1.

Safety & Multimeter & Introduction (1 class)

2. Parts & Testing (4 classes)
a. LEDs w/ Breadboards, test with multimeter
b. Resistors, test with multimeter
i. Static
ii. Variable
c. Switches
d. Comparators
e. Transistor Switches
f. Motors
g. Wheels
h. Coupler
3. Breadboard Assembly (3 classes)
4. Robot Assembly (2-3 classes)
5. Running & Tweaking the Robot (2 classes)
6. Race-Parent Party
Introduction
1. What are we building? (line-following robot from Robot Building for Beginners, David
Cook)
2. Four disciplines of robotics
a. Electrical Engineering (circuits and sensors)
b. Mechanical Engineering & Machining (gears, motors, body)
c. Computer Science (pseudo-intelligent behavior)
d. Arts (expression, style, fun)
3. Parts of a robot
a. Brains - with or without, distributed brains vs centralized brain, microcontrollers
vs microprocessor, comparator chip
b. Electrical Power - what we’re using vs what is available (“The electrical power
supply consists of a raw power source, a regulating circuit to stabilize and
process the source, and a switch to activate and deactivate.”)
i. Power regulation
ii. on/off
c. Sensors - how many on a robot? What sensors are we using?
d. Action & Feedback
i. Movement - Motors w/ wheels, mechanical legs, motor controller
ii. Indicator lights - “LEDs (light-emitting diodes) indicate power status,
motors engaging, sensor detection (see Figure 1-10), and decision-
making. This display of the robot’s state makes error correction and
design improvements a lot easier. Of course, the lights also make a robot
look more fascinating.”
iii. “Wires, connectors, capacitors, resistors, diodes, and other components
play important roles in bringing circuits together.”
e. Body - Must have a primary frame, our body vs robot body
i. Aesthetics - visual appeal
4. How do you build a robot? One step at a time.

Safety
1. Hands must be dry!
2. Heat sources - soldering, hot wires due to short circuits
3. Sparks - from?
4. Cuts - from wires, using tools to bend and shape
5. Chemical - electrical components, solder, solder flux, batteries
6. Eyes - drilling, cutting, soldering, snipping
a. Proper goggle use & sanitization
7. Tool use - appropriate for the tool selected
8. Wash hands after club
9. Safe battery choices - no Cadmium,
a. Always disconnect battery before working on robot
10. Multimeter use - DC only with small batteries!

Multimeter Use
1. Required tool for robot building.
 2. With a multimeter, you can:
a. determine if an unexpected amount (too much or too little) of power is being used
b. determine if a part is damaged or worn out
c. determine what type of part something is
d. determine the value (electrical denomination) of a part
e. manually read sensors and chips to aid designing and debugging
3. Cost - $20-150
4. Must-haves
a. Digital Display

b. DC Voltage, DC current, resistance

c. Probes & Leads, standard, hook, alligator clips
d. Overload/Fuse protection
e. Nice-to-have
i. Diode
ii. Continuity
f. Auto vs Manual ranging
g. Auto power off
h. Transistors

Let’s test a few things!

1. Battery
2. LED
3. Resistor
4. Continuity
 Breadboards, LEDs, Static & Variable Resistors
Breadboards
1. Solderless - doesn’t require using hot solder irons. Components are pushed into the holes on the board
to connect them together. Many solid metal strips underneath.

2. Can be used over and over again.

3. Allows you to try out a circuit design before making it permanent.
4. Holes are called tie points.
5. Tie points are usually in groups of 5

Vs

6. Can connect more than one group of 5

7. Center Gap
 a. Separates each side of the breadboard

b. designed for a Dual Inline Package (DIP), ours is the comparator chip microcontroller
c. Connect each leg of the chip to its own group of 5, middle part crosses the gap

8. 25-Position Distribution Bus

a. Two horizontal rows at top and bottom of breadboard. Look like they are in groups of 5, but are
actually connected all the way down - 25 tie points
b. One is for Power, one is for Ground - connect top and bottom bus since you only have 1 battery

9. Wire
a. We use wire to “jump” from one tie point to another
 b. Must be Solid Core, not stranded, made from copper.
c. Relative diameter size is indicated by number, but it’s backwards. Larger number means a
smaller diameter wire.
d. Must be insulated! You don’t want to short out your circuits or shock yourself, so use insulated.
e. Use many colors, but try to keep only one color per circuit. The exception to this is that RED
should only be used for connections from Power, and BLACK should only be used for
connections to Ground.
f. SAFETY - when cutting your own jumper wires, WEAR GOGGLES!!
g. You can also use pre-made jumper wires, they will stick up and could be in the way of the part
you are trying to work with.

LEDs & Resistors

1. LED Anatomy
a. Long vs Short leg
b. Center gap
2. LED Voltage needs - 1.2-2V, but we’re using a 9V battery?
3. Resistors to the rescue!
a. Resistors reduce the amount of electricity flowing through the circuit
b. Use a 1,000 Ohm resistor for today’s circuit

c. One leg of the resistor goes into the Power Bus while the other leg goes into a group of 5
nearby. Insert the long leg of the LED into the same group of 5 as the resistor, and insert the
short leg into a different group of 5.
d. Use a jumper wire to connect the short leg to the Ground Bus.

Checking Voltages at Different Points

1. Use 2 jumper wires, a red and black one
a. Plug the red wire into the same group of 5 as the long leg. Connect the red hook lead to the
other end of the red wire.
b. Plug the black wire into the Ground Bus. Connect the black hook lead to the other end of the
black wire.
c. Turn your Multimeter to ____V to test
d. Plug your battery into the breadboard. Record your voltage:_______V
e. Unplug Power. Change out the resistor for a 100,000 Ohm resistor
f. Plug your battery into the breadboard. Record your voltage:_______V
g. Unplug Power. Remove the resistor and plug in a variable resistor.
h. Plug your battery into the breadboard. Turn the knob and watch the voltage change on your
multimeter.
 Switches & Comparators
Switches
1. A polished robot design contains a power switch to easily turn the robot on or off.
2. Our switch is a SPDT switch which means Single Pole Double Throw. Think of this as a metal pole in
the middle surrounded by wires on both sides. The pole can only be in contact with one set of wires at a
time.
3. Breadboard Layout
a. Ground wire should go into the Ground Bus
b. Red wire should be in same 5-position grouping as the middle leg of the switch
c. Use another red wire to connect either outside leg to the Power Bus

d. When the switch is pushed to the left, power/current flows. When pushed to the right, power is
disconnected.
4. Let’s test the Power Bus with the switch on and off. You will need hooks and jumper wires

5. Use jumper wires to connect both Power Buses and both Ground Buses
6. Install the red LED into the circuit. This will be your power indicator when the switch is on.
a. Insert one leg of a 1K resistor into the Power Bus and the other leg into a new 5-group.
b. Insert your red LED, connecting the ______ leg into the same 5-group as the resistor.
c. Use a jumper wire to connect the remaining leg of the red LED to the Ground Bus

7. Testing voltages - connect the red probe into the same 5-group as the resistor, connect the black probe
into the Ground Bus.
Comparator Chips

1. Like a voltmeter with switches inside. It samples two voltages and turns on a switch if V1 is GREATER
than V2, but turns the switch off if V1 is LESS than V2
2. We are using the LM393N - “The LM393’s full title is ‘Low Power, Low Offset Voltage, Single Supply,
Dual, Differential Comparators.’”
a. The “Low Power” term indicates that the chip doesn’t use much electricity. That’s valuable to a
battery-powered robot.
b. The “Low Offset Voltage” term indicates that the chip can compare voltages that are very close
to each other. That’s going to be useful for the subtle differences in brightness encountered
during line following.
c. The “Single Supply” term indicates that the chip operates using only one power source. A “Dual
Supply” chip needs two back-to-back power supplies (or circuitry) to produce a positive, neutral,
and negative. Some comparators are designed to be flexible, and can operate with either single
or dual supplies, depending on how you connect them.
d. The “Dual” term indicates that there are two independent comparators in each chip. It’s a two-
for-one special! “Quad” chips contain four independent comparators.
e. The “Differential” term indicates the chip has circuitry to convert the comparison between two
voltages in the input voltage range to a single digital output in the power supply’s voltage range.
For example, the chip’s output voltage won’t drop when the input voltages are very small, nor
will it rise when the input voltages are very large.
3. Read the datasheet! This datasheet gives you the details about the part including typical and maximum
values for its different characteristics, what range it can operate on, and limitations of the item.
a. “According to the datasheet, the LM393 can be powered from 2 V to 36 V. This generous range
easily fits within a 9 V battery’s voltage characteristics (5 V to 10 V).”
b. “There are a couple of significant issues revealed in the LM393 datasheets.
i. “The first issue is that the LM393 can’t compare voltages within the upper 1.5 V of the
current battery level. So, if both test point’s voltages are hovering in the 8 V range and
the battery is 9 V, the comparator won’t make a correct comparison.
ii. “The second issue is that the comparator can’t guarantee that it has enough strength by
itself to switch on a circuit that uses more than 6 mA. The datasheet indicates that the
comparator can typically switch up to 16 mA, but you may legitimately receive a batch of
chips with only 6 mA capability. Both of these issues are compensated for in the robot’s
design, as will be pointed out later.”
4. Pinouts
a. The metal wires sticking out are called pins. Use the datasheet to know what each pin does so
you know how to connect it to your board.
b. A notch or dot at the top. This tells us where pin 1 begins. Number the pins counter-clockwise.
c. Power pins - The chip must have power to make it work. In this case, pin 8 receives power and
pin 4 goes to ground.
d. Pins 1-3 - First comparator on this chip (remember, it’s a dual comparator)
e. Pins 5-7 - Second comparator on this chip
f. The comparators are independent of each other, so if you wanted to, you could use them to
measure completely independent circuits.
g. “On the LM393, pin 1 is labeled Output A (see Figure 15-2). There is a solid-state switch inside
of the chip that either connects the inside of this pin to the negative terminal of the battery or
disconnects it. Recall that a circuit turns off if either end of its power is disconnected. Therefore,
if you connect the negative end of a circuit to pin 1 of the LM393, then the circuit can be turned
on and off by the switch inside the LM393. On the LM393, pin 2 and pin 3 are labeled Input A-
and Input A+, respectively. These are connected to the test points that you’d like the chip to
compare. If pin 2 has a higher voltage than pin 3, then pin 1 is switched to the battery (see left
side of Figure 15-3). Otherwise, pin 1 is disconnected (see right side of Figure 15-3).”
5. Brightness Comparator Circuit Wiring Diagram

a. Connected vs. Unconnected wires

1. When lines cross over each other, you must distinguish if they are connected or just
passing through.
2. A solid circle or dot (that like near TP2) means the wires are connected
3. A “hop” in the wire (looks like an arc) means the wires are just passing by each other.
6. The purpose of this circuit is to see which pair of photoresistors on the bottom of the robot are receiving
more light. Photoresistors that receive more light cause the voltage to (increase/decrease). Remember,
photoresistors are variable resistors, just like the potentiometer we used last time. Instead of turning a
knob, the voltage changes based on the amount of light received by the photoresistor.
a. “Comparator A compares TP2 (connected to Input A-) to TP1 (connected to Input A+) and turns
on the LED7 (connected to Output A) when TP1 has a lower voltage (left photoresistors
receiving more light). Comparator B compares TP1 (connected to Input B-) to TP2 (connected
to Input B+) and turns on LED8 (connected to Output B) when TP2 has a lower voltage (right
photoresistors receiving more light).”
 Switches & Comparators Continued
Adding the photoresistors to the circuit
1. Need a “trimpot” which is a much more accurate potentiometer-type variable resistor.
Connect the red hook to an outside pin and the black hook to the middle pin. Use a small
screwdriver to turn the gold knob to make the resistance reading equal to 10k (10.00
when ohms is set to 20k)
2. Connect a 1K ohm resistor from the Power Bus to the middle pin of the trimpot
3. Connect a jumper wire from an outside leg of the trimpot to a different 5-group. Insert
one leg of a photoresistor into the same 5-group, and the other leg to a different 5-group.
Take a second photoresistor and connect one leg into the last 5-group and the other leg
into a new 5-group. Connect a jumper to ground. Repeat this step with the other outside
leg of the trimpot.

4. We need to check the voltage at TP1 (off the left side of the trimpot). Use your red hook
to attach to a jumper wire and insert that into the same 5-group as the left leg of the
trimpot. Use your black hook to attach a jumper wire into the Ground Bus. Connect your
battery and note the voltage. Cover the photoresistors coming from the left side of the
trimpot and note how the voltage changes. Did the voltage go up or down? Move your
red hook to TP2 (right side of trimpot) and test the voltage again, also covering the
photoresistors.
a. How did the voltage at TP1 compare to TP2?
b. How would you go about balancing this circuit?
Connecting the photoresistors to the comparator
1. Use purple connecting wires for one set of LEDs and blue connecting wires for the other.
2. The comparator needs to compare the voltages coming out of the trimpot. Where would
you connect the jumper wire near the trimpot?
3. Connect your purple jumper wire to the left side of the trimpot and the other end to pin 6
of the comparator.
4. Connect your blue jumper wire to the right side of the trimpot and the other end to pin 5
of the comparator.
5. Since we built the LED portion of the circuit last time, we can now connect the battery to
our circuit and play with covering up our photoresistors to see how the yellow and green
LEDs change.

Looking ahead, what else will we be connecting to this specific circuit that
will be turned on/off depending on the results of the comparator?
Transistors
1. Source vs Sink current
a. Source means the chip provides current - positive terminal of a battery
b. Sink means the chip receives current - negative terminal of a battery
2. Positive vs Negative power
a. The term “negative power” is to remind us to connect to the battery’s negative
terminal.
b. The term “negative power” has both a negative voltage (2 points relative to each
other) and that we have adequate electricity flowing to the negative point
(negative terminal on a battery).
3. We are using the 2907A transistor - bipolar PNP general-purpose amplifier
a. “Bipolar indicates the type of semiconductor technology. Bipolar semiconductors
are popular because they’re fast, static-electricity resistant, and can deliver
plenty of current. However, bipolar semiconductors use more energy (and
therefore emit more heat) than field-effect semiconductors.
b. PNP indicates that the transistor turns on with negative power. Just the opposite,
NPN transistors turn on with positive power.
c. General Purpose indicates that the transistor operates with characteristics similar
to most transistors. Compare that with high-speed, low-noise, or power
transistors that have special abilities tailored for specific duties.
d. Amplifier indicates the transistor can magnify a signal. Some other transistors are
designed more for switching, buffering, or acting as adaptors from one voltage to
another.”
4. The transistor has 3 leads (pins) - emitter, base, collector. We are using this transistor as
a switch controlled by the comparator’s output. This transistor only turns on when
connected to negative power.
5. Remember to download and read the datasheet for this transistor!
6. Testing a transistor with a multimeter test socket
a. You should have a transistor test socket on your multimeter
b. You can also test it with the diode test function
c. Turn your multimeter to the hFE setting
d. Note that you have an NPN and PNP side to your transistor socket. Use the
appropriate side for testing.
e. Emitter connects to E, base to B, Collector to C
f. For the 2907A, the number should read between 75hFE and 300hFE (ours read
higher, though). If it reads 0, it isn’t connected correctly and needs to be
changed. There are 4 different ways to test the transistor in the socket. Only one
way will produce an actual reading. Mark which pin is the emitter.
g. The number given by the multimeter is the “gain,” or multiplier, the transistor can
use for producing current. Record #__________
h. Since we are using the transistor as a switch, all we are concerned with is
whether the circuit is on or off, rather than amplifying the current in the circuit.
7. Testing a transistor with multimeter leads
a. Turn your multimeter to the diode test feature (->+)
b. Connect the black hook to the middle pin, connect the red hook to one of the
outside pins. Record the number on the multimeter. If it is infinity (in our case, 1),
that is not the combination you are looking for.
c. Move one of the hooks to the other pin and again record the number on the
multimeter. You will do this until you have tested and recorded all combinations
 of pins. There will be 2 entries with actual numbers. Whichever pin is common to
both of those, that is the base pin.

d. In order to find which is the collector and which is the emitter, we need to setup a
circuit.

e. The direction of the arrow tells us this is a PNP transistor. The arrow tells us the
direction current must flow. In this case, the emitter must connect to positive
power. Electricity flows from E through the Base (B) and the Collector (C) and
then out to negative power.
f. Let’s test the current flowing through the circuit
1. Let’s turn the transistor around and see if the LED no longer lights up
2. Put the transistor back in the correct orientation
3. For the jumper wire going from the base to the ground bus, unplug the
side in the ground bus and attach your red hook to the end. Attach the
black hook to a wire and plug that wire into the ground bus.
4. Switch your multimeter to the DC Amperage section, probably to the 20m
setting (this is milli-amps). Record the number ___________
 5. Unhook the red hook and plug that wire back into the ground bus. Pull out
the ground wire on the LED part of the circuit and attach it to your red
hook. Record the number __________
6. Figure out the gain by dividing the recorded number in step 5 by the
number recorded in step 4. This is your gain. How does it compare to the
gain measured by your multimeter?
i. Gain is dependant on the current applied and consumed by the
circuit.

Adding the transistor to the brightness circuit

1. R17 and R18 are current limiting resistors, meaning they protect the transistors (Q7, Q8)
from too much current.
 Motors, Wheels & Couplers
Motors
1. DC Motors - Direct Current (uses a battery for power)
2. Electricity is converted into motion by magnets in the motor
3. “When magnets are mounted around a pole, the combination of pulling and pushing can
result in a rotating motion. A magnet on the shaft or pole is attracted to a magnet
mounted nearby, while simultaneously being repelled by another magnet mounted on
the opposite side. As soon as the shaft rotates to the magnet pulling it, the shaft magnet
flips polarity and starts pushing away.”
4. Your motor should only need 2 wires. If it needs more wires, or has electronics
attached, it’s not the type of motor you are looking for. Servos and stepper motors don’t
serve the purpose we need in selecting a motor.
5. If your motor doesn’t already have wires attached, you will need to solder on your own
wires and cover the soldered joints with heat shrink tubing. **When we get to adding
motors to our robots, I will have already soldered the connections for you**
6. All motors are not created equal. Select one that will work with the battery voltage you
will be using.

7. Our motors have no wires, so we don’t know which side is + or -. No worries, we will
decide for ourselves. Keep in mind that the motor terminals are going to need to be
mirror images of each other in order for the robot to move forwards. Otherwise, the robot
will spin in place.
8. Motors are also classified by their RPM, or Revolutions Per Minute. Is faster better?
9. The current consumed by a motor varies widely and changes during operation. Startup
current is like a large spike compared to the current needed to keep a motor spinning.
10. We don’t want to “stall” our motors. This means they are receiving current even though
they are incapable of spinning the motor shaft. This is the worst state for a motor! All
of the electricity is producing heat instead of motion.
11. When selecting motors, consider the weight of your motors compared to the total weight
of the robot. Motors should not make up more than 40% of the total weight of the robot.
12. Motor size will dictate robot size. Motor size dictates the minimum size of the robot, while
the motor max torque will dictate the max weight of the robot.
 Constructing the Breadboard
Switch Circuit
1. Use a red and black jumper wire to connect both Power Buses and both Ground Buses
on the left side of your breadboard.
2. Use a red and black male-female wire. Plug the switch into the male end and plug the
female end into I-15 (red) & 16 (black).
3. Use a red jumper wire to plug into J-15 and the Power Bus.
4. Use a 1000 Ohm resistor to plug into the Power Bus and J-12.
5. Use a red LED to plug into I-11 & 12.
6. Use a black jumper wire to plug into J-11 & Ground Bus.
7. TEST YOUR SWITCH CIRCUIT WITH MRS. GAST BEFORE MOVING ON.

Comparator Crossover
1. Use a yellow jumper wire to connect pin 3 to pin 6.
2. Use a green jumper wire to connect pin 2 to pin 5.

Trimpot Splitter
1. Insert Trimpot into B-15, 16, & 17. The adjustment screw should be on the left.
2. Use a red jumper wire from the Power Bus to A-16.
3. Use a yellow and grey male-female wire to go from D-15 (yellow) D-14 (grey) and thread
the pair through the 7th large hole from the left.
4. Use a yellow and grey male-female wire to go from E-14 (yellow) E-13 (grey) and thread
the pair through the 4th large hole from the left.
5. Use a black jumper wire to go from C-13 to Ground Bus.
6. Use a purple and blue male-female jumper wire to go from D-17 (purple) D-18 (blue) and
thread the pair through the 7th large hole from the right.
7. Use a purple and blue male-female jumper wire to go from E-18 (purple) E-19 (blue) and
thread the pair through the 4th large hole from the right.
8. Use a black jumper wire to go from C-19 to Ground Bus.
9. Use a green jumper wire to go from A-17 to C-28.
10. Use a yellow jumper wire to go from A-15 to B-29.
 Breadboard Circuits, part 2
1. Connect a red jumper wire to pin 8 of the comparator and Power Bus
2. Connect a 1000 ohm resistor to pin 7 of the comparator and G-25
3. Connect 3 green LEDs. F-24 & F-23, H-23 & H-22, J-22 & J-21
4. Connect a black jumper wire to H21 and Ground Bus
5. Insert transistor, flat side facing away from you, into I-24, 25, 26
6. Insert a red jumper wire into J-26 and Power Bus
7. Insert a yellow jumper wire into pin 1 of the comparator and G-10
8. Insert a 1000 ohm resistor into F-10 & F-7
9. Connect 3 yellow LEDs. F-6 & F-5, H-5 & H-4, J-4 & J-3
10. Connect a black jumper wire to G-3 and Ground Bus
11. Insert transistor, flat side facing away from you, into H-6, 7, 8
12. Insert a red jumper wire into I-8 and Power Bus
13. Insert a black jumper wire into pin 4 of the comparator and Ground Bus

TEST YOUR CIRCUITS WITH MRS. GAST BEFORE MOVING ON

14. Insert diode backwards into I-6 and Ground Bus

15. Insert diode backwards into J-24 and Ground Bus

TEST YOUR CIRCUITS WITH MRS. GAST BEFORE MOVING ON

16. Partner up and use your multimeters and trimpot to balance the circuit before we put on
the photoresistors. It won’t be perfect, but your two sides should be within .01V of each
other.

White Lights & Photoresistors

1. Start with 4 photoresistors. You need to match their resistances. Using your hooks,
attach a photoresistor to your multimeter. You should use either the 2000 ohm or 200
ohm setting.
a. Hold the photoresistor on top of the table with the solar panel facing straight up
and count to 5. Record the resistance.
b. Hold the photoresistor under the table with the solar panel facing straight down
and count to 5. Record the resistance.
c. Remove your photoresistor and put it into the box on your paper.
d. Select matching photoresistors for each side (see printed example)
2. Put the matched photoresistors on the bottom of your robot body, sticking the legs
through the holes to the inside of the robot body. Connect your yellow/gray or
blue/purple jumper wires. **It does not matter if there is a long or short leg with
photoresistors**
3. Get 2 white LEDs and put them on the bottom of your robot body, sticking the legs
through the holes to the inside of the robot body. One LED will be on each side, and
each needs to be between the photoresistors on its side.
a. You need 2 pairs of red and black male-female jumper wires to connect these
white LEDs. How will you connect them?
 Wheel/Motor Addendum

When connecting the wheels/motors, try connecting the yellow wires to the breadboard into the
same group of 5 as the yellow/green LEDs. For example, the yellow wire from one wheel/motor
will plug into an open spot in the yellow LED group, while the yellow wire from the other
wheel/motor will plug into an open spot in the green LED group. The blue wires plug into the
ground bus.

If your robot moves backwards instead of forwards, then switch the wires so that the blue ones
plug into the LED groups and the yellow wires plug into the ground bus.

Wheel/Motor Addendum

When connecting the wheels/motors, try connecting the yellow wires to the breadboard into the
same group of 5 as the yellow/green LEDs. For example, the yellow wire from one wheel/motor
will plug into an open spot in the yellow LED group, while the yellow wire from the other
wheel/motor will plug into an open spot in the green LED group. The blue wires plug into the
ground bus.

If your robot moves backwards instead of forwards, then switch the wires so that the blue ones
plug into the LED groups and the yellow wires plug into the ground bus.

Wheel/Motor Addendum

When connecting the wheels/motors, try connecting the yellow wires to the breadboard into the
same group of 5 as the yellow/green LEDs. For example, the yellow wire from one wheel/motor
will plug into an open spot in the yellow LED group, while the yellow wire from the other
wheel/motor will plug into an open spot in the green LED group. The blue wires plug into the
ground bus.

If your robot moves backwards instead of forwards, then switch the wires so that the blue ones
plug into the LED groups and the yellow wires plug into the ground bus.

Wheel/Motor Addendum

When connecting the wheels/motors, try connecting the yellow wires to the breadboard into the
same group of 5 as the yellow/green LEDs. For example, the yellow wire from one wheel/motor
will plug into an open spot in the yellow LED group, while the yellow wire from the other
wheel/motor will plug into an open spot in the green LED group. The blue wires plug into the
ground bus.

If your robot moves backwards instead of forwards, then switch the wires so that the blue ones
plug into the LED groups and the yellow wires plug into the ground bus.