Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy:

Systems, Strategies, and Skills

Fifth Edition

Chapter 2

Freud and Classic

Psychoanalysis

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Learning Objectives
2.1 Understand the context and development of Psychoanalysis.

2.2 Communicate the key concepts associated with

Psychoanalysis and understand how they relate to therapeutic
processes.

2.3 Describe the therapeutic goals of Psychoanalysis.

2.4 Identify the common techniques used in Psychoanalysis.

2.5 Understand how Psychoanalysis relates to counseling

diverse populations.

2.6 Identify the limitations and strengths of Psychoanalysis.

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Development of the First Force in Psychotherapy:
Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic
• Began in the late 19th century with Freud’s psychoanalysis

• Influenced by the iceberg theory, early forms of treatment,

the Emmanuel Movement, hypnosis, mesmerism,
evolutionary theory, and topics of sex and sexuality
• Focus is on the unconscious, past experiences, and stages
of development
• Insight and understanding into what influences an
individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors is important
• Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis focused on biological,
sexual, and aggressive instincts as the primary motivators
for behavior

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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
• Developer of the first talk therapy known
as psychoanalysis

• Freud’s early childhood experiences

played a role in the development of his
theory
– Brother dying young
– Jewish culture and religion
background
– Growing up in large family

• Freud married Martha Bernays who he

raised children with

• Opened private practice, lectured

internationally, and authored many
publications

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Key Concepts of Psychoanalysis
• Biological processes influenced by attachments to others and experiences with
developmental stages
• Personality structure: three systems (id, ego, superego) that comprise personality
• Instincts: life instinct (eros) is in opposition with death instinct (thanatos)
• Psychosexual stages of development: the predictable developmental stages that people
go through that impacts later functioning
• Levels of unconscious
– Conscious: Material in our minds that we are aware of
– Preconscious: Material in our minds that is readily accessible
– Unconscious: Repressed memories, urges, and drives that are out of awareness and
impact us most
• Defense mechanisms: Ways of thinking and behaving that protect us from anxiety and
discomfort
– Sublimation is a healthy defense mechanism that channels inappropriate urges into
work and art

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Personality Structure
Table 2.1 Summary of the Structural Model of Personality

Aspects of the
Personality Overview Definition
Id “Instincts” The id, which is present from birth, comprises the basic
instincts and drives of the human being. These basic
instincts are often irrational and impulsive and are firmly
rooted in the unconscious. Ruled by the pleasure principles,
the id seeks immediate gratification.

Ego “Executive Mediating” The executor of the mind, the ego is the only art of the
personality that is in direct contact with reality. The ego
functions as a means of mediating the impulses of the id
and the inhibitions of the superego. The ego resides in the
conscious mind and can be thought of as the logical mind;
it works to appease the id in a socially acceptable way.

Superego “Conscience” The judge of the mind, the superego is the part of the
personality that internalizes values and houses the moral
code. In young children, the superego has not totally formed,
but in older children and adolescents, it is firmly at work
judging and pushing against id impulses.

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Psychosexual Stages of Development
Table 2.2 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Stage Timeframe Description

Oral Stage Birth to 18 months Pleasure is associated with the mouth (e.g., sucking,
biting, breastfeeding).
Anal Stage 18 months to 3 years Pleasure is associated with the anus (e.g., defecating).
Youth become better aware of their individuality and
their ability to self-control.
Phallic Stage 3 to 6 years Pleasure is concentrated on the genitals (e.g., rubbing
and/or masturbation) and the increased awareness of
sex differences can create internal conflicts such as
jealousy, rivalry, and/or fear (e.g., Oedipus complex or
Electra complex
Latency Stage 6 to puberty The libido becomes dormant or even hidden during this
time, and youth focus on acquisition of skills,
hobbies/play, and new areas of knowledge.
Genital Stage Puberty through This stage encompasses the process of sexual
Adulthood experimentation and successful establishment of a
loving, monogamous relationship.

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Defense Mechanisms
• Healthy, Adaptive Defense • Unhealthy, Maladaptive Defense Mechanisms
Mechanisms – Acting out
– Affiliation – Avoidance
– Altruism – Denial
– Displacement
– Anticipation
– Dissociation
– Humor – Idealization
– Sublimation – Identification
– Conscious Suppression – Intellectualization
– Passive aggressive
– Projection
– Rationalization
– Reaction Formation
– Regression
– Repression
– Resistance
– Somatization
– Splitting

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Therapeutic Goals
• Overall goal to achieve balance between superego and id
– Working through - exploration of unconscious and
defense mechanism – strengthens the ego
• To bring the unconscious into the conscious

• Improve overall functioning and reduce conflict by working

through childhood experiences
• Create a personality change rather than just behavior
change by exploring past experiences

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Therapist’s Function and Role
• “Blank-screen” approach: Anonymous stance therapists
take on to facilitate transference
• Therapists encourage clients to openly share thoughts,
feelings, and experiences and actively listen to find clues
into the unconscious
• Therapists use interventions such as free association,
questions, and interpretations
• Help clients gain insight and behave in healthier ways to
manage anxiety
• Dealing effectively with resistance

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Relationship Between Therapist and Client
• Transference: Clients project onto the therapist the characteristics of
another individual, usually a parent, and react to the therapist as
though the therapist really does possess those characteristics

• Three stages of working through a transference

– 1) Further established and explored to elicit repressed material
– 2) The original dysfunctional pattern re-emerges, now in terms of
the transference to the therapist
– 3) The origins of the transference are understood and resolved,
strengthening the ego which helps client relate in healthier ways

• Countertransference: The therapist’s feelings about the client

– Avoid in classical psychoanalysis

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Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures
• Techniques of psychoanalysis are extensive and counselors should
receive extra training and supervision

• Techniques of psychoanalysis may include:

– Free Association: clients say whatever comes to mind and
therapists point out omissions, discrepancies, and excesses
– Analysis: Exploring the unconscious
– Interpretation: Elucidating the meaning behind the unconscious
– Dream Analysis: Latent and manifest content of dream is
explored
– Abreaction: Re-living a painful experience that was repressed
– Dealing with Resistance: Working to reduce clients’ defenses
that may impede progress

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Free Association
• The most important rule of psychoanalysis

• Clients say whatever comes to their mind without censoring or judging

– May create a chain of association
– Used to recall feelings and repressed memories which can lead to
catharsis

• Therapists listen for underlying meanings of mental processes

– Discrepancies: Observed disagreement between things that are
said and/or done
– Omissions: Things that were not said, done, or felt, but likely
should have been said, done, or felt, given the situation
– Excesses: Overreactions, overdramatic emotions, or extreme
behaviors related to benign events that do not justify such
behavior

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Analysis and Interpretation
• Most important techniques in psychoanalysis - aim is to increase insight

• Exploration of repressed material to gain awareness about connection between

past experiences and present difficulties to promote positive change
– Psychoanalysis: Process of exploring and understanding the unconscious
representations in the material people present in counseling
– Interpretation: Process of elucidating the unconscious meaning of the
symbols in material that clients present and of linking those new insights
to their present concerns and blocks
▪ Interpretations link the behaviors, thoughts, and feelings within a
client’s awareness and the client’s unconscious: (1) defenses, (2)
wishes, (3) past experiences, and/or (4) dreams
▪ Interpretations can be used through direct observation, indirect
presentation, therapeutic relationship, and the therapist’s perspective

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Dream Analysis
• Process of exploring the manifest and latent content of
dreams to discover clues into the unconscious
– Manifest content: Actual content of dream
– Latent content: Underlying meanings and patterns of
dream
• Anna Freud recommended using dream analysis with
younger people

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Abreaction
• Abreaction: Recalling a painful experience that had been
repressed and working through that painful experience and
the conflicts it created by reliving in memory the experience
and its associated emotions
• Promotes catharsis and emotional/affectional change

• Can be used today in most counseling approaches to

process through unresolved emotions and distressing
events

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Dealing with Resistance
• Resistance: blocking of counseling progress and involves clients ceasing to
discuss, address, think about, or accept an interpretation from a therapist
– Viewed as a defense mechanism to disrupt therapeutic progress

• Examples include:
– Avoiding discussion of painful events
– Wasting time within sessions
– Not attending sessions on time
– Being unprepared for sessions

• Therapists should be attune to resistance and see it as a learning opportunity

– Be respectful
– Slow down the pace of counseling
– Ask for more detail about experiences
– Use immediacy to explore resistance

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Application and Current Use
• Most beneficial for people with minor and moderate psychopathology
and some success/satisfaction in life, rather than those with severe
psychopathology
– People with neuroses (thought, mood, and behavioral disorders)
more likely to benefit than people with psychoses (loss of touch
with reality)

• Limited application due to extensive resources, but schools in big cities

continue to flourish

• Lack of empirical support for traditional psychoanalysis, but

effectiveness for psychodynamic approaches

• Multicultural approaches: Mostly a western/eurocentric approach; may

not be appropriate to use with collectivist and other diverse cultures

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Evaluation
• Strengths
– First talk therapy
– Childhood experiences, parental figures, dreams are
important and impact us
– Introduced a developmental perspective of
psychopathology
• Limitations
– Time consuming and expensive
– Harmful ideas about women
– Lack of empirical research and not much support for
effectiveness

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Skill Development: Interpretation
• One of the most fundamental techniques of psychoanalysis

• Consider using questioning and information giving to help

clients make their own interpretations
• Important tips
– Be cautious and respectful as interpretations from
therapists can be new to clients
– Make sure interpretations are well timed and be
authentic about the reason behind the interpretation
– Use tentative language to give clients the autonomy to
agree or disagree with the interpretation

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