Origin and Evolution of Drama in England
1. Origins of Drama
● Roots in Rituals and Ceremonies: Drama in England has its roots in the religious
rituals and ceremonies of the ancient world, evolving from pagan festivities and oral
storytelling traditions.
● Influence of the Church: The early development of drama in England was heavily
influenced by the Christian Church. During the medieval period, the clergy used dramatic
performances to teach biblical stories and Christian doctrines to an illiterate population.
2. Medieval Drama
● Liturgical Drama (10th-12th Century):
○ Performed in Latin during church services.
○ Focused on biblical stories, such as the Resurrection and Nativity.
○ Example: Quem Quaeritis Trope ("Whom Do You Seek?"), one of the earliest
forms of liturgical drama.
● Mystery and Miracle Plays (13th-15th Century):
○ Mystery plays depicted biblical stories from Creation to the Last Judgment.
○ Miracle plays focused on the lives of saints and their miracles.
○ Performed in vernacular languages, often on wagons in public spaces.
○ Example: York Mystery Cycle.
● Morality Plays (14th-16th Century):
○ Allegorical in nature, teaching moral lessons.
○ Characters personified virtues and vices (e.g., Everyman, Good Deeds, Death).
3. The Renaissance and Early Modern Drama (16th Century)
● Influence of Classical Literature:
○ Revival of interest in Greek and Roman drama.
○ Inspired by works of Aristotle, Seneca, and Plautus.
● Secularization of Drama:
○ Shift from religious to secular themes.
○ Drama began exploring human experiences, politics, and individualism.
● Development of Professional Theatres:
○ Establishment of permanent playhouses, such as The Theatre (1576) and The
Globe (1599).
● Emergence of Playwrights:
○ Christopher Marlowe: Known for Doctor Faustus and introducing blank verse.
○ William Shakespeare: Revolutionized English drama with his plays exploring
universal themes and complex characters (e.g., Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and
Juliet).
○ Ben Jonson: Master of satire and comedy, known for plays like Volpone.
4. The Restoration and 18th Century Drama
● Restoration Comedy (1660-1700):
○ Drama revived after the Puritan ban during the Interregnum (1649-1660).
○ Focused on wit, satire, and social commentary.
○ Example: The Country Wife by William Wycherley.
● Sentimental Comedy and Domestic Tragedy:
○ Rise of sentimentalism, emphasizing morality and virtue.
○ Example: The Conscious Lovers by Richard Steele.
○ Domestic tragedies explored ordinary lives and emotions.
● Beginnings of Operatic and Musical Drama:
○ John Gay's The Beggar's Opera (1728) combined music and drama, setting the
stage for modern musical theatre.
5. 19th Century Drama
● Melodrama:
○ Popular form emphasizing sensationalism, moral polarities, and elaborate stage
effects.
○ Example: The Poor of New York by Dion Boucicault.
● Realism and Naturalism:
○ Influence of European playwrights like Henrik Ibsen.
○ Focused on social issues, everyday life, and psychological depth.
○ Example: Works of George Bernard Shaw (Pygmalion).
6. Modern and Contemporary Drama (20th Century to Present)
● Early 20th Century:
○ Experimentation with form and structure, influenced by movements like
Modernism and Surrealism.
○ Example: T.S. Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral.
● Post-War Drama:
○ Theatre of the Absurd (e.g., Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot).
○ Social realism, exploring working-class issues (e.g., John Osborne's Look Back
in Anger).
● Contemporary Theatre:
○ Diverse themes and forms, blending traditional and experimental styles.
○ Rise of feminist, multicultural, and political theatre.
○ Example: Works by Tom Stoppard (Arcadia), Caryl Churchill (Top Girls), and
modern musical productions.
7. Key Features of English Drama Over Time
● Evolving from religious to secular themes.
● Reflection of societal changes and cultural shifts.
● Innovation in language, form, and performance techniques.
● Enduring influence of prominent playwrights and theatrical traditions.
8. Conclusion
English drama has undergone a dynamic evolution, from its religious origins to its current
diverse forms. It has continually adapted to reflect the changing social, political, and cultural
landscapes, leaving a profound impact on global theatre and literature.
Outline of the History of Shakespearean Criticism
1. Early Reception (16th-17th Century)
● Contemporary Views:
○ Mixed opinions during Shakespeare's lifetime.
○ Ben Jonson praised Shakespeare’s creativity and brilliance but critiqued his
disregard for classical unities of time, place, and action.
● Posthumous Recognition:
○ Publication of the First Folio (1623) established Shakespeare’s plays as
significant literary works.
○ Shakespeare began to be viewed as England’s national poet.
2. The Neo-Classical Period (17th-18th Century)
● Criticism of Style and Structure:
○ John Dryden admired Shakespeare’s natural genius but criticized his lack of
refinement and classical discipline.
○ Alexander Pope edited Shakespeare’s works, highlighting inconsistencies and
adding his own corrections.
● Emergence of Bardolatry:
○ Samuel Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare (1765) acknowledged Shakespeare’s
deep understanding of human nature and universality, despite criticizing his
verbosity and plot weaknesses.
3. Romantic Era (19th Century)
● Celebration of Imagination and Genius:
○ Samuel Taylor Coleridge focused on Shakespeare’s psychological insight and
imagination, delivering influential lectures that emphasized the bard’s originality
and creative genius.
○ William Hazlitt’s essays celebrated Shakespeare’s universality and profound
emotional depth, considering him the poet of nature and humanity.
4. Victorian Criticism
● Moral and Social Interpretations:
○ A.C. Bradley’s Shakespearean Tragedy (1904) deeply analyzed the tragic heroes
of Shakespeare’s plays, emphasizing character motivations and moral
dimensions.
○ Victorian scholars often explored the ethical and societal values reflected in
Shakespeare’s works.
5. 20th Century Approaches
● New Criticism and Formalism:
○ Focused on close reading of the text, analyzing Shakespeare’s use of language,
structure, and symbolism.
○ T.S. Eliot critiqued Shakespeare’s Hamlet, labeling it as an artistic failure but
praised the overall poetic achievements in his oeuvre.
● Psychoanalytic Criticism:
○ Ernest Jones applied Freudian theories to analyze Hamlet, exploring themes of
Oedipal conflict and subconscious motivations.
● Feminist and Post-Colonial Criticism:
○ Feminist scholars examined gender dynamics in plays like Othello and The
Taming of the Shrew.
○ Post-colonial critics like Edward Said analyzed colonialist themes in The
Tempest.
6. Contemporary Criticism
● Interdisciplinary Approaches:
○ Shakespearean criticism now incorporates deconstruction, eco-criticism, and
performance studies, reflecting modern theoretical frameworks.
○ Exploration of queer theory in plays such as Twelfth Night and As You Like It.
● Global Perspectives:
○ Study of adaptations and reinterpretations of Shakespeare’s plays in
non-Western contexts.
○ Examination of how his works resonate with diverse cultural and political
environments.
7. Conclusion
The evolution of Shakespearean criticism reflects broader trends in literary studies and cultural
theory. From the initial focus on his genius and creativity to diverse modern approaches,
Shakespeare’s works continue to inspire critical discourse and remain central to literary and
cultural studies.
