ∈ Y , and β may belong to any set X or Y .
Clearly β ≥ 0. If β = 0, then for any positive integer m, m1 > 0 and therefore belongs to
Y , so ( m1 )n > α. Since it is true for every m, we get α ≤ 0, which is a contradiction. Thus
β > 0. We now show that β n = α. Since β − m1 ∈ X, and β + m1 ∈ Y , we have
 n  n
1 1
β− ≤α< β+
m m
. Letting m → ∞, we get β n = α, so β is the required positive root of xn = α. Note that β
is unique.

Question 2(c) Prove that

Z 2
x + y2 πab 
4 + (a2 + b2 )(a−2 + b−2 )

dx =
p 4
x2 y 2
when the integral is taken around the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 and p is the length of the perpen-
a b
dicular from the center to the tangent.

Solution. There seems to be a misprint in this question.

 2 − 12
Xx Y y x y2
The tangent at any point (x, y) of the ellipse is 2 + 2 = 1 ⇒ p = 4
+ 4 ⇒
r a b a b
x2 y 2
Z
2 2
I = (x + y ) + 4 dx. The parametric representation of the ellipse is x = a cos θ, y =
a4 b
b sin θ, so
Z 2π p
I= (a2 cos2 θ + b2 sin2 θ) a−2 cos2 θ + b−2 sin2 θ (−a sin θ) dθ
0

Put θ = 2π − φ, so that
Z 0 q
2 2 2 2
I = (a cos φ + b sin φ) a−2 cos2 φ + b−2 sin2 φ (a sin φ) (−dφ)
2π
Z 2π q
= − (a2 cos2 φ + b2 sin2 φ) a−2 cos2 φ + b−2 sin2 φ (−a sin φ) dφ = −I
0

So 2I = 0 ⇒ I = 0.

3
Question 2(d) If the function f is defined by
(
xy
x2 +y 2
(x, y) 6= (0, 0)
f (x, y) =
0 (x, y) = (0, 0)
then show that f possesses both partial derivatives at (0, 0) but it is not continuous there at.
Solution. By definition,
f (h, 0) − f (0, 0) 0−0
fx (0, 0) = lim = lim =0
h→0 h h→0 h
f (0, k) − f (0, 0) 0−0
fy (0, 0) = lim = lim =0
k→0 k k→0 k
If f were continuous at (0, 0), then lim f (x, y) would exist. But lim f (x, y)
(x,y)→(0,0) (x,y)→(0,0)
mx2 m
does not exist, because if we put y = mx, we get lim = , which is different
x→0 x2 + m2 x2 1 + m2
for different values of m, whereas it should be the same for all m if lim f (x, y) were to
(x,y)→(0,0)
exist.
Thus f possesses both partial derivatives at (0, 0) but it is not continuous at (0, 0).
Paper II
Question 3(a) Show that the function defined as
(
1 1 1
n, 2n+1
<x≤ 2n
f (x) = 2
0, x = 0
is integrable in [0, 1] although it has infinite number of points of discontinuity. Show that
Z 1
2
f (x) dx = .
0 3
1
, 21n ], then [0, 1] = {0} ∪ ∞
S
Solution. Let In = ( 2n+1 n=0 In , and In ∩ Im = ∅ if m 6= n,
so In constitute a partition of (0, 1]. We define a sequence of functions fn (x) on [0, 1] for
n = 0, 1, . . . by (
1
n, x ∈ In
fn (x) = 2
0, x 6∈ In
Clearly each fn (x) is Riemann integrable, being a step function, and f (x) = ∞
P
n=0 fn (x).
Note that 0 6∈ In for any n, so fn (0)P for all n, so f (0) = 0.
Since |fn (x)| ≤ 21n it follows that ∞ n=0 fn (x) is uniformly convergent on [0, 1] (Weierstrass
M-test). Thus the sum function f (x) is Riemann integrable and
Z 1 ∞ Z 1 ∞ Z 1n ∞   X ∞ 1
X X 2 dx X 1 1 1 1 2 2
f (x) dx = fn (x) dx = = − = = 1 =
0 n=0 0 n=0 2n+1
1 2n n=0
2n 2n 2n+1 n=0
22n+1 1 − 22 3
Z 1
2
Hence f (x) dx = .
0 3

4
Question 3(b) Show that the function f (x) defined on R by
(
−x, x rational
f (x) =
x x irrational
is continuous only at 0.
Solution. The solution is completely analogous to 2001, question 1(a).

Question 4(a) If (x, y, z) are the lengths of the perpendiculars drawn from any interior
point P of a triangle ABC on the sides BC, CA, AB respectively, then find the minimum
value of x2 + y 2 + z 2 , when the sides of the triangle are a, b, c.
Solution.
A
Area of 4P BC = 21 P L · BC = 21 xa.
Area of 4P AC = 21 P M · AC = 12 by.
Area of 4P AB = 21 P N · AB = 12 cz.
4ABC = 4P BC + 4P AC + 4P AB, so
N M
area of 4ABC = 21 (ax + by + cz)
Since 4ABC is given, we have to mini- P
mize x2 + y 2 + z 2 with the constraint ax +
by + cz = k (k = 24ABC).
B L C
Let F (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 − λ(ax + by + cz − k), where λ is Lagrange’s undetermined
multiplier. For extreme values,
∂F ∂F ∂F
= 2x − λa = 0, = 2y − λb = 0, = 2z − λc = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2 2
Thus x = λa/2, y = λb/2, z = λc/2, so λa2 + λb2 + λc2 = k, or λ = a2 +b2k2 +c2 .
2 2 2 ∂2F ∂2F ∂2F
Now ∂∂xF2 = 2, ∂∂yF2 = 2, ∂∂zF2 = 2, ∂x ∂y
= 0 = ∂x ∂z
= ∂y ∂z
and d2 F = 2(dx)2 + 2(dy)2 +
2(dz)2 > 0, so we get that x2 + y 2 + z 2 is minimum when x = λa/2, y = λb/2, z = λc/2, λ =
2k
a2 +b2 +c2
. The minimum value of x2 + y 2 + z 2 is
 2
b2 c 2 4k 2 k2 4(area of 4ABC)2

a
+ + = =
4 4 4 (a2 + b2 + c2 )2 a2 + b 2 + c 2 a2 + b 2 + c 2

Question 4(b) Find the volume bounded by the paraboloid x2 + y 2 = az, the cylinder x2 +
y 2 = 2ay and the plane z = 0.
Solution. See 2005, question 2(d). In that question the cylinder is x2 + y 2 =
p2ax. In our
x2 +y 2
question, the limit of integration for z would be 0 to a , x varies from − 2ya − y 2 to
p
2ya − y 2 and y varies from 0 to 2a. The roles of x, y have been reversed.

5
Question 4(c) Let f (x) ≥ g(x) for every x ∈ [a, b] and f, g be both bounded and Riemann
integrable on [a, b]. At a point c ∈ [a, b] if f, g are continuous and f (c) > g(c), then prove
Z b Z b Z 1 3
1 x cos 5x 1
that f (x) dx > g(x) dx and hence show that − < 2
dx < .
a a 2 0 2+x 2

Solution. We first prove that if f (x) is continuous at x = c and f (c) > 0, then we can find
δ > 0 such that
f (c) 3f (c)
|x − c| < δ ⇒ < f (x) <
2 2
This follows from the continuity of f at c — choose  = f (c) 2
, then there exists δ > 0 such
that |x − c| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (c)| <  ⇒ f (c) −  < f (x) < f (c) + , which is the above
inequality.
If f (x) is Riemann integrable in [a, b], continuous at c and f (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ [a, b] and
Z b
f (c) > 0, then we will show that f (x) dx > 0. By the above result, there exists a closed
a
f (c) 3f (c)
interval [c1 , d1 ] containing c such that 2
< f (x) < 2
for x ∈ [c1 , d1 ]. Now
Z b Z c1 Z d1 Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a c1 d1

Z d1
Clearly f (x) ≥ 0 implies that the first and third terms are non-negative, and f (x) dx ≥
c1
f (c) Rb
(d1 − c1 ) > 0 — note that a f (x) dx ≥ m(b − a), where m = mina≤x≤b f (x). Thus
Z2 b
f (x) dx > 0.
a
We get our result by considering the function F (x) = f (x) − g(x) — F satisfies all the
conditions above, so
Z b Z b Z b
F (x) dx = f (x) dx − g(x) dx > 0
a a a

1
x3 cos 5x x3 cos 5x
Z
1
We now consider 2
dx. We know that | cos 5x| ≤ 1, so 2
< , or
0 2+x 2+x 2
1 x3 cos 5x 1
− < 2
< .
2 2+x Z 2
1 3
1 x cos 5x 1
Thus − < 2
dx < .
2 0 2+x 2

6
 UPSC Civil Services Main 2005 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 1, 2010

Question 1(a) Show that the function given below is not continuous at the origin:
(
0 if xy = 0
f (x, y) =
1 if xy 6= 0

Solution. If f (x, y) were continuous at (0, 0), then given any  > 0, we should have δ > 0
such that p
x2 + y 2 < δ =⇒ |f (x, y) − f (0, 0)| <  =⇒ |f (x, y)| < 
as f (0, 0) = 0. Choose  = 21 , then for any δ > 0, we see that if (x, y) = ( 2δ , 2δ ), then
q
2 2
p
x + y = δ4 + δ4 = √δ2 < δ, but |f (x, y)| = f ( 2δ , 2δ ) = 1 6< .
2 2

This shows that f (x, y) is not continuous at (0, 0).

Question 1(b) Let f : R2 −→ R be defined as

√ xy
(
(x, y) 6= (0, 0)
f (x, y) = x2 +y 2
0 x=y=0

Prove that fx and fy exist at (0, 0), but f is not differentiable at (0, 0).

Solution. By definition,

f (h, 0) − f (0, 0) 0−0

fx (0, 0) = lim = lim =0
h→0 h h→0 h
f (0, k) − f (0, 0) 0−0
fy (0, 0) = lim = lim =0
k→0 k k→0 k

1
 If f (x, y) were differentiable at (0, 0), then
√
f (h, k) = f (0, 0) + hfx (0, 0) + kfy (0, 0) + h2 + k 2 φ(h, k)

where φ(h, k) is a function of h, k such that φ(h, k) → 0 as (h, k) → (0, 0). Since f (0, 0) =
fx (0, 0) = fy (0, 0) = 0, this would mean that
1 hk
lim φ(h, k) = lim f (h, k) √ = lim =0
(h,k)→(0,0) (h,k)→(0,0) h2 +k 2 (h,k)→(0,0) h + k 2
2

hk m
But lim 2 2
does not exist (take k = mh, this becomes lim =
(h,k)→(0,0) h + k (h,k)→(0,0) 1 + m2
m
, which is different for different values of m — if the limit were to exist, it would have
1 + m2
been the same for all m).
Thus f (x, y) is not differentiable at (0, 0).

∂(x, y, z)
Question 2(a) If u = x + y + z, uv = y + z, uvw = z then find
∂(u, v, w)

Solution. Clearly z = uvw, y = uv(1 − w), x = u(1 − v). Therefore

1−v −u 0
∂(x, y, z)
= v(1 − w) u(1 − w) −uv
∂(u, v, w)
vw uw uv
1 − v −u 0
= v u 0 (operation R2 + R3 )
vw uw uv
= uv(u − uv + uv) = u2 v

Question 2(b) Evaluate

1
xm−1 + xn−1
Z
dx
0 (1 + x)m+n
in terms of the Beta function.
Z 1 m−1 Z 1 Z 1
x + xn−1 xm−1 xn−1
Solution. Let I = m+n
dx = m+n
dx + m+n
dx. We
Z 1 0 (1 + x) 0 (1 + x) 0 (1 + x)
xn−1
consider m+n
dx, and substitute x = y1 so that dx = − y12 dy. We get
0 (1 + x)
1
xn−1 1 ( y1 )n−1 ∞
y m−1
Z Z   Z
1
dx = − 2 dy = dy
0 (1 + x)m+n ∞ (1 + y1 )m+n y 1 (1 + y)m+n

2
Thus
1 Z ∞ 1 Z ∞
xm−1 + xn−1 xm−1 y m−1 xm−1
Z Z
I= dx = dx + dy = dx
0 (1 + x)m+n 0 (1 + x)
m+n
1 (1 + y)m+n 0 (1 + x)m+n
R1 1
We know that B(m, n) = B(n, m) = 0 xn−1 (1 − x)m−1 dx. Put x = y+1 so that dx =
1 y
− (1+y)2 dy, 1 − x = 1+y and when x = 1, y = 0, and when x = 0, y = ∞. Therefore

0 ∞
y m−1 y m−1
Z   Z
1 1
B(n, m) = − dy = dy
∞ (1 + y)n−1 (1 + y)m−1 (1 + y)2 0 (1 + y)m+n
1
xm−1 + xn−1
Z
Hence the given integral I = dx = B(m, n) = B(n, m).
0 (1 + x)m+n
ZZZ
Question 2(c) Evaluate z dV where V is the volume bounded below by the cone x2 +
V
y 2 = z 2 , and above by the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, lying on the positive side of the y-axis.

Solution.

B x2 + y 2 = z 2 is the cone with vertex

(0, 0, 0), z-axis as the axis, and semi-vertical
angle π4 . The equation of the circle shown in
z the figure is x2 + y 2 = 1, or r = 1 in polar
O A coordinates.
The required volume V is obtained by the
revolution of the shaded area OAB about the
axis OA.

If an element of the area is r dθ, dr, when it is revolved it will generate a ring whose radius is
r sin θ, and therefore the volume of the ring is 2πr sin θ r dθ dr. Thus converting the integral
to polar coordinates, we get
1 π
1 π  π
π − cos 2θ 4
ZZZ Z Z Z Z
4
3
4 π
z dV = r cos θ 2πr sin θ r dθ dr = πr dr sin 2θ dθ = =
V 0 0 0 0 4 2 0 8

Question 2(d) Find the x coordinate of the center of gravity of the solid lying inside the
cylinder x2 + y 2 = 2ax, between the plane z = 0 and the paraboloid x2 + y 2 = az.

3
 RRR
x dV
Solution. The x-coordinate of the center of gravity of a uniform body is RRRV .
V
dV
√ x2 +y 2
ZZZ Z 2a Z 2ax−x2 Z
a
V = dV = √
dz dy dx
V 0 − 2ax−x2 0
√
2a Z 2ax−x2
x2 + y 2
Z
= √
dy dx
0 − 2ax−x2 a
√
Z 2a Z 2ax−x2
2
= (x2 + y 2 ) dy dx (The integrand is an even function of y)
a 0 0
Z 2a  3
√2ax−x2
2 y
= x2 y + dx
a 0 3 0
2 2a h 2 √
Z
2
1 2 32
i
= x 2ax − x + (2ax − x ) dx
a 0 3
Z ah
2 2
p
2 2
1 2 2 32
i
= (a + y) a − y + (a − y ) dy Let y = x − a, dy = dx
a −a 3
Z π
2 2 1
= [(a + a sin θ)2 + a2 cos2 θ]a2 cos2 θ dθ Let y = a sin θ, dy = a cos θ dθ
a − π2 3
Z π
2 4 2
= 2a3 [ + 2 sin θ + sin2 θ] cos2 θ dθ
− π2 3 3
  π2   π2  !
4 θ sin 2θ 2 2 1 · 1 π
= 2a3 + + − cos3 θ + 2
3 2 4 −2 π 3 − π2 3 4·2 2
3πa3
 
2π π
= 2a3 + =
3 12 2
We now evaluate the numerator — we will use a different substitution, for illustration.
The limits of integration, and the first several steps are similar to the above derivation, so
are not repeated here.
2 2a h 3 √
ZZZ Z
1 3
i
x dV = x 2ax − x2 + x(2ax − x2 ) 2 dx
V a 0 3
Z π
2 2 7 1 1 5 3
(2a) 2 sin7 θ(2a) 2 cos θ + (2a) 2 sin5 θ(2a) 2 cos3 θ 4a sin θ cos θ dθ

=
a 0 3
2
(By letting x = 2a sin θ, dx = 4a sin θ cos θ dθ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 )
Z π
4
2 1
sin8 θ cos2 θ + sin6 θ cos4 θ dθ

= 128a
3
0 
4 7·5·3·1·1 π 1 5·3·1 3·1 π
= 128a + = 2πa4
10 · 8 · 6 · 4 · 2 2 3 10 · 8 · 6 · 4 · 2 2
Thus the x-coordinate of the centroid x = 34 a.

4
 Paper II

Question 3(a) If u, v, w are the roots of the following equation in λ

x y z
+ + =1
a+λ b+λ c+λ
∂(x, y, z)
evaluate .
∂(u, v, w)

Solution. Clearly (a + λ)(b + λ)(c + λ) − x(b + λ)(c + λ) − y(a + λ)(c + λ) − z(a + λ)(b + λ) =
(λ − u)(λ − v)(λ − w). Comparing coefficients of like powers of λ, we get

F1 = u + v + w − (x + y + z) + a + b + c = 0 (coefficient of λ2 )
F2 = uv + vw + wu + x(b + c) + y(c + a) + z(a + b) − (ab + bc + ca) = 0 (coeff. of λ)
F3 = uvw − xbc − yac − zab + abc = 0 (constant terms)
1 1 1 1 0 0
∂(F1 , F2 , F3 )
= v+w u+w u+v = v+w u−v u−w
∂(u, v, w)
vw uw uv vw w(u − v) v(u − w)
= −(u − v)(v − w)(w − u)
−1 −1 −1
∂(F1 , F2 , F3 )
= b + c c + a a + b = −(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
∂(x, y, z)
−bc −ac −ab

∂(x, y, z) 3 ∂(F1 , F2 , F3 ) ∂(F1 , F2 , F3 ) (u − v)(v − w)(w − u)
= (−1) =−
∂(u, v, w) ∂(u, v, w) ∂(x, y, z) (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)

ZZZ
Question 3(b) Evaluate log(x + y + z, dx dy dz where the integral is taken over all
positive values of x, y, z such that x + y + z ≤ 1.

Solution.
ZZZ Z 1 Z 1−x Z 1−x−y
I= log(x + y + z) dx dy dz = log(x + y + z) dz dy dx
x+y+z≤1
x≥0,y≥0,z≥0 0 0 0

Now Z Z
z
log(x + y + z) dz = z log(x + y + z) − dz
x+y+z
so
Z 1−x−y 1−x−y Z 1−x−y Z 1−x−y
z z
log(x+y+z) dz = z log(x+y+z) − dz = − dz
0 0 0 x+y+z 0 x+y+z

5
 Z 1 Z 1−x Z 1−x−y ZZZ
z z
Thus I = − dz dy dx = − dz dy dx.
0 0 0 x+y+z x+y+z≤1 x+y+z
x≥0,y≥0,z≥0
Put u = x + y + z, uv = x + y, uvw = x, so that x + y + z ≤ 1, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0 ⇔ 0 ≤
u ≤ 1, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1, 0 ≤ w ≤ 1. Moreover
vw uw uv vw uw uv
∂(x, y, z)
0 = uv −vu − u + uv = −u2 v
 
= v − vw u − uw −uv = v u
∂(u, v, w)
1−v −u 0 1 − v −u 0
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
∴I = − u−1 (u − uv)u2 v du dv dw
0 0 0
Z 1 Z 1
= − u2 (1 − v)v du dv
0 0
 2 1
1 v v3 1
= − − =−
3 2 3 0 18
ZZZ
1
Thus log(x + y + z, dx dy dz = −
x+y+z≤1 18
x≥0,y≥0,z≥0

Question 4(a) If f 0 , g 0 exist for every x ∈ [a, b] and g 0 (x) does not vanish anywhere in [a, b],
show that there exists c ∈ [a, b] such that
f (b) − f (a) f 0 (c)
= 0
g(b) − g(a) g (c)
Solution. Let φ(x) = f (x) + Ag(x) where A, a constant, is so determined that φ(a) = φ(b)
i.e.
f (a) + Ag(a) = f (b) + Ag(b) ⇒ A(g(b) − g(a)) = −(f (b) − f (a))
Since g 0 (x) 6= 0 for x ∈ [a, b], g(a) 6= g(b) — note that if g(a) = g(b), then g(x) satisfies
the requirements of Rolle’s theorem in [a, b], so there would exists some ξ ∈ [a, b] such that
g 0 (ξ) = 0.
f (b) − f (a)
Thus A = − .
g(b) − g(a)
Now (1) φ(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b], as f (x), g(x) are continuous in
[a, b] and A is a constant.
(2) φ(x) is differentiable in the open interval (a, b) as f (x), g(x) are differentiable in (a, b).
(3) φ(a) = φ(b) by choice of A.
Hence φ satisfies the requirements of Rolle’s theorem in [a, b], so there is a point c in
(a, b) such that φ0 (c) = f 0 (c) + Ag 0 (c) = 0. Hence
f 0 (c) f (b) − f (a)
−A = 0 =
g (c) g(b) − g(a)
which was to be proved. This result is known as Cauchy’s mean value theorem.

6
 Z ∞
Question 4(b) Show that e−t tn−1 dt is an improper integral which converges for n > 0.
0

Solution. This integral is an improper integral for two reasons:

1. In a proper integral the range of integration is always a finite closed interval, here it is
not.

2. The integrand e−t tn−1 has infinite discontinuity at x = 0 when n < 1, whereas the
integrand in a proper integral must be bounded on the interval of integration.
Z 1 Z ∞
−t n−1
For convergence purposes, we consider two integrals e t dt and e−t tn−1 dt.
0 1
(Instead of 1, weZcould take any positive real number.)
1
−t tn−1
Convergence of e−t tn−1 dt: Let φ(t) = tn−1 , then limt→0 e φ(t) = 1, so the integral
Z 1 0 Z 1 Z 1
−t n−1 n−1 1 n
e t dt converges if and only if t dt converges. Clearly tn−1 dt = − −→ 0
0 Z0 1  n n
if and only if n > 0 as  −→ 0. Thus e−t tn−1 dt converges for n > 0.
Z ∞ 0
−t n−1 k
Convergence of e t dt: It is well known that ex > xk! for any k when x > 0,
1 Z ∞
n−1 −x 1 dx
therefore x e < k x2 where k is a positive constant. Since is convergent, it
Z ∞ 1 x2
follows that e−t tn−1 dt is convergent.
Z ∞1
Hence e−t tn−1 dt is convergent when n > 0.
0

7
 UPSC Civil Services Main 2006 - Mathematics
Calculus
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

January 1, 2010

Question 1(a) Find a and b so that f 0 (2) exists where

(
1
|x|
, if |x| > 2
f (x) = 2
a + bx , if |x| ≤ 2

Solution. The function f (x) is defined by


1
− x ,
 if x < −2
2
f (x) = a + bx , if − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2

1
x
, if x > 2

The right hand derivative (R.H.D.) of f at x = 2 is

1
f (2 + h) − f (2) 2+h
− (a + 4b)
lim+ = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
But for the function to have a derivative at x = 2, it must be continuous at x = 2,
therefore limx→2+ f (x) = limx→2− f (x) = f (2) ⇒ 21 = a + 4b. Thus
1 1
2+h
− 2 1
RHD at x = 2 = lim =−
h→0 h 4
L.H.D. at x = 2 = the derivative of a + bx2 at x = 2 = 4b. Thus f 0 (2) exists if
4b = − 14 , a + 4b = 1
2
1
⇒ b = − 16 , a = 34 .

1
 Z 1
Question 1(b) Express xm (1 − xn )p dx in terms of the Gamma function, and hence
Z 1 √0

evaluate the integral x6 1 − x2 dx.

0

1 dt 1 dt 1 1 −1 m
Solution. Let xn = t, then dx = n−1
= n−1 = t n dt and xm = t n . The given
nx nt n n
integral
Z 1 Z 1
m 1 1
m n p
x (1 − x ) dx = t n (1 − t)p t n −1 dt
0 0 n
1 1 m+1 −1
Z
= t n (1 − t)p+1−1 dt
n 0
1 Γ( m+1
n
) Γ(p + 1)
= m+1
n Γ( n + p + 1)
Z 1
Γ(m)Γ(n)
since xm−1 (1 − x)n−1 dx = B(m, n) = .
0 Z 1 √ Γ(m + n)
To evaluate I = x6 1 − x2 dx, we set m = 6, n = 2, p = 1
2
in the above calculated
0
integral and obtain
Z 1 √
1 Γ( 27 )Γ( 32 ) 1 5 3 1 Γ( 1 ) 1 Γ( 1 ) 15
I= x6 1 − x2 dx = = 222 2 2 2 = π
0 2 Γ(5) 2 4! 32 × 24
√
as Γ( 12 ) = π. Thus
Z 1 √
5π
x6 1 − x2 dx =
0 256
Note: This integral can be easily evaluated by using the substitution x = sin θ, but the
question requires us to use the above integral and Γ functions.

Question 2(a) Find the value of a and b such that

a sin2 x + b log cos x 1

lim 4
=
x→0 x 2
Solution. L’Hospital’s rule states: Let f (x) and g(x) be real valued functions defined
f 0 (x)
in a deleted neighborhood of a, then if lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0 and lim 0 = l, then
x→a x→a x→a g (x)
f (x)
lim = l.
x→a g(x)

2
 Now L’Hospital’s rule is applicable for the evaluation of the given limit. Thus
sin x
a sin2 x + b log cos x 2a sin x cos x − b cos x
lim = lim
x→0 x4 x→0 4x3
2a cos2 x − b
= lim
x→0 4x2
sin x
since lim = 1.
x→0 x cos x
The limit on the right hand side would be finite when lim 2a cos2 x − b = 2a − b = 0.
x→0
Letting 2a − b = 0, we use L’Hospital’s rule again to get

a sin2 x + b log cos x −4a cos x sin x a

lim 4
= lim =−
x→0 x x→0 8x 2
a sin2 x + b log cos x 1
Thus for lim 4
= , we get a = −1, b = −2.
x→0 x 2

Question 2(b) If z = xf ( xy ) + g( xy ), show that

∂ 2z ∂ 2z 2
2∂ z
x2 + 2xy + y =0
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2

Solution. Let w1 = xf ( xy ) and w2 = g( xy ). Then w1 is a homogeneous function of degree 1,

and w2 is a homogeneous function of degree 0 (a vector function f : V −→ V is homogeneous
of degree k if f (αx) = αk f (x)).
We first prove the following result: if f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n
possessing continuous partial derivatives of degree 2, then

∂ 2f ∂ 2f 2
2∂ f
x2 + 2xy + y = n(n − 1)f
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
Proof: Euler’s theorem about homogeneous functions states that if f (x, y) is a homo-
geneous function of degree n possessing continuous partial derivatives of degree 1, then
x ∂f
∂x
+ y ∂f
∂y
= nf , and conversely, if f (x, y) has continuous partial derivatives of second order
and x ∂x + y ∂f
∂f
∂y
= nf , then f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n. (For proof, see
1996, question 2(a)).
We first prove that ∂f , ∂f are homogeneous of degree n−1. Since f (x, y) is a homogeneous
∂x ∂y
function of degree n, we have f (αx, αy) = αn f (x, y). Differentiating this with respect to x
and using the chain rule, we get
∂f ∂f
α (αx, αy) = αn (x, y)
∂x ∂x
∂f ∂f
(αx, αy) = αn−1 (x, y)
∂x ∂x

3
Thus ∂f
∂x
and similarly ∂f
∂y
are homogeneous of degree n − 1. Now apply Euler’s theorem to
∂f ∂f
, :
∂x ∂y

∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂f
x 2
+ y = (n − 1)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x
2 2
∂ f ∂ f ∂f
x + y 2 = (n − 1)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂ f 2 2
Multiplying the first by x and the second by y, and remembering that ∂x ∂y
= ∂y∂ ∂x
f
because
f has continuous partial derivatives of second order, we get
2
∂ 2f 2
 
2∂ f 2∂ f ∂f ∂f
x + 2xy +y = (n − 1) x +y = n(n − 1)f
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y

as x ∂f
∂x
+ y ∂f
∂y
= nf . Q.E.D.
Applying this result to the current problem,

2
∂ 2z 2 2
∂ 2 w1 2
 
2∂ z 2∂ z 2∂
w1 2 ∂ w1
x + 2xy + y = x + 2xy +y
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 ∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
2
∂ 2 w2 2
 
2 ∂ w2 2 ∂ w2
+ x + 2xy +y
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
= 1.0.w1 + 0. − 1.w2 = 0

Question 2(c) Change the order of integration in

Z ∞ Z ∞ −y
e
dy dx
0 x y
and hence evaluate it.

Solution. Clearly in the region R, x varies from 0 to y and y varies from 0 to ∞.

Therefore the given integral

Region of Z ∞ Z ∞ −y Z ∞  −y Z y 
Integration R e e
I = dy dx = dx dy
0 x y 0 y 0
x=y Z ∞ ∞
−y e−y
= e dy = =1
0 −1 0

4
Question 2(d) Find the volume of the uniform ellipsoid

x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a2 b c
Solution. Let x = aX, y = bY, z = cZ, so that dx dy dz = abc dX dY dZ and the ellipsoid
is transformed into the sphere X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 = 1.

V = Volume of the positive octant of the sphere

Z 1 Z √1−X 2 Z √1−X 2 −Y 2
= dX dY dZ
X=0 Y =0 Z=0
√
Z1 Z 1−X 2 √
= 1 − X 2 − Y 2 dX dY
X=0 Y =0
√ √
Let Y = 1 − X 2 sin θ, so dY = 1 − X 2 cos θ dθ.
Z 1 Z π√ √
2
V = 1 − X 2 cos θ 1 − X 2 cos θ dθ dX
X=0 0
Z 1 Z π
2
2
= (1 − X ) dX cos2 θ dθ
X=0 0
1
X3 π 2π π
= X− = =
3 04 3 4 6

Thus the volume of the ellipsoid is 8abcV = 8abc π6 = 43 πabc

Paper II

Question 3(a) Examine the convergence of

Z 1
dx
1 1
0 x (1 − x) 2
2

Solution. The integral has infinite discontinuity at x = 0 and x = 1. We therefore consider

the integrals
Z 1 Z 1
2 dx dx
1 1 and 1 1
0 x 2 (1 − x) 2 1 x 2 (1 − x) 2
2
1 1
For the first consider φ(x) = x− 2 , and for the second consider ψ(x) = (1 − x)− 2 . Clearly
1 1 1 1
lim 1 = 1, lim 1
1 1 =1
x→0 x (1 − x) φ(x)
2 2 x→1 x 2 (1 − x) 2 ψ(x)

5
 R1
Thus the first integral converges if and only if 0
2
φ(x) dx converges, and the second integral
R1
converges if and only if 1 ψ(x) dx converges.
2

1  21 r
√
Z
2
− 12 1 1
x dx = 2x 2 =2 −2 
  2
1− 1−
√
Z
− 12 1 1
(1 − x) dx = −2(1 − x) 2 = 2√ − 2 
1
2
1
2
2
1 1
Z Z 1− Z
2 2 dx
showing that lim φ(x) dx and lim ψ(x) dx exist. Thus the integrals 1 1
→0  →0 1
2
0 x (1 − x) 2
2
Z 1
dx
and 1 1 are convergent, so the given integral is convergent.
1 x 2 (1 − x) 2
2

Question 3(b) Prove that the function defined below is nowhere continuous.
(
1, when x is rational
f (x) =
−1, when x is irrational

Solution. Let a ∈ R. If f is continuous at a, then given  > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that
|x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (a)| < 2 . Now for x1 , x2 with |x1 − a| < δ, |x2 − a| < δ, we get
|f (x1 ) − f (x2 )| ≤ |f (x1 ) − f (a)| + |f (a) − f (x2 )| < 
But given 0 <  < 1, whatever δ > 0, we can get x1 rational and x2 irrational, |x1 − a| <
δ, |x2 − a| < δ, so |f (x1 ) − f (x2 )| = |1 − (−1)| = 2 6< , therefore f (x) cannot be continuous
at a. Since a is arbitrary, f is not continuous anywhere.

Question 4(a) A twice differentiable function f is such that f (a) = f (b) = 0, and f (c) > 0
for a < c < b. Prove that there is at least one value of ξ, a < ξ < b for which f ”(ξ) < 0.

Solution. f 0 (a) = limx→a+ f (x)−f

x−a
(a)
≥ 0 as x − a > 0, f (x) > 0, f (a) = 0. Similarly,
f (b) ≤ 0. If f (ξ) ≥ 0 for a < ξ < b, then f 0 (x) is a non-decreasing function in [a, b], but
0 00

this would mean that 0 ≥ f 0 (b) ≥ f 0 (a) ≥ 0 ⇒ f 0 (a) = f 0 (b) = 0 ⇒ f 0 (x) = 0 as f 0 (x) is
non-decreasing. Thus f (x) is a constant on [a, b] ⇒ f (x) = 0 as f (a) = f (b) = 0. But this
contradicts f (c) > 0, so our assumption that f 00 (ξ) ≥ 0 must be incorrect — there must be
some ξ, a < ξ < b for which f ”(ξ) < 0.

Question 4(b) Show that the function given by

( 3 3
x +2y
2 2 , (x, y) 6= 0
f (x, y) = x +y
0, (x, y) = (0, 0)

(i) is continuous at (0, 0) (ii) possesses partial derivatives fx (0, 0) and fy (0, 0).

6
Solution. (i) Let x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, then

r3 cos3 θ + 2r3 sin3 θ p

|f (x, y) − f (0, 0)| = ≤ 3r = 3 x2 + y 2
r2
p
Thus given  > 0, choose any δ, 0 < δ < 3 , such that x2 + y 2 < δ ⇒ |f (x, y) − f (0, 0)| < .
Thus f (x, y) is continuous at (0, 0).
h3
f (h, 0) − f (0, 0) h2
−0
(ii) fx (0, 0) = lim = lim = 1.
h→0 h h→0
3
h
2h
f (0, h) − f (0, 0) 2 − 0
fy (0, 0) = lim = lim h = 2.
h→0 h h→0 h
Thus both fx (0, 0) and fy (0, 0) exist.

Question 4(c) Find the volume of the uniform ellipsoid

x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a2 b c
Solution. See above, question 2(d).