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The United Nations World Water Development Report 3, Case Study Volume:
Facing The Challenges: Tunisia

Article · January 2009

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 The United
Nations FACING
World Water
Development THE
Report 3

Case Studies
CHALLENGES
Volume
Contents

Foreword iii

Overview vii

Section 1 Africa
Cameroon 2

Sudan 5

Swaziland 8

Tunisia 12

Zambia 15

Section 2 Asia and the Pacific

Bangladesh 20

China: the Yellow River basin 24

Pacific islands 27

Pakistan: the Cholistan desert 31

Republic of Korea: the Han River basin 33

Sri Lanka: the Walawe River basin 36

Uzbekistan: the Aral Sea basin 39

Section 3 Europe and North America

Estonia 44

Finland and the Russian Federation: the Vuoksi River basin 47

Italy: the Po River basin 51

The Netherlands 55

Spain: the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country 58

Turkey: Istanbul 61

Section 4 Latin America and the Caribbean

Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay: La Plata River basin 66

Brazil and Uruguay: Lake Merín basin 71

1. Africa

needs to strengthen its own legislation to improve the Government of Swaziland (GOS). 2005. Swaziland Household Income and
management of water resources, as well as raise the level of Expenditure Survey (SHIES) 2000/01. Mbabane, Central Statistical Office,
Ministry of Economic Planning and Development.
investment in the water sector, in order to alleviate the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). 2008. Rural Poverty in
excruciating poverty and heavy disease burden that its the Kingdom of Swaziland. Rural Poverty Portal.
people suffer. http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/swazil
and (Accessed November 2008.)
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). 2008. Report on the
References
Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva, UNAIDS.
Aquastat. 2005. Swaziland. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization.
http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/200
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/swaziland/index.stm
8/2008_Global_report.asp
(Accessed December 2008.)
Mwendera, E. J. 2005. Swaziland Country Water Status. Contribution to
Central Statistical Office and Macro International Inc. 2007. Swaziland
African Water Development Report. Addis Ababa, Economic Commission
Demographic and Health Survey 2006 2007: Preliminary Report.
for Africa.
Calverton, Md., Macro International.
New Agriculturist. No date. Country Profile: Swaziland. http://www.new-
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. 2008. Monthly Progress
ag.info/02-6/countryp.html (Accessed December 2008.)
Update 31 January 2008.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2004.
http://www.theglobalfund.org/en/files/publications/basics/progress_upd
Swaziland’s First National Communication.
ate/progressupdate.pdf (Accessed January 2009.)
http://www.ecs.co.sz/unfccc/chapter4_3.htm (Accessed December
Government of Swaziland (GOS). 2002. Prioritised Action Programme on
2008.)
Poverty Reduction. Mbabane, Ministry of Economic Planning and
World Health Organization (WHO). 2006. Country Health System Fact Sheet
Development,
2006: Swaziland.
Government of Swaziland (GOS). 2002. Swaziland’s National Report on the
http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/swaziland.pdf
World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002. Mbabane, Swaziland
(Accessed December 2008.)
Environmental Authority.
World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). 2002. National
Government of Swaziland (GOS). 2004. Medium Term Expenditure
Assessment Report: Swaziland.
Framework, Budget 2005/05-2007/08. Mbabane, Ministry of Natural
http://www.ecs.co.sz/wssd/wssd_swaziland_national_assessment_2002.
Resources and Energy.
zip (Accessed December 2008.)

hyper-arid and desert in most of the south. Over 40% of

the country lies in the hyper-arid zone. Although average
annual rainfall amounts to 220 mm, geographic
variation is substantial, with regional averages ranging
from 1,500 mm in the north to 50 mm in the far south,
in the heart of the Sahara.

The arid plains that mark the northern limit of the

Sahara include many depressions, locally called chotts
Tunisia and sebkhats, which fill with water in winter and dry up
in summer. Their water is highly saline. The largest chott,
Amid economic growth and urbanization, this Jerid, is a 500 km2 salt lake.
developing country has made big gains in water
and sanitation coverage, as well as a shift towards Climate change and variability
long term sustainable practices, but faces mounting Analysis of changes in average temperature and rainfall
tensions between competing users. in Tunisia over the 20th century (Figure 1.1) indicates
that while temperatures have risen significantly, by
Setting the scene 1.2°C, no trend in rainfall is apparent, although greater
Tunisia, located in North Africa, is bounded by Algeria to variability can be observed in 1961 1990 than in
the west, by the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya to the south-east, 1901 1930 or 1931 1960 (King et al., 2007).
by the Sahara to the south and by the Mediterranean (with
a 1,200 km coastline) to the north (Map 1.4). The country Figure 1.1 Anomalies in average temperature and
covers 164,420 km2 and has a population of 10.25 million precipitation over the 20th century
(2007). Its landscape is diverse, ranging from mountains in
the north-west to the arid south and the Sahara. In 2006,
66% of the population lived in urban areas (WHO/UNICEF,
2008). Urbanization is expected to continue, largely
through migration to coastal areas. On current trends, by
2025 some 75% of the population will live in urban areas.1

The predominant climate types are Mediterranean in the

north and Saharan in the south. Four climatic subregions
can be identified: subhumid in the far north, semi-arid
in the north-west and at Cap Bon, arid in the centre and

1
Except where otherwise noted, information in this case study is adapted
from the draft Tunisia Case Study Report, prepared in 2008 (in French) by
Besbes et al. Source King et al , 2007

12 WORLD WATER DEVELOPMENT REPORT 3

 Tunisia

Algeria, is the biggest river, with an annual water

Map 1.4 Tunisia
potential of around 0.8 billion m3. The south is
characterized by large, deep aquifer networks whose low
recharge rates make them barely renewable. Tunisia’s
annual water potential is estimated at 4.8 billion m3,
with groundwater amounting to about half (2.1 billion
m3). In 2005, the exploitation rate was roughly 80% for
deep aquifers and an unsustainable 108% for shallow
aquifers. (These averages are approximations, as the
figures for withdrawal and exploitable resources used
in calculation are quite uncertain.)

The high variation in rainfall, amount of arid land and

overuse of groundwater resources make storage of
freshwater a vital necessity in Tunisia. In 2005, there
were 27 large dams, 200 small hillside dams and 660
hillside lakes, with a combined capacity of 1.8 billion
m3 per year, amounting to 66% of the total surface
water potential. Despite the number of dams,
Tunisia lacks major hydroelectric generation capacity.
Modest projects carried out since the 1950s have
allowed it to exploit 40% of its hydropower potential.
Even so, hydroelectricity represents barely 1% of
overall energy production. Given the long term rise
in fuel prices, however, hydroelectric production is
expected to expand.

Of the country’s approximately 110,000 km2 of

arable land, only 49,000 km2 is currently in use,
mainly producing grain and olives. In 2006, agriculture
accounted for 81% of overall water consumption.
Although its share of GDP is gradually decreasing,
agriculture still plays an important role in the economy.
It employs 25% of the workforce, and was the third
biggest contributor to GDP in 2006 at 11%, behind
industry and mining (29%) and services (60%).

In urban areas, drinking water coverage had reached

almost 100% by 1993. Tunisia achieved this by
transferring large amounts of water from the
humid north to the arid south, and by installing
desalination facilities to treat brackish water in the
tourist areas of the south-east. In rural areas, access
to drinking water expanded from 62% in 1990 to 84%,
on average, in 2006. Over the same period, coverage
Since 2006, studies have been undertaken in Tunisia for the country as a whole advanced from 82% to 94%
to aid in elaboration of a national climate change (WHO/UNICEF, 2008).
adaptation strategy. The aim is to move from reaction to
crises, such as droughts and floods, to management of The share of urban households connected to sewerage
risk associated with climate change (early adaptation). was 96% in 2006. In rural areas, where sanitation relies
Projections for 2030 and 2050 form the basis of this on more traditional methods such as septic tanks and
effort. Models for 2030 indicate a slight increase in the field disposal, access to improved sanitation is around
frequency and intensity of dry years, though the north- 64% (WHO/UNICEF, 2008). Efforts are also being made
west might benefit from a slight increase in precipitation to minimize health risks by altering hygiene practices
in wet years. However, by 2050 the average annual through education.
temperature could rise by between 0.4°C and 1.2°C, and
the variability of rainfall could increase, especially in Industry consumes around 0.1 billion m3 of water per
spring and autumn (MARH/GTZ, 2006). year, of which almost 60% is abstracted from deep
aquifers. In the absence of incentives for conservation,
State of the resource and water use: storage is water-efficient production processes and water recycling
essential are seldom if ever used.
Tunisia has a dense hydrographic network in the north,
whose river basins account for 81% of the national Tourism is a big source of income in Tunisia with a
surface water potential. Oued Mejerda, which rises in modest water footprint: the whole sector consumes only

CASE STUDY VOLUME: FACING THE CHALLENGES 13

1. Africa

Box 1.4 Water resources management in Tunisia

Tunisia’s 1975 Water Code introduced managing non-conventional resources. the water management system is
the principles of 1) protection of water The Ministry of Environment and centralized has facilitated the trade-offs
resources as a public good; 2) government Sustainable Development is responsible necessary to balance supply with demand
responsibility in supplying water and for pollution reduction and wastewater while reconciling the needs of various
in planning and monitoring water use; recycling, while the Ministry of Agricul- users. Having furnished itself with
3) the necessity of water conservation to ture and Water Resources has broad appropriate tools for integrated resources
alleviate scarcity throughout the country; responsibilities covering everything else. management and begun planning for the
4) recyc-ling of treated wastewater in agri- day when demand will outstrip availability,
culture; 5) the possibility of stake-holder Basing the institutional framework on the the country is well placed to avoid
involvement in water resources manag- principle of stakeholder involvement has many problems it might otherwise
ement through community assoc-iations; allowed Tunisia to manage its limited have encountered.
and 6) private sector involvement in water resources effectively. The fact that

25 million m3 per year, or 1% of the total exploited overexploitation of water resources especially
resource. The rate is slightly higher in the south, groundwater resources, from which 75% of irrigation
where tourism is expected to be developed intensively in water is abstracted. Because of the large share of
the future. agriculture in water consumption, efforts have been
made since the late 1980s to increase efficiency of water
Policy framework and decision-making use by charging a user fee for irrigation water. From 1990
Since 1970, as both knowledge about water resources and to 2000, the price was increased by 9% per year. The total
demand from various sectors have increased, plans and of user fees collected quadrupled between 1991 and
directives concerning water management have been 2003, permitting recovery of much of the cost of
developed in Tunisia (Box 1.4). running and maintaining the water system. In 1995, a
vast irrigation rehabilitation programme was begun,
A master plan for water use has been implemented for involving a generous incentive package in which small
each of the country’s three natural regions the north, agricultural holdings were offered subsidies of up to 60%
the centre and the south. The master plans include of the cost of modernizing installations. As a result, by
provisions on the transfer of surface and groundwater 2007 some 80% of the irrigation system had been
and on flood protection for large urban centres. improved with sprinkler systems, drip irrigation and the
These guidelines have allowed water resources to be like. This strategy has allowed Tunisia to stabilize
allocated in terms of present and expected demand from demand for irrigation water despite the growing extent
the different users. They have also helped identify the of the area under irrigation (Figure 1.2).
areas where irrigation makes the best use of available
resources. The national strategy for water resources To maximize freshwater availability, other methods,
mobilization is now in its second decade (2001 2010), such as recycling of treated wastewater and desalination
and the aim is to mobilize 95% of conventional of brackish water, are also being adopted. Desalinated
resources by building dams, reservoirs and flood runoff water is reserved for essential uses such as drinking
infrastructure, and to develop non-conventional water, meeting the needs of tourist facilities and certain
resources such as recycled and desalinated water. industrial uses (chiefly in food processing and the
chemical and pharmaceutical industries) in regions
These plans and strategies have helped Tunisia make where local water resources are insufficient or of poor
several reforms since the early 1990s. The most
important of these was a transition from supply-side
Figure 1.2 Trends in agricultural water use and the
management towards a strategy of demand-driven extent of irrigated land, 1990 2006
management. Thus, the emphasis is on institutional,
regulatory and technical practices that are likely to
change water users’ behaviour, encourage more efficient
use of resources and maintain a sustainable consumption
level. Measures have also been taken to reduce the
environmental impact of water policies, particularly by
protecting the most fragile ecosystems and limiting the
sources and effects of water pollution.

The main challenges: promoting sustainable use of

scarce resources
To promote economic growth, past policies encouraged
water use through preferential rates or subsidies. The low
value thus imputed to water gave users the mistaken
impression that resources were abundant. This led to

14 WORLD WATER DEVELOPMENT REPORT 3

 Zambia

quality. However, tariffs are identical for all water, regardless economy driven by the service sector. To retain its
of whether it is desalinated or not. Although the official competitive edge, it remains essential for Tunisia to
policy is to provide access to clean drinking water for all, continue implementing policies geared towards sustainable
which has bolstered the principle of social equity, the socio-economic development by reconciling user needs
approach to tariff-setting does not necessarily favour with the social and environmental value of water.
protection and appropriate valuation of the resources.
References
Conclusions Besbes, M., Hamdane, A., Chahed, J. and Hamza, M. 2008. Tunisia Case Study
Report (in French), executive summary. (Draft.)
Tunisia is a semi-arid country with limited water resources
King, L., Nasr, Z , Almohamad, H. and Maag, C. C. 2007. Le Climat. Stratégie
in which desertification is reducing the availability of arable nationale d’adaptation de l’agriculture tunisienne et des écosystèmes aux
land. Modern irrigation techniques, promoted since 1995, changements climatiques, Ch. 7.2. Eschborn, Germany/Tunis, GTZ/MARH.
have allowed optimum utilization of water resources. In Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (MARH)/GTZ. 2006. Elaboration d’une
recent decades, water and sanitation coverage has increased, étude nationale d’adaptation de l’agriculture tunisienne et des écosystèmes aux
changements climatiques. Tunis/Eschborn, Germany, MARH (Direction
especially in rural areas. Increasing water demand in various Générale des Etudes et du Développement Agricole)/GTZ.
sectors has led to increasing tension, with each trying to WHO/UNICEF. 2008. Latest JMP Country Files. Joint Monitoring Programme for
satisfy ever-increasing demand for water. Application of Water Supply and Sanitation.
integrated water resources management has helped create http://documents.wssinfo.org/resources/documents.html (Accessed
December 2008.)
an enabling environment for a flourishing and productive

years, two drought years and two years with normal

rainfall. Figure 1.3 shows fluctuations in rainfall in
Zambia between 1975 and 2006. Because of a lack of data,
Zambia: the it is difficult to assess how such climate change will affect
the country’s water resources.
Zambezi and
State of the resource: future competition among
Congo river sectors
Zambia’s surface water potential totals some 100 billion
basins m3, with the Zambezi River contributing over 60% of
the runoff. Consequently, as a major stakeholder in
Zambia is facing difficult challenges such as the Zambezi River Authority, along with Zimbabwe,
persistent poverty and increasing climatic variability. Zambia is helping establish the Zambezi Watercourses
Although it has sufficient land and water resources, Commission. Groundwater is also a major resource,
its success in addressing its problems depends especially during the dry season. Although no
largely on how it implements its plans and strategies accurate assessment is available, the average renewable
for water resources. groundwater potential is estimated to be 49.6 billion m3.

Setting the scene By far the largest user of water is hydropower generation.
Zambia is a landlocked country in southern Africa Of about 38.5 billion m3 of overall water withdrawal,
surrounded by Angola, Botswana, the Democratic 36.3 billion m3 is used to generate electricity for internal
Republic of the Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, use and export to neighbouring countries. Some 70%
the United Republic of Tanzania and Zimbabwe of the country’s hydropower potential awaits
(Map 1.5). The country lies mainly in the Zambezi River development. There is as yet no real competition
basin, and partially in the Congo River basin in the for water among the various sectors (Table 1.5).
north. Zambia has a population of 11.7 million (2006) However, with irrigation expanding and awareness
and a surface area of 752,614 km2. It sits on the high on environmental issues growing, water released from
plateau of Central Africa at an average altitude of hydropower stations will need to be regulated so that
1,200 metres, and enjoys a mild, subtropical climate. the needs of agriculture and the environment are both
Annual average rainfall ranges from 600 mm in the served. The government recognizes the role of integrated
south to 1,500 mm in the north.1

Climate change and variability: increasing frequency Figure 1.3 Annual rainfall variation, 1975 2006
of extreme events
A 2007 survey concluded that in the previous nine years,
local communities had been exposed to extreme climatic
variation that included droughts, floods, increased rain
intensity, extreme heatwaves and a shorter rainy season.
In fact, between 2000 and 2007 Zambia experienced
unusually unstable weather, with a sequence of two flood

1
Except where otherwise noted, information in this case study is adapted
from the draft Zambia National Water Resources Report, prepared in 2008 by
Imasiku A. Nyambe and Miriam Feilberg.

CASE STUDY VOLUME: FACING THE CHALLENGES 15

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