Republic of the Philippines

PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Criminal Justice Education

Tiniguiban Campus
Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, 5300, Philippines

Module 1
GE:ET - ETHICS
2ND Semester
SY 2021 - 2022

Modification of course contents, teaching-learning activities, and assessment tasks to ensure

alignment with the most essential learning outcomes in the context of teaching and learning
amid COVID-19 pandemic
MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

1.1. OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

• Grasp the scope and meaning of ethics and morality.

• Recognize the problem in defining morality.
• Identify the criteria in coming up with the minimum conception of morality.
• Differentiate moral with other normative subjects.
• Identify the traits of moral principles.
• Analyze a moral principle using the four traits of moral principles.
• Determine the domains of ethical assessment.

1.2. INTRODUCTION

Ethics is the philosophical study of morality. It is one of the main branch of philosophy which
corresponds to the traditional division of philosophy into formal, natural and moral philosophy. It can be
turned into a general study of goodness, right action, applied ethics, meta-ethics, moral psychology and
metaphysics of moral responsibility. The general study of goodness and right action is the main task of
ethics. It has correlatively its substantive question as: how are we rational beings and what moral principles
should govern our choice and pursuit?

1.3. THE PROBLEM OF DEFINITION

“Moral philosophy is the attempt to achieve a systematic understanding of the nature of morality and
what it requires of us -- in Socrates’ words, “how we ought to live and why” (Rachels, p. 1). There are some
of many possible answers offered to the questions about why we ought to do what we ought to do, which
was to be discuss in the succeeding modules.

As Rachels observes, if we know enough about the nature of morality, we might know something
about how we ought to live. In particular, Rachels attempts to describe a “minimum conception of morality”,
viz., some basic features that all forms of ethical reasoning have in common. He does this through three
examples that (1) display some moral principles that shape our everyday ethical thinking and (2) show
something of the nature of ethical reasoning.

Sample Activity No. 1: Case Analysis

1.3.1. The Case of Baby Theresa

Baby Theresa was born anencephalic with both cerebrum and cerebellum as well as the top of
her skull missing; she had the brain stem. In the United States, most cases of anencephaly are
detected during pregnancy and aborted. Of those not aborted, half are still born. About 350 each year
are born alive, and they usually die within a few weeks. Because Theresa had no brain, she was not
able to feel any pain or have any other mental states.

Knowing that their baby will die soon anyway and that she could never be conscious, her parents
made a request to use her orphans to help other children. Because Florida law prohibits harvesting
organ before the donor has died, Theresa's organs were not take. "By the time Baby Theresa died,
nine days later, it was too late -- her organs had deteriorated too much to be harvested and
transplanted".

GE:ET - ETHICS 2
Bachelor of Science in Criminology
TCUstares
MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

Baby Teresa moral arguments/principles:

1. If can benefit someone w/o harming another, ought to do so
a. Taking Teresa’s organs would not harm her because her organs were doing Teresa no
good; being alive (if she was alive) was doing her no good; being alive is a benefit only
if one can act and think and relate to others (that is, have a life)
2. Mere biological existence is worthless
a. Is this true?
i. Biological existence is not worthless for a plant (or is it?).
ii. But such existence is perhaps of no value for a (possible) conscious life like a
person
3. Should not use people as a (mere) means to others ends (wrong to use people as if they
were mere things)
a. Typically using people involves violating their autonomy (ability to govern themselves)
by manipulation, deceit, or force
i. Teresa has no autonomy to violate
b. Taking her organs literally use her body parts, but we do that with organ transplants
c. But we are taking Teresa’s organs w/o her permission, though not against her will (as
she has none)
i. Would taking her organs go against Teresa’s wishes? No because she can’t
have any wishes, so we can’t thwart them.
d. Guardian’s duty is to do what the patient would want or what is in the patient’s best
interests
i. Does this make sense in Teresa’s case?
ii. Unclear she has any interests (anything that is good or bad for her)
iii. Violate what she would wants? Might make sense in case of an older person
who is now in a vegetative state–that person once had views that could be
taken into account
iv. Teresa never had views we could consider; nor will she have them
4. Wrong to kill a person even to save another
a. Is it always wrong to kill people to save others?
b. By brain dead standard, Teresa is already dead; no hope for conscious life; so we are
not killing her
5. Sanctity of human life: Every human life is precious, regardless of age or handicap
a. Implications for abortion, death penalty, war?

WHAT IS ETHICS?
Various definitions of ethics are as follows:
• Ethics is coined from the Greek word “ethicos”, or that which pertains to “ethos”, the English
translation of which is “custom” or “character”. (Encyclopedia Britannica)
• Ethics is derived from the Ancient Greek word ēthikós, meaning "relating to one's character", which
itself comes from the root word êthos meaning "character, moral nature". (www.wikipedia.org)
• According to Rushworth Kidder: How Good People Make Tough Choices: Resolving the Dilemmas
of Ethical Living (2003)
o Ethics have typically included such phrases as “the science of the ideal human character”
or “the science of moral duty”
• According to Richard Paul and Linda Elder: The Miniature Guide to Understanding the Foundations
of Ethical Reasoning
o Ethics define as "a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what
behavior helps or harms sentient creatures”.
o Ethics confuse to most people with behaving in accordance with social conventions,
religious beliefs, the law, and don't treat ethics as a stand-alone concept.
• According to John Deigh in Robert Audi (ed): The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (1995)
o The word "ethics" is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' ... and sometimes it is
used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group or
individual.

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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

The broad view of the philosopher while defining Ethics:

• According to Bernard Williams: Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy
o Ethics describes the content of this area of inquiry as addressing the very broad question,
"how one should live". Ethics can also refer to a common human ability to think about
ethical problems that is not particular to philosophy.
• According to Larry Churchill: Are we Professionals? A Critical Look at the Social Role of
Bioethicists (1999)
o Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values and direct our
actions in terms of such values, is a generic human capacity.
• According to David Tanguay (2014): “Buddha and Socrates share Common Ground”
o Ethics can also be used to describe a particular person's own idiosyncratic principles or
habits.
• Concerned with questions of how human persons ought to act in the search for the definition of
right conduct and the good life. It is for this reason that the attempt to seek the good through the
aid of reason is the traditional goal of ethicists.
• There is no single absolute definition of ethics, this is because ethics as a discipline is
constantly evolving as a result of a change in the socio-cultural and political context.
• In the Greek Tradition, ethics was conceived as relating to the concept of the good life thus the
ethical inquiry during this time was directed toward discovering the nature of happiness.
• Judeo-Christian tradition, introduce ethics as the ideals of righteousness before God and the
love of God and neighbor, not the happy or pleasant life constitute the substance of ethics.

WHAT IS MORALITY?
• Morality is from Latin word: moralitas, lit. “manner, character, proper behavior” is the differentiation
of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that
are improper. (Long, A. A; Sedley, D.N., 1987)
• Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a
particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a standard that a person believes
should be universal. (Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
• Morality refers to the standards of behavior by which people are judged and particularly to the
standards of behavior by which people are judged in their relationships with others. Morality also
refers to good character and right actions that build and support noble and virtuous character
(Geuras & Garofalo, 2005)
• Morality is a code of behavior usually based on a particular philosophy, religion, culture and beliefs
that a person believes to be universal or common on which informs our ethical decisions.
• Morality rules of right conduct concerning matters of greater importance. Violations of such can
bring disturbance to an individual’s conscience and social sanctions.
• Morality is specifically synonymous with “goodness” or “rightness”.

Understanding Ethics
Ethics basic principles can help us lead a more fulfilling life whether on a personal or professional
level. It is an indispensable knowledge that without moral perception, man is only an animal. It can give real
practical guidance to a person’s lives.

Understanding Morality
Morality is the foundation of every human society. Without civic morality, communities perish;
without personal morality their survival has no value. Every culture admits the importance of morality as a
standard of behavior. When the moral foundation of a nation is threatened, society itself is threatened.

ETHICS VS MORALITY
• Ethics denotes the "theory" of right action and the greater good. It undertakes the systematic study
of the underlying principles of morality. (Ethics = science of morals)
• Morality indicates practice that is the rightness or wrongness of human action. It is more
prescriptive, it tells us what we ought to do and exhorts us to follow the right way. According to
Terrance McConnell (1994), morality is characterized as an 'end-governed rational enterprise'

GE:ET - ETHICS 4
Bachelor of Science in Criminology
TCUstares
MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

whose objective is to equip people with a body of norms that make for peaceful and collectively
satisfying coexistence by facilitating their living together and interacting in a way that is productive
for the realization of the general benefit. (Morality = practice of ethics)

Ethics Morality
The rules of conduct recognized in Principles or habits with respect to right
respect to a particular class of human or wrong conduct. It defines how things
What is it? actions or a particular group, culture, etc. should work
It defines how thing are according to the according to an individual’s ideals and
rules. principles.
Source / Basis Social System / External Individual / Internal
Because society says it is the right thing Because we believe in something being
Why we do it? to do. right or wrong.
Ethics are dependent on others for Usually consistent, although can
definition. They tend to be consistent change if an individual’s beliefs
Flexibility within a certain context, but can vary change.
between
contexts.

TYPES OF ETHICS
1. Descriptive Ethics - refers to what individuals accept to be right or wrong and is about various moral
standards utilized over a wide span of time

2. Normative Ethics (evaluative and prescriptive) seeks to set norms or standards that regulate right
and wrong or good and bad conduct (e.g. good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we
should follow are the consequences of our behavior on others). Normally attempts to develop
guidelines or theories that tell us how we ought to behave.
2.1. Virtue Ethics - centers around one's character and kindness
2.2. Deontology - duty/obligation morals or all about objective good or absolutism
2.3. Consequentialism - it centers around the outcome of an activity

3. Metaethics (analytical and descriptive) constituted by questions of the meanings and functions of
the various ethical terms. It aims to understand the nature and dynamics of ethical principles and the
way we learn and acquire moral beliefs. It doubts the significance of goodness, morals, and profound
quality including how individuals can realize what is valid or bogus.

4. Applied Ethics - the actual application of ethical or moral theories to decide which ethical or moral
actions are appropriate in a given situation; the utilization of moral hypotheses in various open and
private issues like medication, business, and so on.

✓ Casuists the adherents of applied ethics are concerned with individual moral problems such
as abortion or euthanasia and attempt to resolve the conflicting issues that surround these
particular moral problems.
✓ Applied Ethics is usually divided into different fields:
1) business ethics which deals with ethical behavior in the corporate world,
2) biomedical and environmental ethics which deals with issues relating to health,
welfare, and the responsibility we have toward people in our environment, and
3) social ethics which deals with the principles and guidelines that regulate corporate
welfare within societies

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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

FOUR PRINCIPLES OF NORMATIVE ETHICS

1. Autonomy is a norm that obliges us to respect the decisions (self-determination) of adults who
have decision-making capacity. Three conditions must exist for autonomous action by those with
capacity to choose:
a. Intentionality
b. Understanding
c. Absence of controlling influences that determine their action.
The following moral rules or obligations are derived from the application of the principle of respect
for autonomy:
1. Tell the truth
2. Respect the privacy of others
3. Protect confidential information
4. Obtain consent for interventions with patients.
2. Beneficence is a moral obligation to act for the benefit of others. There are 2 aspects of
beneficence are (1) Providing benefits; and (2) Balancing benefits and risks/harms.
The principle of beneficence supports the following moral rules or obligations:
a. Protect and defend the rights of others.
b. Prevent harm from occurring to others.
c. Remove conditions that will cause harm.
d. Help persons with disabilities.
e. Rescue persons in danger.
3. Nonmaleficence is the principle of nonmaleficence holds that there is an obligation not to inflict
harm on others. It is closely associated with the maxim primum non nocere (first do no harm). The
principle of nonmaleficence supports the following rules:
a. Do not kill.
b. Do not cause pain or suffering.
c. Do not incapacitate.
d. Do not cause offense.
4. Justice is the principle of justice obliges us to equitably distribute benefits, risks, costs, and
resources. The following arguments (rules) are supported by the principle of justice:
a. To each person an equal share
b. To each person according to need
c. To each person according to effort
d. To each person according to contribution
e. To each person according to merit.

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MORAL VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

Why the need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?
• Different societies have different moral beliefs which are deeply influenced by culture and context,
for this reason, some values do have moral implications, while others don't.
• Different cultures have different moral standards. What is a matter of moral indifference, that is, a
matter of taste in one culture may be a matter of moral significance in another. The danger here is
that one culture may impose its cultural standards on others which may result in a clash in cultural
values and beliefs. When this happens as we may already know, violence and crime may ensue
such as religious violence, and ethnic cleansing. So, how can we address this cultural conundrum?
✓ People have to understand the difference between moral standards and non-moral ones
• Moral standards - we have the RIGHT to FORCE others to act accordingly (e.g. not to cheat, lie,
kill, harm, and deceive our fellow human beings).

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TCUstares
MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

✓ These are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be
morally right or wrong, as the values placed on what we believed to be morally good or
morally bad.
✓ Moral standards normally promote "the good", that is the welfare and well-being of humans
as well as animals and the environment.
✓ Prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights and obligations
✓ Norms + values= moral standards
✓ Norms are general rules about actions or behaviors
✓ Values are enduring beliefs about what is good and desirable, or not

Characteristics of moral standards:

1. Deals with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the environment
(e.g. child abuse, rape, and murder);
2. Not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies;
3. Overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standards and considerations, especially of
self-interest;
4. Based on impartial considerations; and
5. Associated with special emotions and vocabulary
6. Identify fundamental ethical values that may guide our actions

Non-moral standards - we have NO RIGHT to impose on others.

✓ Refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way.
✓ Examples: standards of etiquette, the law, standards of aesthetics
✓ Matters of taste or preference

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MORAL DILEMMAS
• Dilemma - is a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting
options, neither of which is acceptable.
• Ethical or moral dilemmas - when dilemmas involve human actions which have moral implications
o Are situations where persons, who are called "moral agents" in ethics, are forced to
choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves the situation in a
morally acceptable manner
• Three conditions that must be present in moral dilemmas:
1. The person or the agent of moral action is obliged to decide about which course of action
is best.
2. There must be different courses of action to choose from.
3. No matter what course of action is taken; some moral principles are always compromised.
• In moral dilemmas, the moral agent "seems fated to commit something wrong, which implies that
she is bound to morally fail because in one way or another she will fail to do something which she
ought to do. In other words, by choosing one of the possible moral requirements, the person also
fails on others." - Benjiemen Labastin

Types of Moral Dilemmas:

1. Epistemic and ontological dilemmas
• Epistemic moral dilemma - there are two or more moral requirements that conflict with
each other. The moral agent hardly knows which one takes precedence over the other.
One option must be better than the other, only, it needs fuller knowledge of the situation.
• Ontological moral dilemma - there are two or more moral requirements that conflict with
each other, yet neither of these conflicting moral requirements override each other, Neither
of the moral requirements is stronger than the other; hence, the moral agent can hardly
choose between the conflicting moral requirements.

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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

2. Self-imposed and world-imposed dilemmas

• Self-imposed moral dilemma - caused by the moral agent's wrongdoings
• World-imposed moral dilemma - certain events in the world place the moral agent in a
situation of moral conflict.
3. Obligation dilemmas and prohibition dilemmas
• Obligation moral dilemma - more than one feasible action is obligatory
• Prohibition moral dilemma - ALL feasible actions are forbidden
4. Single-agent and multi-person dilemmas
• Single-agent moral dilemma - The agent "ought, all things considered, to do A, ought, all
things considered, to do B, and she cannot do both A and B".
• Multi-person moral dilemma - one agent, P1, ought to do A, a second agent, P2, ought to
do B, and though each agent can do what he ought to do, it is not possible both for P1 to
do A and P2 to do B." It requires more than choosing what is right; it also entails that the
persons involved reached a general consensus.

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THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS

1. Systemic (macro-level) - ethical standards are universal or general; ethical standards apply to all
who are within the system (Example: R.A. 6713 "Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for Public
Officials and Employees")
2. Organizational (company level) - at company or corporate level, ethical standards are embedded
in the policies and procedures of the organization; ethical standards apply to all those within the
organization (Example: "Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers")
3. Individual (individual level) - ethical standards of individuals; individuals may well have a very
different set of ethical standards from their employer (organization) and this can lead to tensions
(Example: Teacher Peter's personal ethical standards)

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM-RESPONSIBILITY FOR ONE'S ACT AND TO OTHERS

• Humans, as moral beings, are free to act or not to act. Their will equip them with the power to
determine their actions. It is in this light that humans differ from other creatures and beings.
• Freedom - power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint; not
absolute, it has limits, so we have to be responsible in exercising our freedom; it is the dependence
of the "will" on the "self" or "I" for the same to act or not to act.
• If there will be no limitations to our freedom, there will be chaos, anarchy, and even war.
• Will - (expression of) desire, willingness
• Moral Dimension of Freedom
1. The moral dimension belongs to the realm of human freedom
2. The moral dimension refers to the concern for a good and happy life
3. The moral dimension speaks to our sense of moral responsibility
• Why only human beings can be ethical?
• Only human beings can determine their actions because of their freedom which is absent to
other beings. Self-determination is coupled with responsibility; hence, morality is born. Without
self-determination or freedom, no responsibility and there will be no ethics or morality to talk
about.

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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

1.4. REASON AND IMPARTIALITY

The ultimate basis for ethics is clear. Human behavior has consequences for the welfare of others.
We are capable of acting toward others in such a way as to increase or decrease the quality of their lives.
We are capable of helping or harming.

It is said that reason gives rise to ethical discourse and healthy debate and engagement. "Reason
requires impartiality” and this statement has serious implications for truthfulness and reason.

Reason and impartiality are not absolute to any particular group of people, while morality is absolute.
Whatever is considered wrong morally within a certain group of people cannot be debated through reason.
Morality decides the outcome first and then employs reason to justify it. For impartiality, fairness is given
more importance where people are supposed to be treated equally before the law.

REASON

Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts,
applying logic, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing
information (Kompridis, 2000). Reason, or an aspect of it, is sometimes referred to as rationality.

Reasoning is associated with thinking, cognition, and intellect. The philosophical field of logic
studies ways in which human reason formally through argument (Hintikka. 2013). Reason is a declaration
made to explain or justify action, decision, or conviction. Merriam-Webster denotes Reason is the power of
the mind to think, understand, and form judgements by a process of logic.

The proper role of ethical reasoning is to highlight acts of two kinds: those which enhance the well-
being of others that warrant our praise and those that harm or diminish the well-being of others and thus
warrant our criticism.

Reasons have everything to do with ethics: If you have no good reasons for an act or a belief, then
you can't have thought it through very well and maybe you shouldn't be doing it or believing it at all.

If someone asks you why you believe or act as you do, don't just say, "Because I believe (or act) that
way Give them a reason why. But before you give a reason why, ask yourself why and keep asking yourself
why. Only then will your life become more meaningful to you.

Predicting Consequences
Moral reasoning involves predicting the consequences of an action before we act. There are
always consequences when we take the action we think is right, and when we try to be good persons, and
usually these include unintended as well as intended outcomes.
We must remember, however, that before we act we can never know for certain what the
consequences will be. Therefore, we should take care in predicting what will result from acting on an ethical
presumption.

In doing ethics, we look at rules (about duty and rights) and at stories (about character and
relationships) to construct a presumption, and then test this presumption by predicting what we do know
(and don't know) about the likely consequences of acting on it.

IMPARTIALITY

Impartiality also called evenhandedness or fair-mindedness is a principle of justice holding that

decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the
benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.

Someone who is impartial is not directly involved in a particular situation, and is, therefore, able to
give a fair opinion or decision about it.

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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

Impartiality makes no discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class or political

opinions. It endeavors to relieve the suffering of individuals, being guided solely by their needs, and to give
priority to the most urgent cases of distress.

1.5. THE MINIMUM CONCEPTION OF MORALITY

• Is reason a requirement for morality?
✓ Reason - the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgments by a process of logic
✓ Immanuel Kant asserted that reason alone is the basis for morality. Once the person
understood this basic requirement for morality, he or she would see that acting morally is the
same as acting rationally.
✓ A moral decision is about thinking of possible actions to take and choosing what action to take.
It is not controlled by desires, forcing people to act in a particular manner.

• Is impartiality a requirement for morality?

✓ Impartiality denotes that decisions should be "based on objective criteria rather on the basis of
bias, prejudice, or preferring to benefit one person over another for improper reasons" -
Jollimore, 2011
o It stresses everyone ought to be given equal importance and not favor one class in a
capricious way thus forfeit question a reason and impartiality a requirement for morality

✓ Morality at the very least is the effort to guide one's action based on the most logical choice
(reason) while giving equal importance to the interests of each person affected by your
decisions (impartiality).

RACHELS’ MINIMUM CONCEPTION OF MORALITY (a core starting point for almost every moral theory):
“Morality is the effort to guide one’s conduct by reasons while giving equal weight to interests of each
individual affected”

1. Morality is conduct guided by impartial reason

a. Effort to guide one’s conduct by reasons
b. To do what there are the best reasons for doing
c. Morality is 1st and foremost a matter of consulting reasons
2. Moral judgments must be backed by good reasons
3. The right act is “where the weight of reason lies”
a. Best idea is one that has reason on its side
b. Morally right thing to do is determined by what there are the best reasons for doing
4. Impartially: While giving equal weight to interests of each individual who will be affected
by one’s conduct
a. Morality requires impartial consideration of each individual’s interests
5. A conscientious moral agent is one who is
a. Impartial
b. Ascertains the facts
c. Scrutinizes principles
i. Are they sound? Are they being intelligently applied?
d. Listens to reason, even if this means changing one’s views
e. Who acts on results of deliberation

QUESTIONS/ISSUES:
1. Role of feeling in ethics/morality?
a. Feelings are good as they show moral seriousness but they can be an impediment to
figuring out what is right;
b. When we feel strongly, we believe we know what is right and close off to argument
and reason giving

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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

c. Feelings can be irrational or the results of prejudice

d. “If we are to discover the truth, we must let our feelings be guided as much as
possible by reason”

2. Difference between morality and taste involves reason giving

a. No reason needed for the taste judgments “I like coffee” or “coffee tastes good”; no
such thing as rationally defending ones like or dislike for coffee
b. In contrast, morality requires reasons and if they are sound others need to
acknowledge them

3. Problem of distinguishing good from bad reasons/arguments

a. Get facts straight
b. What moral principles apply to the case and are they good principles

STEPS IN MORAL REASONING MODEL

To ensure the reasonableness and neutrality of moral decisions, it is good to follow the seven-step moral
reasoning model. These steps can serve as a guide in making best choices in decision makings.

1. Gather the facts - gather as many facts as you can; clarify what assumptions you are making
2. Identify the stakeholders - identify all of the persons involved and will be affected in an ethical
situation
3. Articulate the Dilemma the purpose of articulating a dilemma is to make sure that you - understand
the situation and the moral conflict you are facing
4. List the Alternatives - think creatively about potential actions to ensure you are not pushed into a
corner
5. Compare the Alternatives with the Principles identifying the values and comparing your action help
identify illegal or unethical actions
6. Weigh the Consequences filter your choices to avoid options that will violate ethical - values
7. Make a Decision - avoid "paralysis by analysis". Your decision must reflect the values you want to
uphold

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fn2SlJAhSiU

1.6. MORALITY COMPARED WITH OTHER NORMATIVE SUBJECTS: RELIGION, LAW

AND ETIQUTTE

Moral principles concern standards of behavior; roughly speaking, they involve not what is but what ought to
be. Morality has a distinct action-guiding, or normative, aspect, which it shares with other practices such as
religion, law, and etiquette. Since morality is normative, it is then action-guiding - telling us what ought to do
or to be.

RELIGION
- moral behavior is essential to religion but moral practices and principles may not be identified with or
based on religion.
- religion often refers to a "higher authority" as the ultimate ground of right and wrong; thus, its
dimension is mainly vertical
- while religion is vertical, morality is horizontal, that is, moral principles and practices are discovered
outside religion

LAWS
- Laws are made to promote well-being, resolve conflicts and promote social harmony, just as
morality also aims those things.

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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

- However, some laws may be considered unethical even though they retain legal authority.
- Slavery, spousal abuse, racial discrimination, abortion, etc. but they are immoral.
- In 1351, King Edward of England made a law against homicidal thoughts about the King. The
problem with this law was that it was impossible determine if people are having these thoughts.

ETIQUETTE
- The set of rules or customs that control accepted behavior in particular social groups or social
situations.
- Etiquette concerns form and style rather than the essence of social existence. It determines what is
polite behavior rather than what is right behavior in a deeper sense.
- It represents society's decision as to how we are to dress, greet one another eat, celebrate
festivals, dispose of the dead, etc.
- But none of these rituals has any moral superiority. There is no moral necessity in conventional
practices.
- However, these cultural conventions can be subsumed under principle of showing respect for
people.

SUMMARY
- Morality differs from LAW and ETIQUETTE by going deeper into the essence of our social
existence.
- Morality differs from RELIGION by seeking reasons, rather than authority, to justify its principles.
- The central purpose of moral philosophy is to secure valid principles of conduct and values that
can guide human actions and produce good character

Enhancement Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fEMgHQk3KyI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BzGFeNMIPQ
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-differences-between-morality-and-law-religion.

1.7. TRAITS OF MORAL PRINCIPLES

The following Traits of Moral Principles:

1. Prescriptivity refers to the practical or action-guiding nature of morality.
- moral principles are generally put forth as commands or imperatives
- intended for use: to advise and to influence to action
- used to appraise behavior, assign praise and blame, and produce feelings of satisfaction or
guilt
For example: 1) “Do not kill”; 2) “Do no unnecessary harm”; 3) “Love your neighbor”
2. Universalizability
- moral principles must apply to all who are in the relevantly similar situation.
✓ exemplified in the Golden Rule e.g. Do unto others what you would them do unto you
(Luke 6:31)
✓ applies to all evaluative judgments
✓ an extension of the principle of consistency
3. Overridingness
- moral principles have predominant authority and override other kinds of principles
✓ take precedence over considerations including aesthetic, prudential, and legal ones
✓ religion is a special case where a command and may override a normal moral rule
✓ when principles conflict, one must override the other (s) for an action to be morally
justified
4. Publicity
- moral principles must be made public in order to guide our actions
✓ necessary because principles are used to prescribe behavior, give advice, and assign
praise and blame
✓ Keeping a moral principle secret would be self-defeating
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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

5. Practicability
- moral principles must be workable and its rules must not lay a heavy burden on us when we
follow them
✓ rules must not be too much for anyone person
✓ rules must take human limitations into consideration so as to prevent more despair,
deep or undue moral guilt, and ineffective action
✓ difference in ethical standards occur overtime and place

1.8. DOMAINS OF ETHICAL ASSESSMENT

Most ethical analysis falls into one, or some, of the following domains:
4. Action (the act): action is usually term right or wrong.
✓ Right act is an act that is permissible for you to do which either
a. An Obligatory act – is one that morality requires you to do; it is not permissible
for you to refrain from doing it
b. An optional act – an act not obligatory or wrong to do; not your duty to do or not
to do
✓ Wrong act is one you have an obligation, or a duty, to refrain from doing; It is an act you
ought not to do; it is not permissible to do it.
5. Consequences: actions based on the foreseeable outcome of a course of decision
- it is focus primary on consequences in determining moral rightness or wrongness
3. Character: it emphasizes character, or virtue, virtuous.
- Aristotle maintained that the development of virtuous character traits is needed to ensure
that we habitually act rightly.
- Vital to empower our character with the tendency to do good
- Good character traits are virtuous
- Bad character traits are vices
4. Motive: ethically assess situations by examining the motive of the people involved
- Virtually all ethical system recognizes the importance of motives
- For a full assessment of any action it is important to take the agent’s motive into account
- Seemingly identical acts may differ morally due to a difference of motives

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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

1.9. TERMINOLOGY
Applied Ethics is a branch of ethics devoted to the treatment of moral problems, practices, and policies in
personal life, professions, technology, and government.

Autonomy refers to a person’s capacity to adequately self-govern their beliefs and actions

Beneficence refers to a normative statement of a moral obligation to act for the others’ benefit, helping
them to further their important and legitimate interests, often by preventing or removing possible
harms

Casuists is a process of reasoning that seeks to resolve moral problems by extracting or extending
theoretical rules from a particular case, and reapplying those rules to new instances.

Descriptive Ethics refers to what individuals accept to be right or wrong and is about various moral
standards utilized over a wide span of time.

Dilemma a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two or more alternatives, especially
equally undesirable ones.

Ethics is a theory which can be applied to tell us whether our action are right or wrong. Ethics also refers to
the study of ethical theory.

Ethical or moral dilemmas is a problem in the decision-making process between two possible options,
neither of which is absolutely acceptable from an ethical perspective.

Impartiality is a principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than
on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper
reasons.

Justice is the quality of being just; righteousness, equitableness, or moral rightness

Metaethics is the philosophy of ethics dealing with the meaning of ethical terms, the nature of moral
discourse, and the foundations of moral principles.

Morality indicates practice that is the rightness or wrongness of human action.

Non-maleficence is an obligation not to inflict harm on others.

Normative Ethics seeks to set norms or standards that regulate right and wrong or good and bad conduct.

Reason is a statement or fact that explains why something is the way it is, why someone does, thinks,
or says something, or why someone behaves a certain way

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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

1.10. MODULE ACTIVITIES

Name:
Course:
Subject:
Year & Block:
Module No. & Title
Activity Number:

ACTIVITY NO. 1.1

SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION

The class will be divided into 4 groups, every group should listen to the song entitled “It’s My Life”, the
overall message of the song is about being yourself, and standing up for what you believe in, and not letting
people walk all over you, even our parents, spouse/partner, and/or someone else have not allowed to
manipulate or dictate on your life. So, it’s definitely easy to conclude that the song is a philosophical in its
approach.

Each group will deliberate about the song and will engage in informal debate on the best course of
action. The debate must be recorded and submit it in Google classroom. This activity will be done during
asynchronous class scheduled.

ACTIVITY NO. 1.2

Case Analysis/Debate
You and your classmate could form into four groups, two groups will be given the same case. After
deliberating on the cases below, students will engage in informal debate on the best course of action.
The debate must be recorded and submit it in Google classroom. This activity will be done during
asynchronous class scheduled.

Case of Jodie and Mary

The infants, known as Mary and Jodie, were joined at the lower abdomen. Their spines were
fused, and they had only one heart and one set of lungs between them. The doctors said that without
intervention both girls would die within six months. An operation to separate them would save Jodie,
but Mary would die immediately. The parents, devout Catholics, refused the permission to operate.
They were overruled by the courts. Jodie lived and Mary died.

Case of Tracey Latimer

Tracy Latimer, 12-year-old victim of cerebral palsy from Saskatchewan, was killed by her father
in 1993. She had the mental life of a 3-month old baby and was in constant, severe pain. Mrs.
Latimer supported her husband. The Supreme Court of Canada required the mandatory sentence be
imposed. He got 25 years.

ACTIVITY NO. 1.3

Visual Studies
The teacher will show the students images while narrating The River Blindness Story. The students will
give their reaction on the said images shown.

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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

Source: https://gafacom.website/onchocerciasis-river-blindness/

River blindness life cycle. Diagram showing the life cycle of the parasitic nematode (roundworm)
Onchocerca volvulus, the cause of river blindness. The larvae are transmitted to humans via the bite of
Simulium sp. black flies. The larvae develop into adults in the skin, causing nodules. The adults breed and
produce many larvae that spread throughout the body, including to the eyes, causing itching. When the
larvae die they produce a strong immune reaction that causes inflammation. It is this inflammation that
causes blindness.

1.11. REFERENCES
1. BULAONG, OSCAR G. JR., et al. Ethics: foundations of moral valuation. REX Bookstore,
Manila. Philippines. 2018.

2. PASCO, MARC OLIVER, et al. Ethics. C & E Publishing, Inc. 2018

3. RACHELS, JAMES. The elements of moral philosophy. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. 2003.

OTHER REFERENCES
Reading Handouts/Materials
https://www.distanceeducationju.in/pdf/BA%20Sem%20III%20Course%20No%20PL-
301%20Philosophy.pdf
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/pamantasan-ng-lungsod-ng-maynila/ethics/ethics-module-lecture-
notes-1/13817822
https://www.slideshare.net/dborcoman/chapter-1-11207033
https://www.slideshare.net/dborcoman/chapter1-9042561
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4863255/
https://gafacom.website/onchocerciasis-river-blindness/

Video Clips/Materials
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=Rr7U49RPpTs
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=p9A4UHYeBcE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xL-3VXs22hA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7JkRncMz9xc
GE:ET - ETHICS 16
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MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-xVdLbD4NZY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SVYcETMuJg8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ajz6bv34ms
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jwOQ7ZqDWN4&t=15s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZtF2EK9L7VI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aVvdNAbfmKY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D0dz36Z-OIk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fn2SlJAhSiU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fEMgHQk3KyI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BzGFeNMIPQ
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-differences-between-morality-and-law-religion.

“We are all capable of becoming something monstrous.”

― Cyraus Foldger

Prepared by:

TONICHE C. USTARES, MPA

Instructor

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