Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

LABORATORY MANUAL

List of Experiments

1. Determination of Planck constant using LED method

2. Study of Hall effect
3. I-V Characteristics of p-n junction diode
4. Characteristics of Solar cell and determination of its efficiency.
5. Wavelength of Laser light using diffraction grating.
6. Study of diffraction using non-monochromatic light sources
7. Characterization of ferroelectric material to study coercivity, retentivity, saturation of
magnetic flux and hysteresis loss.
8. Newton’s Rings Experiment
9. Sonometer Experiments
10. Study of variation of magnetic field using Tangent Galvanometer
11. Study of I V characteristics of Tunnel diode
12. Determination of bandgap of semiconductor –Four probe method

Beyond the syllabus experiment:

1. Verification of Stefan’s Law

2. Characteristics of Zener diode and voltage regulation
3. Thickness of wire using laser
4. Attenuation and propagation characteristics of optical fiber cable using laser source
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Experiment: Planck’s Constant

Objective: To determine Planck's constant using Light Emitting Diode (LED).

Apparatus used: Super bright LEDs and variable power supply (0-5Volt)
Theory and formula used: In this experiment, we are using light emitting diodes (LEDs) to measure
Planck’s constant. LEDs are semiconductor diodes that emit electromagnetic radiation in optical and
near optical frequencies, when operated in forward bias, above a minimum threshold voltage. In this
condition, an electron hole pair is created in the diode and thus current starts flowing. Above the
threshold value, the current increases exponentially with voltage. A quantum of energy is required to
create an electron hole pair and this energy is released when an electron and a hole recombine. In
most diodes, this energy is absorbed by the semiconductor as heat, but in LEDs, this energy produces
photons with frequencies (or wavelengths) in the visible range. The energy of a photon is related to its
wavelength as:
E = hν = hc/λ................(1)
By using semiconductors of specific band gap, the wavelength emitted by the LED can be varied and
thus the light emitted by LEDs may span a range of discrete wavelengths. When the applied voltage is
just sufficient to supply the energy required to create a electron hole pair in a semiconductor, the LED
will just start glowing. This voltage is called threshold voltage or turn-on voltage (V0) and depends on
the band gap of the semiconductor. The relation between the wavelength emitted by the LED, λ, and
the turn-on voltage, V0, is given as
hc/λ = eV0 or h = eV0λ/c....................(2)
Where, h is Planck’s Constant (6.625 х 10 Js), e is the electronic charge (1.6 х 10-19 C), V0 is
-34

threshold voltage, λ is wavelength emitted by the LED and c is the velocity of light (3 х 108 m/s).
If the turn on voltage V0 is measured for several diodes which emit different colours (i.e., different
wavelengths) and a graph is plotted between V0 and 1/ λ, it should be linear (Figure 1). The slope of
this graph is given by
e
Slope = AB/BC = hc/e. Or, h = slope 
c
Using the known values of c and e, we can compute h.

Figure 1.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 2: Circuit diagram for Planck constant set up

Procedure:
1. Take the Planck's constant Determination Trainer. Make the connections as shown in
Figure 3.
2. Connect + ve terminal of DC power supply to + ve terminal of DC voltmeter and + ve
terminal of any one LED.
3. Now connect - ve terminal of DC power supply to - ve terminal of DC voltmeter and -ve
terminal of LED.
4. Set the range of DC voltmeter at 20 V.
5. Connect the mains cord and switch ‘On’ the power supply.
6. Now vary the DC voltage slowly by variable resistance pot and see the LED connected in
circuit.
7. When the LED is just starts to emit light, note the value of applied voltage using DC
voltmeter.
8. Now switch ‘Off’ the DC power supply and break the LED connection.
9. Again make same connection for another colour of LED.
10. Now repeat the step 8 and 9.
11. Repeat above experiment for different colours of LEDs.
Observation Table:

S.No. Colour Wavelength 1/ λ V0

(λ)
(m-1) (Volts)

1 Blue 470 nm

2 Green 560 nm

3 Yellow 580 nm

4 Orange 630 nm

5 Red 700 nm
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Calculations:

Plot a graph between V0 and 1/ λ. It will be a straight line as shown in Figure 1. Find the
slope:

Slope = AB/BC = hc/e

e
Or, h = slope 
c

Exp. value of the Planck constant = ………………………….Js

Results:

Planck’s constant is………………….… Js

Standard value: 6.625 х 10-34 Js

std .value − exp .value

Error: Percentage error = ( ) 100
std .value

Precautions and sources of error:

1. Make sure that all the connections are tight.

2. Note the threshold voltage carefully, when the LED just starts glowing.
3. Make sure that LED is in the forward bias.
4. Handle the equipment carefully.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Experiment: Hall Effect

Objective:
To study the Hall effect and to determine the hall coefficient, charge carrier concentration (density) and
carrier mobility of given semiconductor material using Hall set up.

Apparatus Required:
Gauss and Tesla meter , Measurement unit, Constant current power supply, Electromagnet, Hall probe,
In-As probe etc.

Theory and Formula used:

If an electric current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a transverse
force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of the conductor. This is most
evident in a thin flat conductor as illustrated. A build-up of charge at the sides of the conductors will
balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage between the two sides of the
conductor. The presence of this measurable transverse voltage is called the Hall Effect after E. H. Hall
who discovered it in 1879.

Fig. Schematic diagram and circuit of Hall effect.

 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

The hall coefficient is given by

RH = VH d/ I B = 1/ne ........ (1)
Where,
VH is the hall voltage, d is the thickness of the sample, I is the probe current, B is the applied magnetic
field, n is the charge carrier density and e is the electronic charge. The value of VH/I can be calculated
by plotting the graph between I and VH.

Thus the charge carrier density n can be calculated as

n =1/RH e ----(2)
We know that carrier mobility is the velocity of current carrying particle per unit electric field and it is
related with hall coefficient as

 =  RH ----(5)
where
 = 1/ is the conductivity and  is the resistivity of the sample.

Procedure:

1. Take the Constant Current Power Supply. Keep the potentiometer at fully anticlockwise position.
Connect electromagnet with Constant Current power supply such that two coils of electromagnet are in
series i.e. the direction of current in both the coils should be same otherwise little or no magnetic field
would result.
2. Keep the Poles of electromagnet at a distance of 20 mm.
3. Take Gauss & Tesla meter from the set of Hall Effect Trainer.
4. Connect In-As probe and switch on the Gauss & Tesla meter.
5. Set the reading on the display of Gauss & Tesla meter to Zero.
6. Switch on the constant current power supply. Increase the current in steps of 1 ampere and note the
corresponding magnetic field from Gauss & Tesla meter. Take the reading of magnetic field by keeping
In-As probe in between the poles. From one side of the probe B will be positive and from another side
it will be negative. Tabulate the readings as shown in the following observation table 1.
7. Now take the measurement unit and set the switch position as follows:
a. Heater current potentiometer at minimum position (anticlockwise position).
b. Probe current potentiometer at minimum position (anticlockwise position).
8. Connect the given semiconductor (Ge) sample in the given probe socket (NV622).
9. Switch on the Constant Current Power supply and set the value of current to 4 A. Note the
corresponding magnetic field from table 1.
10. Switch on the Measurement unit and set the probe current to 1mA.
11. There may be some voltage reading even outside the magnetic field. This is due to imperfect
arrangement of the four contact of the hall probe and generally known as the “Zero field potential” or
offset voltage. This error should be subtracted from the hall voltage reading as we consider it as a
reference.
12. Now place the Hall probe between magnetic poles using stand such that the magnetic and electric
field should be perpendicular to each other.
13. Measure & record the Hall voltage on the measurement unit display.
14. The Hall voltage should be measured for both sides of probe.
15. Subtract Zero field potential and take the mean of both sides Hall voltages readings. This is Hall
voltage VH.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

16. plot the graph between probe current (I) and hall voltage (VH) and calculate the slop.
16. Now put the value of slop (VH/I) in equation 1 and calculate hall coefficient. From equations 2 and
3, the charge density (n) and the charge mobility () can be calculated.

Observations:
Table 1.
S.No. IB (A) Magnetic field (B+) Magnetic field (B-) (from Mean= (B+- B-)/2
(from one side of probe) another side of probe) B(Tesla)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4

IB = 4 A, B = ........ Tesla (From table 1)

Table 2.
Probe Zero field Observed Hall Observed Hall voltage Actual Hall Actual Hall Mean Hall
Current Potential voltage for one side for Second side voltage for one voltage for voltage
I (mA) (offset (V+H) (V-H ) side Second side VH = (V+ -V-)/2
voltage) (V+=V+H -V zero) (V-= V-H -V zero)
Vzero
1
2
3
4

Calculations:
Thickness of the material (d) = 0.5mm
Electron Charge (e) = ............................
Magnetic field (B) = ............................
RH = VH d/ I B=slop.(d/B)

Calculation for charge carrier density n:

n = 1/ RH e = ...........................

Resistivity of the material () = 0.47 Ohm -m

Conductivity  = 1/ = hm-1cm-1

Calculation for charge mobility:

 =  RH ...........................

Results:
The hall coefficient (RH)= …………………….. m3/coulomb
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

The value of charge carrier density (n)= ……………………….. m-3

The value of charge mobility()= ………………………..m2/volt-sec

Precautions and sources of error:

1. Hall probe should be placed in the middle of the poles of electromagnet.
2. While connecting the electromagnet with constant current source the direction of current
should be same in both the coils.
3. In Gauss and Tesla meter, zero reading should be set on display by Zero Adjust Potentiometer.
Zero field potential will be subtracted from
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Experiment: I-V Characteristics of p-n junction diode

Objective: To draw the (V-I) characteristics of p-n junction diode and to estimate the dynamic and
static resistance.

Apparatus Required: Diode trainer, Power supply, voltmeter, ammeter and connecting wires etc.

Theory and Formula Used: An equation describes the exact current through a diode, given the voltage
dropped across the junction, the temperature of the junction, and several physical constants. It is
commonly known as the diode equation:
ID = Is {exp. (eVD/kBT) -1},
where ID is diode current in amps and Is is total saturation current in amps.
VD = Voltage applied across diode in Volts, It is positive for forward bias and negative for reverse
bias.
kB = Boltzmann's constant (1.38 х10-33)
T = Junction temperature in Kelvin
Suppose a forward bias is applied such that
exp. (eVD/kBT) 1, then
ID = Is exp(eVD/kBT)
This shows that in forward bias, current increases exponentially as shown (V-I) graph in figure 3.
When a reverse bias is applied such that
exp. (-eVD/kBT)  1, then
ID = -Is
Which shows that in reverse bias current remains constant at Is as shown (V-I) graph in figure-3.

Figure 1. A P-N junction diode

When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the diode, the diode
is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is “backward” and the diode blocks the
current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be thought of as like a switch: “closed”
when forward-biased and “open” when reverse-biased.
Circuit Diagram: The circuit diagram is as shown below in Figure 3a and b.

(A) For forward bias:

 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Figure 3a

(B) Reverse Bias

Figure 3b

Procedure:
(A) Forward Bias:
1. Before switching on the supply rotate the potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise
direction).
2. Connect the ammeter between TP4 and TP10 to measure the diode current ID (mA) and set the
ammeter to 200 mA range.
3. Connect the voltmeter across TP3 and TP11 to measure the diode voltage VD and set the voltmeter
to 2 V range.
4. Switch on the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from 0 to 1V (0.83V) in
steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current ID in mA and note down in the
Observation Table- 1. From 0.5 V to 0.7 V, take readings in steps of 0.02 V.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in Figure 4 (First quadrant)
using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table- 1. This curve is the required forward
characteristics of Si diode.
7. Switch off the supply.

(B) Reverse Bias:

1. Before switching on the supply rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise
direction).
2. Connect the ammeter between TP5 and TP10 to measure the diode current ID (µA) & and set the
ammeter to 20µA range.
3. Connect the voltmeter across TP3 and TP11 to measure the diode voltage VD and set the voltmeter
to 20V range.
4. Switch on the power supply.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of the diode voltage VD from 0 to 7 V in steps
of 0.5 V . Measure the corresponding values of diode current ID in µA and note down in the
Observation Table- 2.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in Figure 4 (third quadrant)
using suitable scale with the help of Observation Table -2. This curve is the required reverse
characteristics of the Ge diode.
7. Switch off the supply.

Observation Tables:

(A) Forwad Bias (Table-1) (B) Reverse Bias(Table-2)

S. no. Diode Voltage Diode current ID S. no. Diode Voltage Diode current ID
(VD) (mA) (VD) (µA)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12

Calculations:
1. Plot a graph between V and I.
2. Find the static and dynamic resistance :

Static Resistance: RD=VD/ID ohms

Dynamic Resistance: rD= ΔVD/ΔID ohms
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Figure 4. (V-I) Characteristics of p-n junction diode

Result: The IV characteristics of the diode are shown in the forward and reverse bias. The static and
dynamic resistance are Ohms and Ohms.

Precautions and Sources of Error:

1. Make sure that all the connections are tight.

2. The voltage should not exceed the specified breakdown voltage in the reverse bias.
3. The voltage should be increased gradually in small steps.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Experiment: Characteristics of Solar cell

Objective: - To draw the characteristics of solar cell and to estimate Fill Factor (FF) of solar cell.

Apparatus Required: - Solar cell, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, illumination source, Bulb and
connecting wires.

Circuit diagram: -

Figure 1 Setup for determining characteristics of a solar cell

Theory and Formula Used: Solar cell is basically a two terminal p-n junction device designed to absorb
photon absorption through the electrical signal or power in the external circuits. Therefore it is
necessary to discuss the physics of semiconductor p-n junction diode, which converts the optical
energy into electrical signals.

Photovoltaic systems convert sunlight directly into electrical energy. The backbone of this
technology is semi-conducting materials such as silicon. A typical solar cell consists of two differently
doped semiconductors. Doping is the controlled introduction of impurities into the host material.
Starting out with a pure semiconductor crystal (say, silicon) this is achieved by substituting some of
the atoms in the crystal lattice with elements that have one more or less valence electron than the
host material (valence electrons are the electrons that determine the chemical behavior of a material,
they are located in the outermost orbital shell of the atom). Semiconducting elements have four
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valence electrons all of which are used for bonding in the crystal lattice. If the doping material has five
valence electrons there will be one additional, loosely bound electron per dopant atom. These 'free'
atoms can move about easily in the lattice and are responsible for an increase in conductivity. Since
they have a negative charge the material doped in this way is called as n-type semiconductor. If, on
the other hand, the doping material has only three valence electrons the lattice structure will be
deficient of electrons and there will be one hole, or positive charge, per dopant atom. Similar to the
free electrons above, the holes can easily move about in the lattice, again causing an increase in
conductivity. Since in this case the free charge carriers are positive this kind of semiconductor is said
to be of p-type. When a p-type semiconductor is joined to an n-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is
created. While each side by itself is electrically neutral (there are as many electrons as there are
protons) this is not the case for certain areas of the combined configuration. The concentration
differences of holes and free electrons between n- and p- regions produce diffusion current: electrons
flow from the n-side and fill holes on the p-side. This creates a region that is almost devoid of free
charge carriers (i.e. free electrons or holes) and is therefore called the depletion zone. In the depletion
zone there is a net positive charge on the n-side and a net negative charge on the p-side resulting in
an

electric field that opposes a further flow of electrons. The more electrons move from the n- to the p-
side the stronger the opposing field will be and eventually an equilibrium will be reached in which no
further electrons are able to move against the electric field. The potential difference of the equilibrium
electric field is called diffusion voltage. It cannot be used externally. However, when light hits the solar
cell the equilibrium conditions are disturbed and the so-called inner photo effect creates additional
charge carriers that are free to move in the electric field of the depletion zone. Holes move towards
the p-region and electrons towards the n-region, thus creating an external voltage (no-load voltage)
at the cell. The no-load voltage of a solar cell is material dependent and does not depend on the cell's
surface area. A silicon solar cell has a no-load voltage of about 0.5 V. Higher voltages can be obtained
by connecting individual cells in series. The current delivered by a solar cell is proportional to the
intensity of the incoming light. Higher currents can be achieved by connecting cells in parallel. The
power of a solar cell depends not only on the cell itself but also on the connected

electrical load. The maximum power point (MPP) can easily be determined from the power-voltage
characteristic of the cell. The efficiency of a solar cell is temperature dependent. It will decrease with

increasing temperature.

Characteristics of a Solar Cell :

The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the semiconductor material. In silicon it amounts to
approximately 0.5 V. Terminal voltage is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while the current
intensity increases with higher luminosity. A 100 cm² silicon cell, for example, reaches a maximum
current intensity of approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m².
The output (product of electricity and voltage) of a solar cell is temperature dependent. Higher cell
temperatures lead to lower output, and hence to lower efficiency. The level of efficiency indicates
how much of the radiated quantity of light is converted into useable electrical energy.

Fill Factor (FF):

 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

The fill factor (FF) percentage measures the "squareness" of the I-V curve. It states the degree to
which the voltage at the maximum power point (Vmp ) matches the open-circuit voltage (Voc ) and
that the current at the maximum power point (Imp) matches the short-circuit current (Isc). Therefore,
a more “squared” I-V curve will have a higher fill factor.

This relation is given by.

Efficiency of solar cell:

The efficiency of the solar cell is the ratio of produced electrical power (Pout) and the incident radiant
power (Pin).

Pout
Efficiency of solar cell,  =
Pin

Where Pout is the electrical power (maximum power point) Pin is calculated by multiplying
approximated irradiance (“irradiance” means radiant power of the light incident per unit area) by the
effective area of the solar cell on the panel.

This method used the fact that the practical value of the current (maximum photoelectric current
measured) is proportional to the photons (radiation) striking the solar cell. This current is therefore
proportional to the incident radiant power of the light.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

The open circuit voltage depends on the semiconductor material of which solar cell is made. It is not
proportional to the incident radiant power and therefore cannot be used for this measurement.

Procedure :

1. Take the Solar Energy Trainer along with Solar Panel.

2. Place the solar panel in the stand and adjust the panel at an angle of about 45º with the ground.
Direct the sunlight straight at the solar panel (angle of 90º).

Note : If sunlight is not properly available then any source of light like lamp can be used.

3. With the DB15-connector connect the Solar Energy Trainer with Solar Panel. Then wait for 1 minute
to avoid errors due to temperature fluctuations.

4. Set the potentiometer to maximum resistance i.e. at fully clockwise position and measure and
record its resistance into the Observation Table.

5. Connect the solar cell as shown in the following circuit diagram (Fig. 1).

a. Connect positive terminal of solar cell to P1 terminal of the potentiometer.

b. Connect other end of potentiometer i.e. P2 to positive terminal of ammeter.

c. Connect negative terminal of ammeter to negative terminal of solar cell.

d. Now connect the positive terminal of voltmeter to P1 and negative terminal of voltmeter to P2.

6. Record the values of corresponding voltage and current into the Observation Table.

7. Now gradually move the potentiometer in anti- clockwise direction so that the resistance of the
potentiometer decreases. Now measure the resistances at successively smaller values and record the
corresponding values of voltages and current into the Observation Table below.

Note: To measure the resistance of potentiometer at any position, first remove the patch cords from
P1 and P2 and measure resistance by multimeter. Reconnect these connections again for further
measurements.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Observation Table :

S. No. Resistance, R Voltage, V Current, I Power calculated

(Ω) (Volts) (mA) P = V. I (Watts)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

8. Plot the I-V characteristics from the measurements recorded in the table, to show how the
photoelectric current depends on the photoelectric voltage and to find maximum power point.

Fig 2. Current-voltage characteristic of the solar cell

From V-I characteristics you can easily find the maximum power point (MPP). Maximum power point
(MPP) occurs where the product of voltage and current is greatest.

10. The fill factor (FF) is defined by the ratio

 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Figure4: I-V characteristics of a real solar cell.

Calculations:

1. Efficiency of solar cell,

Pout
=
Pin

Where Pout (Output Electrical Power) = Maximum Power Point (MPP)

Pin (Incident radiant power) = Approximated Irradiance x Area of solar cell

= (F x Ip) x A .................................(eq.1)

Where, A = Area of a solar cell (Length x Breadth) m2

Ip= Practical value of current (maximum photoelectric current measured) indicated on the ammeter

F is a constant and is given by

The maximum irradiance in summer is approx. 1000 W/m2. The maximum value of the current
specified by the manufacturer is achieved at this value i.e. 150mA in the given solar cells. (The
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

parameters of the solar cell/panel is related to the standard test conditions of 1000W/m2 and cell
temperature of 25º C.)

2. Multiplying the practical value of current (Ip) indicated on the ammeter by the factor gives an
approximation of the radiant power per unit area (irradiance) striking the solar cell.

Approximation of the radiant power per unit area =……….

3. Now measure the area in m2 and put the values in the formula given in eq. 1.

Pin = ………

Now, we can calculate the efficiency of solar cell with

Pout
=
Pin

Where Pout or MPP =………….. (As calculated )

η =………..

2. Fill factor(FF).

Results:

1. The I-V characteristic was drawn for given solar cell

2 Fill factor (FF) =...............................
2. Solar cell efficiency (η) = ............................
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Precautions:

1. Make sure that all the connections are tight.

2. Wait for few minutes to avoid errors due to temperature fluctuations.

3. To measure the resistance of potentiometer at any position, first remove the patch cords from P1
and P2 and then measure the resistance by a multimeter.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Experiment: Wavelength of Laser light using diffraction grating

Objective: To determine the wavelength of laser source using diffraction grating

Apparatus: Laser Source, Diffraction grating with its mount, a screen with millimeter
scale.

Theory:
Diffraction is the bending of wave around an obstacle or small aperture whose size is
comparable to the wavelength of light. If source and screen are far away from each other then
Fraunhofer diffraction occurs.
A plane diffraction grating consists of an optically plane glass plate on which a number of
equidistant lines are ruled. These lines divide the glass plate into opaque and transparent
places, the width of which is of the order of the wavelength of visible light. The region where
a line is drawn becomes opaque whereas the space between the two lines is transparent and
acts as slit. These slits diffract the light waves there by producing a large number of beams
which interfere in such a way to produce spectra. If a parallel beam of monochromatic light is
incident normally on the plane transmission diffraction grating, bright diffraction maxima are
observed on the other side of the grating. The diffraction maxima satisfies the grating
condition : (a+b) sinθn = n λ where (a+b) is the grating element, ‘a’ is the separation
between two slits and ‘b’ is the slit width. As d= (a+b),
d sinθn = n λ.

The term “LASER” is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation. Laser light is spatially coherent, which means that the light emitted is narrow, low-
divergence beam. Laser is highly monochromatic (with a narrow wavelength spectrum).
The gain medium of a laser is a material of controlled size, concentration and shape, amplifies
the beam by the process of stimulated emission. It can be of any state: gas liquid or solid. The
gain medium absorbs pump energy which raises some electrons into higher-energy level. When
the number of particles in higher excited state exceeds that of lower state, population inversion
is achieved. Atoms in excited state interact with photon resulting in stimulated emission. The
light generated by stimulated emission is very similar to the input signal in terms of wavelength,
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

phase and polarization. This gives laser light its characteristics coherence and often
monochromaticity established by the optical cavity design. The optical cavity, a type of cavity
resonator, contains reflectors which reflect the emitted light through the gain medium more than
once before it is emitted from the output aperture.
He-Ne laser is a type gas laser. Its usual operation wavelength is 6328Å in the red portion of
visible spectrum. It consists of a mixture of helium and neon gases in the ratio of about 10:1.
When electric discharge is passed through it He atoms are more readily excitable than Neon as
they are lighter. The The excited He atoms losses energy through collision with unexcited Ne
atoms, Ne atoms are excited to the metastable states giving rise to stimulated emission.
Working formula:
If a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident normally on the plane diffraction
grating, maxima and minima occurs due to diffraction. The condition for diffraction maxima
is:
d sinθn= n λ -------------------------------------(1)
Where d is known as grating element
θn is the angle of diffraction of the nth
maximum
n is the order of spectrum
λ is the wavelength of the incident light
Again tanθ= y/L (according to Figure
1)
𝑦
Hence sinθ = -------------(2)
√𝑦 2 +𝐿2

Using equation (2) in equation (1)

𝑦
d = nλ
√𝑦 2 +𝐿2

𝑑𝑦
Hence λ =
𝑛 √𝑦2 +𝐿2

Procedure:
1. Fix the laser source, grating and
screen so that they are in one line.
2. Switch on the laser source so that it
falls at the centre of the grating.
3. Adjust the distance between the slit and screen so that the diffracted sharp and bright light
spots produces at the centre of the screen.
4. The brightest spot is the central maxima and other spots are symmetrically situated on
both the sides of the central maxima with diminishing intensities.
5. Measure the distance between the central maxima and first maxima on the screen, this
distance will correspond to first maxima (n=1).
6. Similarly, measure the distance of second maxima (n=2), and third maxima (n=3).
7. Note the distance between slit and screen (L).
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Observations:
Number of lines per millimeter on the grating, N=
1
Grating element, d = 𝑁 mm = ………… cm

Sr. Distance Order of Distance of maxima from center λ = λmean

No. between maxima 𝑑𝑦 (Å)
On Left On Right Mean,
grating and (n) 𝑛 √𝑦 2 +𝐿2
Side, y1 Side, y2 y=(y1+y2)/2
screen, L (cm) (cm) (cm) (Å)
(cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Calculations:

𝒅𝒚
λ=
𝒏 √𝒚𝟐 +𝑳𝟐
Calculate λ for all readings and find mean λ.

𝝀𝟏 +𝝀𝟐 +𝝀𝟑 + ⋯.+𝝀𝒏

𝛌 = = ....... (Å)
𝒏
Result:
The wavelength of given laser source, λ= ......................Å
The standard value of diode laser source is 6300Å.
Percentage error:
% Error = [(Standard value-Experimental value) x100] / Standard value
Sources of Error and Precautions:
(i) Never look directly into the laser source
(ii) Grating should not be touched by fingers.
Grating should be set normal to the incident light
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Experiments: Study of diffraction using non-monochromatic light sources

Objective: To Find the Wavelength of non-monochromatic light (Mercury light) with the help of a
plane transmission diffraction grating and spectrometer.
Apparatus: A spectrometer, a sprit level, a source of non-monochromatic light (Mercury light),
diffraction grating with clamping arrangement.

Formula Used:
The wavelength ’’ of any spectral line can be calculated by the formula (a+b) sin  = n
or,  = {(a+b) sin } /n
where, (a+b) = grating element
 = angle of diffraction
n = order of spectrum
Theory:
A plane diffraction grating consists of an optically plane glass plate on which large no. of
equidistant parallel lines are ruled. These lines divide the glass plate into opacities and
transparencies, the thickness of which are of the order of the wavelength of the visible light.
The region where a line is drawn becomes opaque and the space between the two lines is
transparent.
When a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident normally on the grating, it suffers
diffraction. The transmitted light gives rise to primary maxima in certain directions given by
the relation, (a+b) sin  = n as shown in the Figure 1, where ‘a’ is the width of transparency
and ‘b’ is that of opacity.  is the angle of diffraction for nth order maxima and  is the wave
length of light.

Figure 1
For the first order spectrum, n = 1
Therefore, (a+b) sin 1 = 
For the second order spectrum, n = 2
and (a+b) sin 2 = 2
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

The number of lines N per inch are marked on the grating. The value of the grating element
2.54
(a+b) is given by, (a + b) = cm.
N
Spectrometer: An Spectrometer is basically an instrument for measuring the angular deviation of
light ray. A prism produces this angular deviation of light ray or grating, which is wavelength
dependent. The emergent light from these component is dispersed into a spectrum in which
wavelength is a function of angle. Spectrometer consists of mainly three parts: Collimator, Prism table
and Telescope.

Procedure:
Adjustment of Spectrometer: Before starting the experiment, spectrometer should be adjusted
properly so that chances of any error should be removed. Spectrometer is so adjusted that the axis of
collimator and telescope intersect each other on the vertical axis of telescope. The prism table is
horizontal, and telescope and collimator are focused for the parallel rays.
SET THE PLANE OF GRATING NORMAL TO THE INCIDENT LIGHT
Place the telescope in line with the collimator so that the vertical cross wire falls exactly in the center
of the image of the slit. Note the scale reading. Add 900 to the reading and place the telescope at this
reading to set it perpendicular to the axis of collimator. Clamps it in this position.
Rotate the table till the plane face of the grating is facing both the collimator and the telescope. Look
through the telescope and turn the table very slowly till the center of the slit falls exactly on the
vertical cross wire as shown in Figure 2. In this position the plane of the grating is inclined at an angle
of 450 to the incident light. Note the reading. Turn the table through 450 from this position so that the
plane of the grating is normal to the incident light with its plane face towards collimeter. The grating
is now set normal to the incident light with its ruled surface away from collimator. Clamp the table in
this position.

Figure 2
The slit should be adjusted parallel to the lines of the grating
For this setting, the slit is rotated in its own plane till the spectral lines become very sharp and
straight.
Determination of angle of diffraction
The spectrum obtained in the grating is shown in the figure 3.
1.Rotate the telescope to the left side of direct image, adjust the different spectral lines (colors) turn
by turn on the vertical cross wire for the first order and not down the corresponding readings of both
the verniers.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

2.Rotate the telescope further to obtain the second order spectrum and again adjust the different
spectral lines on the vertical cross wire and note down the corresponding readings.
3.Now rotate the telescope to the right of the direct image and repeat the above procedure for first
order as well as for second order.
4.Find the difference of the same kind of verniers for each spectral line in the first order and then
second order. The difference in the two readings of same vernier of same color and same order is the
angle, which is twice of the angle of diffraction for the observed order and color. Half of it will be the
angle of diffraction.

Figure 3 Diffraction pattern by diffraction grating for white light (in monochromatic light
the pattern will be of same colour)

Observations:
Observation
(A) DETERMINATION OF LEAST COUNT OF SPECTROMETER:
Reading of one smallest division on M.S. ’a’ =……………degree
Total no. of division on Vernier Scale ‘b’ =…………..
Least Count of Spectrometer = a/b = …………….degree =…………….minute
(B) DETERMINATION OF GRATING ELEMENT OF DIFFRACTION GRATING:
No. of lines per inch on the grating ‘N’= …………….

 Grating element (a + b ) =
2.54
cm =……………….cm =………………. Å
N
(C) DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF DIFFRACTION ‘’ :
Angle ‘ 2’ = a-b (deg-min-sec)

Reading of the Telescope for Reading of the Telescope for

Mean ‘ 2’ (deg-min-sec)
No of Vernier Scale: V1,V2

Angle ‘ ’ (deg-min-sec)

left side Spectrum right side Spectrum

Order of Spectrum
Colour of light

Total Reading ‘ b’
Total Reading ‘ a’
M.S. Reading

M.S. Reading
(deg-min-sec)

(deg-min-sec)

(deg-min-sec)

(deg-min-sec)
V.S. Reading

V.S. Reading
(div.)

(div.)
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

V1

First
Red
V2
Second
V1
Red

V2

Calculations:

First Order Spectrum:

Wavelength of spectral lines of first order (n=1) can be calculated by –
1 = (a+b) sin 
1 =……… …. Å
Calculate  for other spectral lines.
Second Order Spectrum:
Wavelength of spectral lines of second order (n=2) is given by-
2 = {(a+b) sin 2} / 2
2 =……… …. Å

Mean of  =(1+2)/2 Å

Result:
The wavelength of the given colour of light is …….. Å.
Pcentage error:
% Error = [(Standard value-Experimental value) x100]/Standard value

Precautions :
1. The axis of the telescope, the collimator and the plane of the prism table should be horizontal.
2. The position of the eyepiece should be adjusted so that the cross wires are clearly visible.
3. The telescope should be focused for infinity and the collimator should be adjusted to give a parallel
beam of light.
4. The slit should be narrow.
5. The diffraction grating should be parallel to the slit.
6. Both the Verniers should be read to avoid error due to the non-coincidence of the center of the
circular scale with the axis of rotation of the telescope or the table.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Experiment: Characterization of ferroelectric material

Objective: To draw the hysteresis curve (B-H curve) of a given sample of ferromagnetic
material and to determine retentivity, coercivity and hysteresis loss.

Apparatus Required: CRO, ferromagnetic specimen, solenoid, hysteresis loop tracer.

Theory and Formula used:

When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will not relax back to zero
magnetization when the imposed magnetizing field is removed. It must be driven back to zero
by a field in the opposite direction. The lack of retraceability of the magnetization curve is
the property called hysteresis and it is related to the existence of magnetic domains in the
material. Once the magnetic domains are reoriented, it takes some energy to turn them back
again. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density
(B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop. An example
hysteresis loop is shown below in Figure 1.

Figure1: A typical hysteresis loop.

The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux density (B) of a ferromagnetic material
while the magnetic field (H) is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been
previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H
is increased. At point "a" almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional
increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in B. The material has
reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to zero, the curve will move
from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it can be seen that B remains non-zero in the
material even though H is zero. This is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and
indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the
magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost their alignment.) As H is reversed, the
curve moves to point "c", where B becomes zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the
curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux
within the material is zero.) The force required to remove the residual magnetism from the
material is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again
become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H to zero
brings the curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved
in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice
that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some force is required to
remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path from point "f" back to
the saturation point where it with complete the loop.

From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be
determined:

1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation

induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain
amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving
saturation. (The value of B at point “b” on the hysteresis curve.)

2. Coercivity - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point “c” on the
hysteresis curve.)

3. Hysteresis Loss: The energy loss per cycle per unit volume is called hysteresis loss and is
given by 1/4π (Area of B-H curve).

Procedure:

1. Take sample holder and insert a ferromagnetic specimen (sample) in the lower side hole of
the holder.
2. Insert this sample holder in the solenoid.
3. Before switch ‘On’ the Hysteresis Loop Tracer, connect din connector cable of solenoid to
the Input of the tracer.
4. Connect solenoid three pin connector to the tracer solenoid socket.
5. Connect ‘Y’ terminal of Hysteresis Loop Tracer to CRO ‘Y’ terminal with the help of
crocodile cable and other terminal of cable to the ‘E’ terminal of Hysteresis Loop Tracer.
6. Similarly connect ‘X’ terminal of Hysteresis Loop Tracer to CRO ‘X’ terminal with the
help of crocodile cable and other terminal of cable to the ‘E’ terminal of Hysteresis Loop
Tracer.
Note : Here +ive terminal of both crocodile cable should be connected to ‘Y’ and ‘X’
terminals respectively of Hysteresis Loop Tracer and –ive terminal of both crocodile cable
should be connected to ‘E’ terminal to Hysteresis Loop Tracer.
7. Keep CRO in ‘XY’ mode.
8. Rotate H-Balance, Phase and DC Balance knobs of Hysteresis Loop Tracer fully
anticlockwise.
9. Keep knob of Hysteresis Loop Tracer always in ‘B’ position.
10. Switch ‘On’ the Hysteresis Loop Tracer and CRO.
Note : First of all adjust the Hysteresis Loop Tracer, than switch ‘On’ the CRO.
11. By the Area Ratio and Demagnetize knob of the Hysteresis Loop Tracer, we can adjust
the shape of the curve.
12. Adjust the magnetic field intensity with the help of Magnetic Field knob of the tracer.
13. Now the Hysteresis Loop of the taken sample will display on CRO.
14. Plot the Hysteresis Loop from CRO and tabulate the magnetic field reading from display.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

15. Here magnetic field in Gauss, will displays on LCD in accordance to the intensity of
magnetic field.

Observations:

Given,
Total gain of both amplifiers, gx = 100, gy = 1
Diameter of the sample: 1.20 mm (2r1); Diameter of the pickup coil = 3.26 mm (2r2)
Area ratio [ As/Ac ] = r12/r22 = 0.135; Demagnetizing factor (N) = 0.0033 ; G0 = 34.18 G/V

Observation table:

S.No. Magnetic Field Observed Loop width Tip to tip Positive intercept to
(Gauss) height negative intercept distance
(W)
(T) (Y)
(in Volts)
(in Volts) (in Volts)

Calculations:

Note: All the calculations should be done at the highest applied field to ensure that the
sample has saturated.

1. Actual Loop width = (Observed Loop width)/3 =W/3= -----------V

(Since, the area ratio for the given sample is so small the signal ex was enhanced by
multiplying area ratio and demagnetization by three. The finally obtained value of the loop
width is divided by this same factor, 3, to give the correct value of coercivity.)
2. Intercept =Y/2= --------------------- V
3. Tip to tip height = T------------ V

(a) Coercivity (Hc) ex = 1/2 x Actual Loop width = ---------------V

G0 e x
Hc = =........................................................Gauss
As
−N
Ac

(b) Hysteresis loss per unit volume per cycle (Loss)

A = Area of B-H curve in V2
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

G0 G0 g x
Loss ==   A …………………………ergs/cycle/cm3
As As
− N g y ( − N )4
Ac Ac

(c) Retentivity: ey = Intercept = ...............V

G0 g x e y
mr = Gauss
A
g y ( s − N )4
Ac
= ..................................... Gauss

(d) Saturation Magnetic flux density:

tH = Tip to tip height х 0.5................... V

G0 g x t H
BS = Gauss
A
g y ( s − N )4
Ac

Result:

(1) B-H curve for the given ferromagnetic material is traced.

(2) The calculated value of
(a) Coercivity is ...................................Gauss.
(b) Retentivity is ....................................Gauss.
(c) Hysteresis Loss per unit volume per cycle is ............................ ergs/cycle/cm3.
(d) Saturation Magnetic flux density is ..........................Gauss.

Precautions and sources of error:

1. Handle CRO carefully.

2. The positions of X and Y amplifiers should not be disturbed after adjusting it once in
the whole experiment.
3. Variations in the supply voltage will affect the tracing of the curve on the paper.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Experiment: Newton’s rings Experiment

Objective: - To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s rings.

Apparatus required: - Plano-convex lens, plane glass plate, sodium lamp, travelling
microscope, and spherometer.

Fig 1: Ray diagram of Newton’s ring Apparatus

Theory and Formula used:

Interference: The superposition of two coherent light waves (of constant phase difference)
forming maximum intensities at some points and minimum intensities at the other is called
interference of light.
The interference fringes are observed as an alternate pattern of bright and dark fringes. The
interference at a point where the intensity of light is maximum, is called constructive
interference (corresponds to bright fringe). For constructive interference, the two waves
should have either same phase or a constant phase difference of
Φ = 2nπ where n = 0, 1, 2,....
or, a constant path difference of Δ = nλ
While the interference at another point where the intensity of light is minimum, is called
destructive interference (corresponds to dark fringe). For destructive interference, the two
waves should have either same phase or a constant phase difference of
Φ = (2n+1) π where n = 0, 1, 2, ....
or, a constant path difference of Δ = (2n+1)λ/2
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Interference fringes are obtained by dividing the single coherent source into two sources. This
can be achieved either (1) by division of wave front, that is by taking (or considering) two
secondary wavelets on the same wave front and superposing them or (2) by division of
amplitude, that is by separating the amplitude of single wave and reuniting them.
When light is incident on a thin film (thickness of the order of wave length of the incident
light), it suffers partial reflection and partial transmission at both upper as well as lower
surfaces of the thin film. The transmitted light ray again suffers reflection at the lower
surface. Interference occurs between the rays in the reflected and transmitted parts.
Similarly, in a wedge-shaped film, partial reflection as well as partial transmission also takes
place. Moreover, the path difference changes from point to point which results into an

interference fringes.
Figure 3
Figure 3 shows an air wedge-shaped film formed between the convex and plane glass plate
inclined at an angle say, θ. The refractive index of the film is μ. Let ray AB is incident from a
broad monochromatic source almost normally on the film. It suffers partial reflection (ray
BE) and partial transmission (ray BC) on the convex surface. Again ray BC suffers partial
reflection (ray CD) and partial transmission (not shown) on the plane surface at C.
Newton’s Ring is a interference pattern obtained by the division of amplitude from a single
light source.The bright rings are caused by constructive interference between the reflected
light rays BE and CF for a net path difference = nλ where, n = 0, 1, 2,…….. and λ is the
wavelength of the incident light.While the dark rings are caused by destructive interference
between the same light rays BE and CF for a net path difference = (2n + 1) λ/2 where, n = 0,
1, 2,……...
For wedge-shaped thin film, path difference between the rays BE and CF is given by
Δ = 2 μt cos r
where, t is the thickness of the film at B (or at D) and r is the angle of refraction at B.
Since the angle of incidence is almost normal, so we can assume cos r =1
Now by Stoke’s law, there is no phase change at the glass-air interface of the convex lens
(because the wave is going from a higher to a lower refractive index medium) whereas the
reflection at the air-glass interface of the plane glass plate undergoes an additional path
difference of λ/2.Therefore, net path difference =Δ + λ/2 = 2 μt + λ /2
For bright fringe, net path difference = nλ where, n = 0, 1, 2,….…..
or, 2 μt = (2n-1)λ/2
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

and for dark fringe, net path difference = (2n + 1) λ/2 where, n = 0, 1, 2,……..
or, 2 μt = nλ
At the centre, the two glass surfaces are in intimate contact and there is no reflection because
it is as if there were no surface that is, t = 0 or, 2μt = 0 which is the condition for dark fringe.
Hence the center of the pattern is always dark.
Determination of expression of λ

Figure 4

Again, in the right angled triangle OAB of Figure 4,

OB2 = OA2 + AB2
or, R2 = (R-t)2 + rn 2 where, rn is radius of the nth ring, R is the radius of curvature of plano
convex lens or, rn2 = 2Rt (for t2 << 2Rt)
or, t = rn2/2R where, R is the radius of curvature of the Plano-convex lens
or, t = Dn2 /8R where, Dn is the diameter of the nth ring.

In practice, it is not possible to find the exact centre of the bull's eye in order to obtain rn.
Rather, the traveling microscope can measure an approximate diameter, Dn for the
interference ring.
Therefore, substituting the value of t in 2μt = nλ, we obtain the diameters of the nth and
(n+p)th dark fringes respectively
Dn 2 = 4nRλ/μ and Dn+p 2 = 4 (n+p) Rλ/ μ as for p ≥ 1
By subtracting these equations, we can obtain the wavelength of incident light by
λ = (Dn+P 2 – Dn 2) μ / 4pR
Since the human eye is more sensitive to small changes in low intensity, we will measure
positions of dark fringes throughout the experiment. This relation also holds true for bright
rings.
Working formula: -The wavelength of the light is given by

 = (D2n+p - D2n )/ 4 p R

where Dn+p = diameter of (n+p)th ring

Dn = diameter of n th ring
R = radius of curvature of the spherical surface of the plano-convex lens
Procedure:
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

1. The centre of the lens L2 is well illuminated by adjusting the inclination of glass plate G1 at
450.
2. The microscope is moved in the vertical direction till the rings (Fig. 2) are seen distinctly.
3. The center of the fringes is brought symmetrically below the cross wires by adjusting the
position of the lens and the microscope.
4. The microscope is moved in horizontal direction to one side of the fringes such that one
of the cross wires becomes tangential to the 18th ring. Note the main and vernier scale
readings.
5. Move the microscope and make the cross wire tangential to the 16th, 14th up to 8th ring
and on the other side up to 18th ring. Note the readings.
Observations: Given, Radius of curvature of the Plano-convex lens = 100 cm
Determination of least count of the microscope:
Value of one smallest division of the main scale = ----------
Number of divisions on the Vernier scale = ----------
Least count of the microscope = ----------
Determination of (Dn2):( M.S is Main Scale reading, C.S.D is number of Circular Scale
Divisions, LC is the Least Count. )

Table –1

No. of
the Microscope reading Diamet
(Dn2)
S. rings One end (a) Other end (b) er
No. (n) M.S. C.S. Total M.S. C.S. Total reading Dn=(a- (cm2)
(cm) D reading (cm) D M.S.+ C.S.D  LC b)
M.S.+ C.S.D  LC (cm) (cm)
(cm)
1 18

2 16

3 14

4 12

5 10

6 08

Calculations:- Plot the graph between Dn2 & no. of the rings. Draw the Best fit line as shown
in
Figure 5.
Dn2+ p − Dn2
Calculate the slope of the line: Slope =
p
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Figure 5.
The wavelength of the sodium light is given by:

λ = Slope / 4R
Result: - Wavelength of the monochromatic sodium light as determined = ……. Å

Standard value (Wavelength of sodium light) = 5893Å

std .value − exp .value

Error: Percentage error = ( ) X100
std .value

Precautions and Sources of error: -

1. Glass plates and lens should be cleaned thoroughly.

2. The radius of curvature of plano-convex lens (L2) should be large.
3. The light source should be an extended one.
4. Before measuring the diameters of rings, the range of the microscope should be properly
adjusted.
5. Crosswire should be focussed on a bright ring tangentially.
6. Radius of curvature should be measured accurately.
7. Avoid over-tightening of the screws.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Experiment: Sonometer Experiments

Objective: To determine the frequency of AC mains using Sonometer.

Apparatus Used: Sonometer with metallic wire, Inbuilt AC supply, electromagnet, meter scale,
slotted half kg weights, two Knife edges.

Theory and Formula Used:

A Sonometer is a device which consists of a thin wire stretched over two bridges that are usually
mounted on a soundboard and which is used to measure the vibration frequency, tension, density, or
diameter of the wire, or to verify relations between these quantities.

Electromagnet:

An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric
current. The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases. A wire with an electric current passing
through it generates a magnetic field around it of strength proportional to the amount of current. The
main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be
rapidly manipulated over a wide range by controlling the amount of electric current. However, a
continuous supply of electrical energy is required to maintain the field.

Frequency of AC mains:

The utility frequency or mains frequency is the frequency at which alternating current (AC) is
transmitted from a power plant to the end user.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

To find the frequency of AC Mains using an electro-magnet and a sonometer, the AC is passed
through the primary of a step-down transformer (220-230 to 4-6 volts).The two ends of the
secondary coil of the step-down transformer are connected to the two ends of the windings of the
electro-magnet which consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound over a soft iron core
provided with an insulated handle. As the A.C. From the secondary of the step- down transformer
passes through the electro-magnet it gets magnetized twice in each cycle, first with one of its faces
as a north pole and then with the same face as the south pole. The electro-magnet is kept close to
and vertically above the sonometer steel wire. The wire is attracted and pulled twice in each cycle of
the A.C. Mains supply; once when the end of the electromagnet just above the wire is a north pole
and again after half a cycle when this end is a south pole. In other words, the natural frequency (f) of
the sonometer wire is double the frequency (n) of the A.C. Mains. The natural frequency of the wire
is given by

1 T
f =
2l m

where,

l=length of the sonometer wire between two knife edges when it is thrown into resonant
vibrations

T=tension in the wire

m=mass per unit length of the wire.

The frequency of the ac mains is given by

f 1 T
n= =
2 4l m

Procedure:

1. Assemble the setup as shown in the figure.

2. Firstly tie the wire, as its one end fixed and other end passing over pulley carrying a hanger of
weights.

3. Mount the L-clamp of coil with the screws of sonometer base at a distance 2-3 mm above the
wire.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

4. The core of electromagnet should lie at the center of coil.

5. Now connect mains cord between mains and sonometer.

6. Take two patch cords from the accessory box and connect the 6 V AC supply from sonometer to
the coil with polarity.

7. Now hang the weight of 1000 gms to the hanger connected with one end of steel wire.

8. Switch on the AC supply.

9. Now adjust two knife edges by slowly increasing the distance between them so that you get some
vibrations in wire.

10. Now slowly adjust both knife edges for maximum vibration in the wire.

11. Note the length (l1) of wire between two knife edges by given meter scale.

12. Also note load (W) in kg (including the weight of hanger).

13. Now increase load by 500 gms and again get the position of maximum vibration by adjusting
both knife edges.

14. Again note the length (l1) of wire between two knife edges for the increased load.

15. Repeat the same procedure by increasing weight by 500 gms and take reading of l1 for maximum
vibration.

16. Note all values in observation table below

17. Repeat the steps 7to15, adjusting two knife edges by slowly decreasing the distance between
them so that you get maximum vibrations in wire for every observation.

18. Note the values of length l2 for respective loads and compute mean length, l.

Observations:

Mass per unit length of the wire (m) = 0.0056 kg/m

S.No Load in Tension in Resonating length of the wire (cm) Frequency

kg Newton
Distance Distance Mean 1 𝑇
(W) (W×9.8) 𝑓= √
between the between the resonating 2𝑙 𝑚
bridges bridges length (Hz)
increasing (l1) decreasing (l2) (l)
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

1.
2.
3.
4.
Mean f=…..Hz

Calculations:

Using the formula

1 T
f =
2l m

Compute frequency of vibration of the wire for each observation and find out the mean frequency.

The frequency of ac mains is given by

f
n=
2

Result: The frequency of AC mains=………..Hz.

Standard result: The frequency of AC mains = 50 Hz.

Percentage error:

Standard value - calculated value

 100
Standard value

= …….%

Standard value for frequency of ac mains = 50 Hz

Precautions and sources of error:

 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

(i) The wire should be of a uniform area of cross-section, free from kinks and should be tight.
(ii) The observation should start with minimum distance between the two Knife edges.
(iii)The resonance position should be obtained by first slowly increasing the distance between knife
edges and then slowly decreasing it.
(iv)The weight of hanger should always be included in the load.
(v) The pulley should be free from friction.
(vi)The electromagnet should be clamped 2-3 mm vertically above the center of the sonometer wire.
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Experiment: Study of variation of magnetic field

Objective: To Study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular current-
carrying coil and to estimate the radius of the coil.

Apparatus:
Tangent galvanometer, compass, Current-carrying coil, measurement unit, patch cords,

Theory and Formula Used:

The magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current is given as

0 2 n I a 2
B=
4 (x 2 + a 2 )3 / 2 (in SI system)
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Where n = number of turns of coil

a = radius of coil.
I = current flowing in the coil
x = distance of a point on the axis from center of coil.

If B is perpendicular to horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field (H) and  is the

deflection in tangent galvanometer on passing current I, then by tangent law

0 2  n I a 2 A
=
B = H tan =
4 (x 2 + a 2 )3 / 2 (x 2 + a 2 )3 / 2 , where A is a constant

Thus, B is directly proportional to tan.

Hence, the variation of B with x is same as variation of tan with x as shown below:
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

At inflexion points of a function y = f(x), the first derivative is discontinuous and the second
A
derivative is zero i.e., d2y / dx2 = 0. Here, y = tan  =
(x 2
+a )
2 3/ 2
, and thus d2y / dx2 =

0 gives x =  a/2  x1 = a/2 & x2 = −a/2 .

Hence, distance between inflexion points ‘P’ & ‘Q’ = x1−x2 = a/2 − (−a/2) = a = radius of
coil.
Procedure
1. Place the magnetometer at the centre of the coil in such that the magnetic needle lies
at the center of the vertical coil in same direction.
2. Place the eye a little above the coil and rotate the Tangent Galvanometer in the
horizontal plane till the coil, the needle and its image in the mirror of magnetometer,
all lie in the same vertical plane.
3. In this manner the coil will be set roughly in the magnetic meridian.
4. Now rotate the Magnetometer so that the pointer read the position of 0-0.

5. To set the coil in magnetic meridian exactly, send current through coil and note the
deflection. Reverse the direction of current with reversing key and again note the
deflection, if in both cases it is equal and opposite then coil is in the magnetic
meridian.
6. Adjust the value of steady current with the help of rheostat such that deflection is
nearly between 700 –750 in the compass needle placed at the center of coil. Read both
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

the ends of pointer for direct and reverse current. The mean of four readings will give
 at x= 0.
7. Move the compass needle in steps of 2 cm and each time note the deflection of both
ends of pointer for direct and reverse current and record the data in the observation
table.
8. Repeat the observations in the same manner on other side of sliding bench.
9. Plot a graph between x and tan and mark the points of inflexion. The distance
between these points gives the radius of coil.

Observations:
1. Least count of scale = 1mm
2. Least count of compass = 1o
Observation Table
S Distance Deflection Mean tan Deflection Mean tan
No. of 
(Right side) (Left side) 
compass
box from Direct Reverse Direct Reverse
the center

‘x’ (in cm)

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

1. 0 (at 12
cm )

2. 2

3. 4

4. 6

5. 8
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

6. 10

7. 12

8. 14

9. 16

10. 18

Calculations:
Plot a graph between the distance x (in cm) and tan . Mark the inflexion points P & Q and
find the radius of the coil.

Points of inflexion are at ------------ cm and -------------- cm

This gives radius, a= ---------------- cm.

Result:
1. The variation of the magnetic field with distance of a coil along its axis is as shown in
the graph.
2. From graph, the radius of coil ‘a’ = ------------ cm

Percentage error:

Standard value - calculated value

 100
Standard value

= …….%
 Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS01T1002)

Precautions and sources of error:

1. Using a spirit level check that the set up is horizontal.
2. Parallax should be removed when taking reading of pointer.
3. The current passed should be enough to produce deflection of about 700 –750 when coil is
at the center.
4. Current should be constant throughout the observations.
5. There should be no magnetic materials lying near the coil.
6. Before taking the reading, tap the compass softly at the centre to ensure that the needle is
free.