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DC - MODULE 3 (my notes)

DC vtu 5th sem cs

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18 views9 pages

DC - MODULE 3 (my notes)

DC vtu 5th sem cs

Uploaded by

hajiraa.2903
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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MODULE 3:-

Q:1:- Datagram Networks


Ans:- In datagram switching, each packet is routed independently with a header
containing source and destination addresses.
Packets are queued if the transmission line is busy.
Advantages include high utilization of the transmission line.
Drawbacks include potential packet loss, out-of-order arrival, and re-sequencing
needs.
Datagram switching is connectionless, with no setup or teardown phases, and
each packet is treated equally by switches. The Internet uses this method for
routing packets.
Each packet has a destination
address in its header. When
received, the switch consults its
dynamic routing table to find the
appropriate forwarding port. The
routing tables are periodically
updated with destination
addresses and corresponding
output ports.

Q:2:- Virtual Circuit Network (VCN)


Ans:- A Virtual Circuit Network (VCN) combines circuit-switched and datagram
networks. It has five key features:
1. Setup, teardown, and data transfer phases.
2. Resource allocation during setup or on-demand.
3. Data is packetized, with local addressing in headers.
4. All packets follow the same path.
5. VCN operates at the data link layer, unlike circuit-switched networks, which
operate at the physical layer.
Data Transfer Phase : To transfer a frame, all switches must have a table entry for
the virtual circuit, with four columns containing key information for each
established virtual circuit.

Set Up Phase : In the setup phase of a virtual-circuit network, a switch creates


an entry for the virtual circuit.
1. Setup Request:
o Source-A sends a setup request to Switch-1.
o Switch-1 adds an entry in its table and forwards the frame to Switch-
2 through port 3.
o Switch-2 adds its own entry and forwards the frame to Switch-3.
o Switch-3 adds its entry and forwards the frame to Destination-B.
o Destination-B assigns a unique VCI for incoming frames from A.

Acknowledgment : A special frame, called the acknowledgment-frame,


completes the entries in the Switching tables.

Q:3:- Differentiate between Circuit Switched, Datagram and Virtual Circuit


Networks.
Q:4:- Explain the process of Error detection using block coding.
Ans:- • In block coding message is divided into k bits blocks called datawords.
Then r redundant bits are added to each block to make the length n = k + r. The
resulting nbit blocks are called codewords.
• With k bits, we can create a combination of 2k datawords; with n bits, we can
create a combination of 2n codewords.
• Since n > k, the number of possible codewords is larger than the number of
possible datawords.
• The same dataword is always encoded as the same codeword.
Error Detection: The receiver can detect a change in the original codeword if it
has a list of valid codewords and the codeword has changed to an invalid one.
• The sender encodes datawords into codewords.
• If the received codeword matches a valid one, the corresponding dataword
is used.
• If the codeword is corrupted but still valid, the error remains undetected.
• This coding can detect single errors but may fail to detect two or more
errors.

Q:5:- Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)


• CRC is a cyclic code that is used in networks such as LANs and WANs.
At Sender:
• Append (n-k) 0s to the dataword to form an augmented dataword.
• The augmented dataword is encoded using the generator, producing
check-bits.
At Receiver:
• The augmented dataword with check-bits is transmitted.
• The receiver checks the codeword by dividing it with the divisor.
• The syndrome bits are analyzed to detect errors.

Q:6:- Checksum
• Checksum is an error-detecting technique.
Internet Checksum
• Internet has been using a 16-bit checksum.
• The sender or the receiver uses five steps
Fletcher Checksum
The Fletcher checksum weighs data items based on their position. There are two
algorithms:
1. 8-bit Fletcher: Works on 8-bit data items, producing a 16-bit checksum.
The calculation is done modulo 256 with two accumulators, L (sum of data)
and R (weighted sum).
2. 16-bit Fletcher: Works on 16-bit data items, producing a 32-bit checksum.
Both use modular arithmetic to compute the checksum.
Adler Checksum:
The Adler checksum is a 32-bit checksum similar to the 16-bit Fletcher, with
three key differences:
1. It calculates on single bytes instead of two.
2. It uses a prime modulus (65,521) instead of 65,536.
3. L is initialized to 1 instead of 0.
The prime modulus improves error detection in certain data combinations.

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