CAN YOU RECALL?

• When released from certain height why do

objects tend to fall vertically downwards?
When released from certain height it falls vertically
downward because of Earth's gravitational force.
• What is the shape of the orbits of planets?
All orbits are elliptical, which means they are an ellipse,
similar to an oval.
• What are Kepler’s laws?
First Law: Planetary orbits are elliptical with the sun at
a focus.
Second Law: The radius vector from the sun to a planet
sweeps equal areas in equal times.
Third Law: The ratio of the square of the period of
revolution and the cube of the ellipse semimajor axis is
the same for all planets.
 Introduction
• All material objects have a natural tendency to get attracted towards the
Earth.
• In many natural phenomena like coconut falling from trees, raindrops
falling from the clouds, etc., the same tendency is observed.
• All bodies are attracted towards the Earth with constant acceleration. This
fact was recognized by Italian physicist Galileo.
• Every massive object in the universe
experiences gravitational force. It is the force
of mutual attraction between any two
objects by virtue of their masses. It is always
an attractive force with infinite range. It does
not depend upon intervening medium. It is
much weaker than other fundamental forces.
 Kepler’s Laws
• Kepler’s laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of the planets
around the Sun.
1. Law of orbit
• All planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun with the Sun at one of
the foci of the ellipse.
• Here, S and S’ are the foci of the ellipse the Sun
being at S.
• P is the closest point along the orbit from S and is,
called ‘Perihelion’.
• A is the farthest point from S and is, called
‘Aphelion’.
• PA is the major axis = 2a.
• PO and AO are the semimajor axes = a.
Fig.: An ellipse traced by a planet
• MN is the minor axis =2b.
with the Sun at the focus.
• MO and ON are the semiminor axes = b
 Kepler’s Laws
2. Law of areas
• The line that joins a planet and the Sun sweeps equal areas in equal
intervals of time.
• Kepler observed that planets do not move around the Sun with uniform speed. They
move faster when they are nearer to the Sun while they move slower when they are
farther from the Sun. This is explained by this law.
The area swept by the planet of mass m in given
1
interval ∆𝑡 is ∆𝐴 = 𝑟 × 𝑣 ∆𝑡
2
∆𝐴 1
= (𝑟 × 𝑣 )
∆𝑡 2
𝑝=𝑚𝑣
∆𝐴 1 𝑝
= 𝑟 ×
∆𝑡 2 𝑚
∴𝐿= 𝑟 × 𝑝 Fig.: The orbit of a planet P
∆𝐴 𝐿 moving around the Sun.
= = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∆𝑡 2𝑚
 Kepler’s Laws
3. Law of periods
• The square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the Sun is
proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of the ellipse traced by the
planet.
• If r is length of semimajor axis then, this law states that
𝑇2 ∝ 𝑟3
𝑇2
Or = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑟3
• Kepler’s laws were based on regular
observations of the motion of planets.
• Kepler did not know why the planets obey
these laws,. i.e. he had not derived these
laws.
Example 5.1: What would be the average duration of year if the distance
between the Sun and the Earth becomes
(A) thrice the present distance.
(B) twice the present distance.
Solution:
(A) Let, 𝑟1 = present distance between
(B)
the earth and sun
If 𝑟2 = 2𝑟1 , 𝑇2 = ?
T = 365 days
According to kepler’s law of period
If 𝑟2 = 3𝑟1 , 𝑇2 = ?
𝑇12 ∝ 𝑟13 and 𝑇22 ∝ 𝑟23
According to kepler’s law of period
𝑇22 𝑟23 2 𝑟1 3
𝑇12 ∝ 𝑟13 and 𝑇22 ∝ 𝑟23 ∴
𝑇12
= 3=
𝑟1 𝑟1
𝑇22 𝑟23 3 𝑟1 3 𝑇2
∴ = 3= ∴ = 8
𝑇12 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑇1
𝑇2
∴ = 27 ∴ 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 × 8
𝑇1
∴ 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 × 27 ∴ 𝑇2 = 365 × 8 = 1032 days
∴ 𝑇2 = 365 × 27 = 1897 days
 5.3 Universal law of Gravitation
𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑟 𝜔2
Also, F = ma
m a = 𝑚 𝑟 𝜔2
𝑎 = 𝑟 𝜔2
2𝜋
We know, 𝜔 =
𝑇
2𝜋 2
We get, 𝑎 = 𝑟
𝑇
3.85 × 10 × 103 ×4 × 𝜋2
5
𝑎=
(27.3 ×24 ×60 ×60)2
2
𝑎 = 0.0027 𝑚/𝑠
𝑎𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
We have, = ≈ 3600
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 0.0027 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 3.85 × 105 𝑘𝑚
= ≈ 60
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 6378 𝑘𝑚
𝑎𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 2
∴ =
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
 5.3 Universal law of Gravitation
1
∴𝑎 ∝
𝑟2
As, F = ma
𝑚
𝐹 ∝ 2
𝑟
𝑀
𝐹𝐸 ∝ 2
𝑟
𝑀𝑚
𝐹 ∝ 2
𝑟
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹 ∝ 2
𝑟
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺 2
𝑟
𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2
𝐺 = [𝐿3 𝑀−1 𝑇 −2 ]
Example: The gravitational force between two bodies is 1 N. If distance
between them is doubled, what will be the gravitational force
between them?
Solution: Let the masses of the two bodies be 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 and the distance
between them be r.
𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
The force between them, 𝐹1 =
𝑟2
When the distance between them is doubled the force becomes,
𝐺 𝑚 1 𝑚2 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚 2
𝐹2 = 2 = 2
(2𝑟) 4𝑟
𝐹1 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 4 𝑟2
∴ = ×
𝐹2 𝑟2 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚 2
𝐹1
∴ =4
𝐹2
1
∴ 𝐹2 = 𝑁
(∵ 𝐹1 = 1 𝑁)
4
∴ 𝐹2 = 0.25𝑁
∴ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ (0.25 𝑁)
 5.3 Universal law of Gravitation
Every particle of matter attracts every other particle of matter with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Figure shows two point masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 with position
vectors 𝑟1 & 𝑟2 and respectively from origin O.
The position vector of 𝑚2 with respect to 𝑚2 is then given by,
𝑟21 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
Similarly, 𝑟12 = 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 = −𝑟21
If, 𝑟 = I 𝑟12 I = I 𝑟21 I,
the formula for force on 𝑚2 due to 𝑚1 can be expressed in
vector form as,
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹21 = 𝐺 1 2 2 (−𝑟21 )
𝑟
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹12 = 𝐺 (−𝑟12 ) Fig.: Gravitational force between
𝑟2
𝐹12 = −𝐹21 masses 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 .
 5.3 Universal law of Gravitation
• For a collection of point masses,
the force on any one of them is the vector sum of the gravitational forces
exerted by all the other point masses.
For n particles, Force on 𝑖 𝑡ℎ mass
𝐹𝑖 = 𝑛𝑗=𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗
𝑗 ≠1
• The gravitational force between an
extended object like the Earth and a point
mass A can be obtained by obtaining the
vector sum of forces on the point mass A
due to each of the point mass which make Fig.: gravitational force due to a
collection of masses .
up the extended object.
 5.3 Universal law of Gravitation
We can consider the two special cases, for which we can get a simple result.
(1) The gravitational force of attraction
due to a hollow, thin spherical shell
of uniform density, on a point mass
situated inside it is zero.
(2) The gravitational force of attraction
between a hollow spherical shell or
solid sphere of uniform density and
a point mass situated outside is just
as if the entire mass of the shell or
sphere is concentrated at the centre
of the shell or sphere.
Example: Three particles A, B, and C each having mass m are kept along a straight line
with AB = BC = 𝑙. A fourth particle D is kept on the perpendicular bisecter of
AC at a distance l from B. Determine the gravitational force on D.
Solution: 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐷2 = 2 𝑙
Gravitational force on D = Vector sum of gravitational forces due to A, B & C.
𝐺𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝑚2
Force due to 𝐴= = . This will be along 𝐷𝐴
(𝐴𝐷)2 2𝑙2
𝐺𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝑚2
Force due to C= = . This will be along 𝐷𝐶
(𝐶𝐷)2 2𝑙 2
𝐺𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝑚2
Force due to B= = . This will be along 𝐷𝐵
(𝐵𝐷)2 𝑙2
We can resolve the forces along horizontal and vertical directions.
Let the unit vector along horizontal direction 𝐴𝐶 be 𝑖 and along the vertical direction 𝐵𝐷 be 𝑗
𝐺𝑚2 𝐺 𝑚2 𝐺 𝑚2
Net horizontal force on D = 2 cos 45 −𝑖 + 2 cos 90 𝑖 + 2 cos 450
0 0
𝑖
2𝑙 𝑙 2𝑙
−𝐺𝑚 2 𝐺𝑚 2
Net horizontal force on D = + =0
2 2 𝑙2 2 2 𝑙2
𝐺𝑚2 𝐺 𝑚2 𝐺 𝑚2
Net vertical force on D = 2 cos 45 −𝑗 + 2 −𝑗 + 2 cos 450 −𝑗
0
2𝑙 𝑙 2𝑙
−𝐺𝑚 2 1 −𝐺𝑚 2 1
Net vertical force on D = 2 +1 𝑗 = 2 + 1 −𝑗
𝑙 2 𝑙 2
−𝑗 shows that the net force is directed along DB.
 5.5 Acceleration due to Gravity
• The magnitude of the gravitational force on a point object of mass m due to another
𝑚𝑀
point object of mass M at a distance r from it is, 𝐹 = 𝐺 2
𝑟
• This formula can be used to calculate the gravitational force on an object due to the
Earth. We know that the Earth is an extended object. In many practical applications
Earth can be assumed to be a uniform sphere.
• Thus if the mass of the Earth is M and that of the point object is m and the distance of
the point object from the centre of the Earth is r then the force of attraction between
𝑀𝑚
them is, 𝐹 = 𝐺 2
𝑟
• If the point object is not acted upon by any other force, it will be accelerated towards
the centre of the Earth under the action of this force. Its acceleration can be calculated
by using Newton’s second law F = ma.
𝑀𝑚 1 𝐺𝑀
• Acceleration due to the gravity of the Earth = 𝐺 2 × = 2
𝑟 𝑚 𝑟
• If the object is close to the surface of the Earth, r ≅ R, the radius of the Earth then,
𝐺𝑀
𝑔𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ′𝑠 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 2
𝑟
Example: Calculate mass of the Earth from given data,
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2
Radius of the Earth 𝑅𝐸 = 6.37 × 106 m
G = 6.67 × 10−11 N 𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2
𝐺 𝑀𝐸
Solution: 𝑔= 2
𝑅𝐸
2
𝑔 𝑅𝐸
∴ 𝑀𝐸 =
𝐺
9.81 × (6.37 × 106 )2
∴ 𝑀𝐸 =
6.67 × 10−11
24
∴ 𝑀𝐸 = 5.97 × 10 𝑘𝑔
• The value of g depends only on the properties of the Earth and does not
depend on the mass of the object. This is exactly what Galileo had found
from his experiments of dropping objects with different masses from the
same height.
 Do you know ?
An object of mass m (much smaller than the mass of the
Earth) is attracted towards the Earth and falls on it.
The Earth is also attracted by the same force (magnitude)
toward the mass m.
𝑀𝑚
𝐺 2
𝑟
However, its acceleration towards m will be 𝑎𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = =
𝑀
𝐺𝑚
𝑟2
𝑎𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑚 𝐺𝑀
∴ = 𝑎𝑠 𝑔 =
𝑔 𝑀 𝑟2
As m << M, 𝑎𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ << g and is nearly zero.
Thus, practically only the mass m moves towards the Earth.
Example: Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon if
mass of the moon is 1/80 times that of the Earth and diameter of
the moon is 1/4 times that of the Earth (g = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
Solution: 𝑀𝑚 = Mass of the moon = M/80, Where M is mass of the Earth.
𝑅𝑚 = Radius of the moon = R/4, Where R is Radius of the Earth.
𝐺𝑀
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth, 𝑔 = 2 -(1)
𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the moon, 𝑔𝑚 = -(2)
𝑅𝑚 2
From equation (1) and (2)
𝑔𝑚 𝑀𝑚 𝑅 2
= ×
𝑔 𝑀 𝑅𝑚
𝑔𝑚 1 4 2
= ×
𝑔 80 1
𝑔𝑚 1
=
𝑔 5
𝑔 9.8
∴𝑔𝑚 = =
5 5
∴ 𝑔𝑚 = 1.96 𝑚/𝑠 2
Example: Find the acceleration due to gravity on a planet that is 10 times
as massive as the Earth and with radius 20 times of the radius of
the Earth (g = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 ).
Solution: Let mass of the planet be 𝑀𝑃 , radius of the Earth and that of the
planet be 𝑅𝐸 and 𝑅𝑃 respectively.
Let mass of the Earth be 𝑀𝐸 and 𝑔𝑃 be acceleration due to
gravity on the planet.
𝑀𝑃 = 10𝑀𝐸 , 𝑅𝑃 = 20 𝑅𝐸 , g = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑔𝑃 = ?
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝐺𝑀P
g = 2 , 𝑔𝑃 = 2
𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝑃
𝐺(10 𝑀𝐸 ) 10 𝐺 𝑀𝐸
∴ 𝑔𝑃 = = 2
(20 𝑅𝐸 )2 400 𝑅𝐸
1
∴ 𝑔𝑃 = 𝑔
40
∴ 𝑔𝑃 = 0.245 𝑚/𝑠 2
5.6 Variation in the Acceleration due to Gravity with Altitude, Depth,
Latitude and Shape:
(A) Variation in g with Altitude:
Consider a body of mass m on the surface of the Earth.
𝐺𝑀
The acceleration due to gravity on the Earth’s surface is, 𝑔 = 2
𝑟
For small altitude h, i.e., for
ℎ
≪ 1,
𝑅
′
2ℎ
∴𝑔 =𝑔 1−
𝑅
(By neglecting higher power
terms of h/R as h/R << 1)
• This expression can be
used to calculate the value
of g at height h above the
surface of the Earth as Fig. Acceleration due to
long as h << R gravity at height h above
the Earth’s surface.
Example: At what distance above the surface of Earth the acceleration due to
gravity decreases by 10% of its value at the surface?
(Radius of Earth = 6400 km).
Assume the distance above the surface to be small compared to the
radius of the Earth.
Solution: g’ = 90% of g (g decreases by 10% hence it becomes 90%)
𝑔′ 90
or, = = 0.9
𝑔 100
2ℎ
∴ 𝑔′ = 𝑔 1 −
𝑅
𝑔′ 2ℎ
∴ =1−
𝑔 𝑅
2ℎ
∴ 0.9 = 1 −
𝑅
𝑅
∴ ℎ=
20
6400
∴ ℎ=
20
∴ ℎ = 320 𝑘𝑚
5.6 Variation in the Acceleration due to Gravity with Altitude, Depth,
Latitude and Shape:
(B) Variation in g with Depth:

Fig. Acceleration due to gravity at

depth d below the surface of the
Earth
5.6 Variation in the Acceleration due to Gravity with Altitude, Depth,
Latitude and Shape:
(B) Variation in g with Depth:
Special Case:
At the centre of the Earth, where d = R, 𝑔𝑑 = 0
The value of acceleration due to gravity is maximum at
the surface of the Earth. The value goes on decreasing
with
1) increase in depth below the Earth’s surface. (varies Fig. - Variation of g due to depth and
linearly with (R-d) = r) altitude from the Earth’s surface
2) increase in height above the Earth’s surface. (varies
inversely with (𝑅 + ℎ)2 = 𝑟 2 ) • For r > R
′
For r < R, 𝑔 = 𝑔 1 −
𝑑 Writing R + h = r
𝑅 𝑔 𝑅2
Writing R - d = r, the distance from the centre of the g(r) =
𝑟2
𝑔
Earth, g(r) = g which is the equation of a straight line which is plotted.
𝑅
with slope g/R and passing through the origin.
5.6 Variation in the Acceleration due to Gravity with Altitude, Depth,
Latitude and Shape:
(C) Variation in g with Latitude and Rotation of the Earth:
Latitude is an angle made by radius vector of any point from centre of the Earth
with the equatorial plane
PO’ = r
∠ 𝐸𝑂𝑃 = 𝜃
∠ 𝑂𝑃𝑂′ = 𝜃
𝑃𝑂′ 𝑟
In ∆𝑂𝑃𝑂′ , cos 𝜃 = =
𝑃𝑂 𝑅
∴ 𝑟 = 𝑅 cos 𝜃
𝑎 = 𝑟 𝜔2
𝑎 = 𝑅 𝜔2 cos 𝜃
The component of this centripetal acceleration along PO,
i.e., towards the centre of the Earth is 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑎𝑟 = 𝑅 𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
Fig. Variation of g
𝑚𝑔′ = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑅 𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
with latitude.
𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝑅 𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
5.6 Variation in the Acceleration due to Gravity with Altitude, Depth,
Latitude and Shape:
(C) Variation in g with Latitude and Rotation of the Earth:
special case I: At equator 𝜃 = 0
cos 𝜃 = 1
𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝑅𝜔2
Case II: At poles 𝜃 = 900
cos 𝜃 = 0
∴ 𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝑟𝜔2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑔 − 0 = 𝑔
Effect of the shape of the Earth: Weight of an object is the force with
which the Earth attracts that object. Thus, weight w = mg where m is the
mass of the object. As the value of g changes with altitude, depth and
latitude, the weight also changes. Weight of an object is minimum at the
equator. Similarly, the weight of an object reduces with increasing height
above the Earth’s surface and with increasing depth below the its surface.
 5.7 Gravitational Potential and Potential Energy
There is a universal principle that states, Every system always configures
itself in order to have minimum potential energy or every system tries to
minimize its potential energy.
Examples:
(I) A spring in its natural state, possesses minimum potential energy.
(II) When an object is lying on the Earth, the system of that object and
the Earth has minimum potential energy. This is the gravitational
potential energy of the system as these two are bound by the
gravitational force.
Work done against a conservative force acting on an object = Increase in
the potential energy of the system.
∴ 𝐹. 𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑈
 5.7 Gravitational Potential and Potential Energy
5.7.1 Expression for Gravitational Potential Energy:
∴ 𝑑𝑈 = −𝐹𝑔 . 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 𝑟𝑓
∴ ∆𝑈 = 𝑟 𝑓(𝑑𝑈) = 𝑟𝑖
( − 𝐹ℎ . 𝑑𝑟)
𝑖
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹𝑔 = − 2 𝑟
𝑟
𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑓
𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ ∆𝑈 = (𝑑𝑈) = − − 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑖 𝑟
𝑟𝑓 𝑑𝑟
∴ ∆𝑈 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑟𝑖 𝑟 2
as 𝑑𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑟
1 𝑟𝑓 1 1
∴ ∆𝑈 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 − = GMm −
𝑟 𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑓
Change in potential energy corresponds to the work done against conservative forces.
For gravitational force, such point is taken at 𝑟 = ∞.
∴ 𝑈 𝑟𝑖 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑖 = ∞
∴ 𝑟𝑓 = 𝑟
1 1
∴ 𝑈(𝑟)𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣. = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 −
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑓
1 1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ 𝑈(𝑟)𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣. = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 − = −
∞ 𝑟 𝑟
Example: What will be the change in potential energy of a body of
mass m when it is raised from height 𝑅𝐸 above the
Earth’s surface to 5/2 𝑅𝐸 above the Earth’s surface?
𝑅𝐸 and 𝑀𝐸 are the radius and mass of the Earth
respectively.
1 1
Solution: ∆𝑈 = 𝐺𝑚 𝑀𝐸 −
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑓
1 1
∆𝑈 = 𝐺𝑚 𝑀𝐸 −
2 𝑅𝐸 3.5 𝑅𝐸
𝐺𝑚𝑀𝐸 1.5
∆𝑈 = ×
𝑅𝐸 2×3.5
2.14𝐺𝑚𝑀𝐸
∆𝑈 =
𝑅𝐸
 5.7 Gravitational Potential and Potential Energy
5.7.2 Connection of potential energy formula with mgh:
If the object is on the surface of Earth, r = R
𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ 𝑈1 = −
𝑅
If the object is lifted to height h above the surface of Earth, the potential energy becomes
𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ 𝑈1 = −
𝑅+ℎ
1 1
∆𝑈 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 − − −
𝑅+ℎ 𝑅
ℎ 𝐺𝑀𝑚ℎ
∆𝑈 = 𝐺𝑀 𝑚 =
𝑅 𝑅+ℎ 𝑅(𝑅+ℎ)
If g is acceleration due to the Earth on the surface of Earth, 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅2
ℎ
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑅+ℎ
𝐼𝑓 ℎ ≪ 𝑅, 𝑅 + ℎ ≅ 𝑅.
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Thus, mgh is increase in the gravitational potential energy of the Earth -mass system if an
object of mass m is lifted to a height h, provided h is negligible compared to radius of the
Earth (up to a few kilometers).
 5.7 Gravitational Potential and Potential Energy
5.7.3 Concept of Potential:

The gravitational potential energy of the system of Earth and any mass m at a
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀
distance r from the centre of the Earth is, 𝑈 = − = − 𝑚= 𝑉𝐸 𝑟 𝑚
𝑟 𝑟
𝐺𝑀
The factor − = 𝑉𝐸 𝑟 , depends only upon mass of Earth and the location.
𝑟
Gravitational potential energy, U = Gravitational potential 𝑉𝑟 × mass m or
𝑈
Gravitational potential is Gravitational potential energy per unit mass, i.e., 𝑉𝑟 = .
𝑚
Gravitational potential difference between any two points in gravitational field,
𝑈2 −𝑈1 𝑑𝑊
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = =
𝑚 𝑚
= Work done (or change in potential energy) per unit mass
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
Gravitational potential energy, 𝑈 = − = 𝑉1 𝑚2 = 𝑉2 𝑚1
𝑟
 5.7 Gravitational Potential and Potential Energy
5.7.4 Escape Velocity:
• When any object is thrown vertically up, it falls back to the Earth after reaching a
certain height. Higher the speed with which the object is thrown up, greater will be the
height. If we keep on increasing the velocity, a stage will come when the object will
reach heights so large that it will escape the gravitational field of the Earth and will not
fall back on the Earth. This initial velocity is called the escape velocity.
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑚 𝑣𝑒2 , 𝑃. 𝐸. = −
2 𝑅
Total energy = P.E. + K.E.
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Total energy = 𝑚 𝑣𝑒2 −
2 𝑅
K.E. = 0
𝐺𝑀𝑚
Also, P.E. = − =0
∞
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔 = 𝑃. 𝐸. +𝐾. 𝐸 = 0
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
As energy is conserved 𝑚 𝑣𝑒2 − =0
2 𝑅
2𝐺𝑀
Or 𝑣𝑒 =
𝑅
 5.8 Earth Satellites
The objects which revolve around the Earth are called Earth satellites. moon is the
only natural satellite of the Earth. It revolves in almost a circular orbit around the
Earth with period of revolution of nearly 27.3 days.
Communication Satellites:
These are geostationary satellites. They revolve around
the Earth in equatorial plane. They have same sense of
rotation as that of the Earth and the same period of
rotation as that of the Earth, i. e., one day or 24 hours.
Due to this, they appear stationary from the Earth’s
surface. Hence they are called geostationary satellites or
geosynchronous satellites.
Polar Satellites:
Polar satellites are used for weather forecasting and
meteorological purpose. They are also used for
astronomical observations and study of Solar radiations.
They go around the poles of the Earth in a north-south
direction while the Earth rotates in an east-west direction
about its own axis.
 5.8 Earth Satellites
5.8.1 Projection of Satellite:
The exact horizontal velocity of projection that must be given to a satellite at a certain
height so that it can revolve in a circular orbit round the Earth is called the critical velocity
or orbital velocity (𝑣𝑐 ).
A satellite follows different paths depending upon the horizontal velocity provided to it.
Different possible cases are:
Case (I) 𝑣ℎ < 𝑣𝑐
It experiences a non-conservative force of air resistance.
Case (II) 𝑣ℎ = 𝑣𝑐
The satellite moves in a stable circular orbit round the Earth.
Case (III) 𝑣𝑐 < 𝑣ℎ < 𝑣𝑒
The satellite again moves in an elliptical orbit round the
Earth with the point of projection as perigee.
Case (IV) 𝑣ℎ = 𝑣𝑒
Its speed will be zero at infinity. Fig. Various possible orbits
Case (V) 𝑣ℎ > 𝑣𝑒 depending on the value of 𝒗𝒉 .
 5.8 Earth Satellites
Expression for critical speed
If the satellite is moving in a circular orbit of radius (R+h) = r, its speed must be
the magnitude of critical velocity 𝑣𝑐 .
The centripetal force necessary for circular motion of satellite is provided by
gravitational force exerted by the satellite on the Earth.
∴ Centripetal force = Gravitational force
𝑚𝑣𝑐2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
=
𝑟 𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝑣𝑐2 =
𝑟
𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝑣𝑐 =
𝑟
𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝑣𝑐 = = 𝑔ℎ (𝑅 + ℎ)
(𝑅+ℎ)
This is the expression for critical speed at the orbit of
Fig. Various possible orbits
radius (R + h) depending on the value of 𝒗𝒉 .
 5.8 Earth Satellites
• Special case

When the satellite is revolving close to the surface of the Earth, the height is very
small as compared to the radius of the Earth. Hence the height can be neglected
and radius of the orbit is nearly equal to R (i.e R >> h, R+h ≈ R)
𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑣𝑐 =
𝑅
𝐺𝑀
As G is related to acceleration due to gravity by the relation, 𝑔 =
𝑅2
∴ 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2
𝑔𝑅2 𝑘𝑚
∴ Critical speed in terms of acceleration due to gravity, 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑅
= 𝑔𝑅 = 7.92
𝑠
Obviously, this is the maximum possible critical speed. This is at least 25 times
the speed of the fastest passenger aeroplanes.
Example: Show that the critical velocity of a body revolving in a
circular orbit very close to the surface of a planet of radius R
𝐺𝜋𝜌
and mean density 𝜌 is 2𝑅
3
Solution: Since the body is revolving very close to the planet, h = 0
𝑀 𝑀 4
Density, 𝜌 = = 4 3 = 𝜋𝑅3 𝜌
𝑉 𝜋𝑅 3
3
4
𝐺𝑀 𝐺 𝜋𝑅 3 𝜌
3
Critical Velocity, 𝑣𝑐 = =
𝑅 𝑅
𝐺𝜋𝜌
∴ 𝑣𝑐 = 2𝑅
3
• When a satellite revolves very close to the surface of the Earth, motion of
satellite gets affected by the friction produced due to resistance of air. In
deriving the above expression the resistance of air is not considered.
 5.8 Earth Satellites
5.8.2 Weightlessness in a Satellite:
According to Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma
Let us consider the example of a lift or elevator from
an inertial frame of reference.
Whether the lift is at rest or in motion, a passenger
in it experiences only two forces:

(i) Gravitational force mg directed vertically downwards (towards centre of the

earth) &
(ii) Normal reaction force N directed vertically upwards, exerted by the floor of
the lift. As these forces are oppositely directed, the net force in the downward
direction will be F = ma - N .
Though the weight of a body is the gravitational force acting upon it, we feel our
weight only due to the normal reaction force N exerted by the floor.
 5.8 Earth Satellites
5.8.2 Weightlessness in a Satellite:
Case I: Lift having zero acceleration
The net force F = 0 = mg - N
∴ mg =N
Hence in this case we feel our normal weight mg .
Case II:Lift having net upward acceleration 𝒂𝒖
∴ 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑢 = 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔
∴ 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑎𝑢 , i.e., N > mg (we feel heavier)
Case III (a): Lift having net downward acceleration 𝒂𝒅
∴ 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑁 • The acceleration for this
∴ 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑎𝑑 , i.e., N < mg (we feel lighter) motion is centripetal, which is
Case III (b): State of free fall provided by the gravitational
The downward acceleration 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑔. acceleration g at the location
∴ 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑎𝑑 = 0 of the satellite.
 5.8 Earth Satellites
5.8.3 Time Period of a Satellite:
The time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution round the Earth is its time
period.
The satellite revolves in a circular orbit of radius (R+h) = r.
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡
∴ 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 ∴ 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔ℎ (𝑅 + ℎ)2
2𝜋𝑟
𝑣𝑐 = (𝑅+ℎ)3
𝑇 ∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑔ℎ (𝑅+ℎ)2
𝐺𝑚
But we have, 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑅+ℎ 𝑟
𝑟
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋
𝑔ℎ 𝑔ℎ
𝐺𝑚 2𝜋𝑟
∴ = Special case:
𝑟 𝑇
𝐺𝑀 4𝜋2 𝑟 2 When satellite revolves close to the
Or, = 2
𝑟 𝑇 surface of the Earth, R + h ≈ R and
2 4𝜋 𝑟 2
2
∴ 𝑇 = 𝑔ℎ ≈ 𝑔.
𝐺𝑀
𝑅
𝑟3 (𝑅+ℎ)3 (𝑇)𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋
𝑇 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 𝑔
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
Example: Calculate the period of revolution of a polar satellite orbiting
close to the surface of the Earth.
Given R = 6400 km, g = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
Solution: h is negligible as satellite is close to the Earth surface.
∴𝑅+ℎ ≈𝑅
𝑔ℎ ≈ 𝑔
𝑅 = 6400 𝑘𝑚 = 6.4 × 106 𝑚
𝑅
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑔

6.4×106
𝑇 = 2 × 3.14
9.8
3
𝑇 = 5.705 × 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑇 = 85 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦
Example: An artificial satellite revolves around a planet in circular orbit close to
its surface. Obtain the formula for period of the satellite in terms of
density 𝜌 and radius R of planet.
(𝑅+ℎ)3
Solution: Period of satellite is, ∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 …..(1)
𝐺𝑀
Here, the satellite revolves close to the surface of planet, hence h is
negligible, hence 𝑅 + ℎ ≈ 𝑅
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)
∴𝑀 =𝜌𝑉 …..(2)
4
As planet is spherical in shape, volume of planet is given as, 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅3
3
4
∴ 𝑀 = 𝜋𝑅3 𝜌 …….(3)
3
Substituting the values from equation (2) and (3) in equation (1), we get
𝑅3 3𝜋
𝑇 = 2𝜋 4 =
𝐺× 𝜋𝑅 3 𝜌 𝐺𝜌
3
 5.8 Earth Satellites
5.8.4 Binding Energy of an orbiting satellite:
The minimum energy required by a satellite to escape from Earth’s
gravitational influence is the binding energy of the satellite.
Let M be the mass of the Earth, R be the Radius of the Earth, 𝑣𝑐 be critical
velocity of satellite, r = (R+h) be the radius of the orbit.
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑐2
2
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 =
2 𝑟
The gravitational potential at a distance r from the centre of the Earth is,
𝐺𝑀
−
𝑟
∴ Potential energy of satellite = Gravitational potential × mass of satellite
𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ Potential energy of satellite = −
𝑟
The total energy of satellite is given as, T.E. = K.E. + P.E.
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = − =−
2 𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑟
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
The minimum energy to be supplied to unbind the satellite is +
2 𝑟