This article will be a collection of cheat sheets that you can use as you

solve problems and prepare for interviews. You will find:

 Time complexity (Big O) cheat sheet

 General DS/A flowchart (when to use each DS/A)
 Stages of an interview cheat sheet

Time complexity (Big O) cheat sheet

First, let's talk about the time complexity of common operations, split by
data structure/algorithm. Then, we'll talk about reasonable complexities
given input sizes.

Arrays (dynamic array/list)

Given n = arr.length,

 Add or remove element at the end: O(1) amortized

 Add or remove element from arbitrary index: O(n)
 Access or modify element at arbitrary index: O(1)
 Check if element exists: O(n)
 Two pointers: O(n⋅k), where k is the work done at each iteration,
includes sliding window
 Building a prefix sum:O(n)
  Finding the sum of a subarray given a prefix sum: O(1)

Strings (immutable)

Given n = s.length,

 Add or remove character: O(n)

 Access element at arbitrary index: O(1)
 Concatenation between two strings: O(n+m), where m is the
length of the other string
 Create substring: O(m), where m is the length of the substring
 Two pointers: O(n⋅k), where k is the work done at each iteration,
includes sliding window
 Building a string from joining an array, stringbuilder, etc.: O(n)

Linked Lists

Given n as the number of nodes in the linked list,

 Add or remove element given pointer before add/removal
location: O(1)
 Add or remove element given pointer at add/removal
location: O(1) if doubly linked
 Add or remove element at arbitrary position without pointer: O(n)
 Access element at arbitrary position without pointer: O(n)
 Check if element exists: O(n)
 Reverse between position i and j: O(j−i)
 Detect a cycle: O(n) using fast-slow pointers or hash map

Hash table/dictionary

Given n = dic.length,

 Add or remove key-value pair: O(1)

 Check if key exists: O(1)
 Check if value exists: O(n)
 Access or modify value associated with key: O(1)
 Iterate over all keys, values, or both: O(n)

Note: the O(1) operations are constant relative to n. In reality, the hashing
algorithm might be expensive. For example, if your keys are strings, then
it will cost O(m) where m is the length of the string. The operations only
take constant time relative to the size of the hash map.

Set

Given n = set.length,

 Add or remove element: O(1)

 Check if element exists: O(1)

The above note applies here as well.

Stack

Stack operations are dependent on their implementation. A stack is only

required to support pop and push. If implemented with a dynamic array:

Given n = stack.length,

 Push element: O(1)

 Pop element: O(1)
 Peek (see element at top of stack): O(1)
 Access or modify element at arbitrary index: O(1)
 Check if element exists: O(n)

Queue

Queue operations are dependent on their implementation. A queue is only

required to support dequeue and enqueue. If implemented with a doubly
linked list:

Given n = queue.length,

 Enqueue element: O(1)

 Dequeue element: O(1)
 Peek (see element at front of queue): O(1)
 Access or modify element at arbitrary index: O(n)
 Check if element exists: O(n)

Note: most programming languages implement queues in a more

sophisticated manner than a simple doubly linked list. Depending on
implementation, accessing elements by index may be faster than O(n),
or O(n) but with a significant constant divisor.
Binary tree problems (DFS/BFS)

Given n as the number of nodes in the tree,

Most algorithms will run in O(n⋅k) time, where k is the work done at each
node, usually O(1). This is just a general rule and not always the case. We
are assuming here that BFS is implemented with an efficient queue.

Binary search tree

Given n as the number of nodes in the tree,

 Add or remove element: O(n) worst case, O(logn) average case

 Check if element exists: O(n) worst case, O(logn) average case

The average case is when the tree is well balanced - each depth is close
to full. The worst case is when the tree is just a straight line.

Heap/Priority Queue

Given n = heap.length and talking about min heaps,

 Add an element: O(logn)

 Delete the minimum element: O(logn)
 Find the minimum element: O(1)
 Check if element exists: O(n)

Binary search

Binary search runs in O(logn) in the worst case, where n is the size of
your initial search space.

Miscellaneous

 Sorting: O(n⋅logn), where n is the size of the data being sorted

 DFS and BFS on a graph:O(n⋅k+e), where n is the number of
nodes, e is the number of edges, if each node is handled
in (1)O(1) other than iterating over edges
  DFS and BFS space complexity: typically O(n), but if it's in a graph,
might be O(n+e) to store the graph
 Dynamic programming time complexity :O(n⋅k), where n is the
number of states and k is the work done at each state
 Dynamic programming space complexity: O(n), where n is the
number of states

Input sizes vs time complexity

The constraints of a problem can be considered as hints because they
indicate an upper bound on what your solution's time complexity should
be. Being able to figure out the expected time complexity of a solution
given the input size is a valuable skill to have. In all LeetCode problems
and most online assessments (OA), you will be given the problem's
constraints. Unfortunately, you will usually not be explicitly told the
constraints of a problem in an interview, but it's still good for practicing on
LeetCode and completing OAs. Still, in an interview, it usually doesn't hurt
to ask about the expected input sizes.

n <= 10

a base larger than 2 - O(n2⋅n!) or O(4n) for example.

The expected time complexity likely has a factorial or an exponential with

You should think about backtracking or any brute-force-esque recursive

algorithm. n <= 10 is extremely small and usually any algorithm that
correctly finds the answer will be fast enough.

10 < n <= 20

The expected time complexity likely involves O(2n). Any higher base or a
factorial will be too slow (320320 = ~3.5 billion, and 20!20! is much larger).
A 2n usually implies that given a collection of elements, you are
considering all subsets/subsequences - for each element, there are two
choices: take it or don't take it.

Again, this bound is very small, so most algorithms that are correct will
probably be fast enough. Consider backtracking and recursion.

20 < n <= 100

At this point, exponentials will be too slow. The upper bound will likely
involve O(n3).

Problems marked as "easy" on LeetCode usually have this bound, which

can be deceiving. There may be solutions that run in O(n), but the small
bound allows brute force solutions to pass (finding the linear time solution
might not be considered as "easy").

Consider brute force solutions that involve nested loops. If you come up
with a brute force solution, try analyzing the algorithm to find what steps
are "slow", and try to improve on those steps using tools like hash maps
or heaps.

100 < n <= 1,000

In this range, a quadratic time complexity O(n2) should be sufficient, as

long as the constant factor isn't too large.

Similar to the previous range, you should consider nested loops. The
difference between this range and the previous one is that O(n2) is
usually the expected/optimal time complexity in this range, and it might
not be possible to improve.

1,000 < n < 100,000

n<=105 is the most common constraint you will see on LeetCode. In this
range, the slowest acceptable common time complexity is O(n⋅logn),
although a linear time approach O(n) is commonly the goal.

In this range, ask yourself if sorting the input or using a heap can be
helpful. If not, then aim for an O(n) algorithm. Nested loops that run
in O(n2) are unacceptable - you will probably need to make use of a
technique learned in this course to simulate a nested loop's behavior
in O(1) or O(logn):

 Hash map
 A two pointers implementation like sliding window
 Monotonic stack
 Binary search
 Heap
 A combination of any of the above

If you have an O(n) algorithm, the constant factor can be reasonably

large (around 40). One common theme for string problems involves
looping over the characters of the alphabet at each iteration resulting in a
time complexity of O(26n).

100,000 < n < 1,000,000

n<=106 is a rare constraint, and will likely require a time complexity

of O(n). In this range, O(n⋅logn) is usually safe as long as it has a small
constant factor. You will very likely need to incorporate a hash map in
some way.

1,000,000 < n

With huge inputs, typically in the range of 109109 or more, the most
common acceptable time complexity will be logarithmic O(logn) or
constant O(1). In these problems, you must either significantly reduce
your search space at each iteration (usually binary search) or use clever
tricks to find information in constant time (like with math or a clever use
of hash maps).

Other time complexities are possible like O(n), but this is very rare and
will usually only be seen in very advanced problems.

Sorting algorithms
All major programming languages have a built-in method for sorting. It is
usually correct to assume and say sorting costs O(n⋅logn), where n is the
number of elements being sorted. For completeness, here is a chart that
lists many common sorting algorithms and their completeness. The
algorithm implemented by a programming language varies; for example,
Python uses Timsort but in C++, the specific algorithm is not mandated
and varies.
Definition of a stable sort from Wikipedia: "Stable sorting algorithms
maintain the relative order of records with equal keys (i.e. values). That is,
a sorting algorithm is stable if whenever there are two records R and S
with the same key and with R appearing before S in the original list, R will
appear before S in the sorted list."

General DS/A flowchart

Here's a flowchart that can help you figure out which data structure or
algorithm should be used. Note that this flowchart is very general as it
would be impossible to cover every single scenario.

Note that this flowchart only covers methods taught in LICC, and as such
more advanced algorithms like Dijkstra's is excluded.
Interview stages cheat sheet
The following will be a summary of the "Stages of an interview" article. If
you have a remote interview, you can print this condensed version and
keep it in front of you during the interview.

Stage 1: Introductions

 Have a rehearsed 30-60 second introduction regarding your

education, work experience, and interests prepared.
  Smile and speak with confidence.
 Pay attention when the interviewer talks about themselves and
incorporate their work into your questions later.

Stage 2: Problem statement

 Paraphrase the problem back to the interviewer after they have

read it to you.
 Ask clarifying questions about the input such as the expected input
size, edge cases, and invalid inputs.
 Quickly walk through an example test case to confirm you
understand the problem.

Stage 3: Brainstorming DS&A

 Always be thinking out loud.

 Break the problem down: figure out what you need to do, and think
about what data structure or algorithm can accomplish it with a
good time complexity.
 Be receptive to any comments or feedback from the interviewer,
they are probably trying to hint you towards the correct solution.
 Once you have an idea, before coding, explain your idea to the
interviewer and make sure they understand and agree that it is a
reasonable approach.

Stage 4: Implementation

 Explain your decision-making as you implement. When you declare

things like sets, explain what the purpose is.
 Write clean code that conforms to your programming language's
conventions.
 Avoid writing duplicate code - use a helper function or for loop if you
are writing similar code multiple times.
 If you are stuck, don't panic - communicate your concerns with your
interviewer.
 Don't be scared to start with a brute force solution (while
acknowledging that it is brute force), then improve it by optimizing
the "slow" parts.
 Keep thinking out loud and talk with your interviewer. It makes it
easier for them to give you hints.

Stage 5: Testing & debugging

  When walking through test cases, keep track of the variables by
writing at the bottom of the file, and continuously update them.
Condense trivial parts like creating a prefix sum to save time.
 If there are errors and the environment supports running code, put
print statements in your algorithm and walk through a small test
case, comparing the expected value of variables and the actual
values.
 Be vocal and keep talking with your interviewer if you run into any
problems.

Stage 6: Explanations and follow-ups

Questions you should be prepared to answer:

 Time and space complexity, average and worst case.

 Why did you choose this data structure, algorithm, or logic?
 Do you think the algorithm could be improved in terms of
complexity? If they ask you this, then the answer is usually yes,
especially if your algorithm is slower than �(�)O(n).

Stage 7: Outro

 Have questions regarding the company prepared.

 Be interested, smile, and ask follow-up questions to your
interviewer's responses.