1

Aim: Determination of alkalinity in drinking water

Introduction:

Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water and is usually

determined by titration against sulfuric acid to the endpoint of the acid–base
reaction.

Alkalinity has two types: Phenolphthalein alkalinity denoted by (P) and the Total Alkalinity
denoted by (T)

1. Phenolphthalein alkalinity measures the hydroxides and half the carbonates at a pH

8.3
2. Total alkalinity measures all carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide alkalinity at a pH
4.5 (approximately).

Requirements:
1. Burette with Burette stand and porcelain dishes// Clear flasks
2. Pipettes with elongated tips
3. Conical flask
4. Measuring cylinders
5. Beakers
6. Dropper
7. Stirrer

Chemical Requirements:
1. Standard 0.02N sulphuric acid
2. Phenolphthalein indicator
3. Methyl orange indicator

Sample Handling and preservation:

Preservation of sample is not practical. Because biological activity will continue after a sample
has been taken, changes may occur during handling and storage. To reduce the change in
samples, keep all samples at 4°C. Do not allow samples to freeze. Analysis should begin as
soon as possible. Do not open sample bottle before analysis.
 2

Procedure:
1. Measure 100 ml of your sample into a 250 ML flask which has been thoroughly
cleaned.
2. Add 03 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. If the colour of the solution turns pink,
titrate your sample with 0.02 N H2SO4 until colour changes from pink to clear. Record
the volume of acid used for the titration. Record the ml of N/50 sulphuric acid used as
(P).
3. To the same sample, add 03 drops of methyl orange and continue to titrate with N/50
sulphuric acid until the first pink colour appears. Note the volume of acid used as (T).

The various relations between (P) and (T) are given below:
a. P=0, alkalinity= T x 10 mg/l (Bicarbonate Alkalinity)
b. P=T, alkalinity= T x 10 mg/l (Hydroxide Alkalinity)
c. P= 1/2 T, Alkalinity = T x 10 mg/l (carbonate alkalinity)
d. P < 1/2 T, Alkalinity =(T-2P) x 10 mg/l (bi carbonate alkalinity)
e. P > 1/2 T, Alkalinity = (2P-T) x 10 mg/l (Hydroxide alkalinity)

TABLE FOR RECORDING THE OBSERVATIONS

S. No. Initial Final Vol. of P (ml) T(ml) Alkalinity(mg/l)

Reading Reading N/50
(ml) (ml) Acid used
1
2
3

Note: Take three readings for a sample

References:
You tube: Measurement of Alkalinity - YouTube
 3

Book: Environmental Science a Practical Manual (Authors- G. Swarajya Lakshmi, P Prabhu

Prasadini, Ramesh Thatikunta, VNLV tayaru)
 4

Aim: Determination of pH of drinking water

and soil

Introduction:

The term “pH” refers to the measurement of hydrogen ion activity in the solution. Since the
direct measurement of the pH is very difficult, specific electrodes are needed for quick and
accurate pH determination. pH is measured on a scale of 0 to 14, with lower values indicating
high H+ (more acidic) and higher values indicating low H+ ion activity (less acidic). A pH of 7
is considered as neutral. Every whole unit in pH represents a ten-fold increase in or decrease
in hydrogen ion concentration. Most natural waters possess the pH values ranging from 5.0 to
8.5. Rain water have a pH value of 5.4 to 6.0 which then reacts with the soils and minerals
causing the reduction in H+ ion concentration and thus the water may become alkaline with a
pH 0f 8.0-8.5. More acid water (pH<5) and more alkaline (pH
>9) and other immediate changes in the hydrogen ion concentration (pH) suggest that the
quality of the water is adversely affected due to the introduction of some toxic contaminants in
water bodies. pH is measured using pH meter, which comprises a detecting unit consisting of
a glass electrode, reference electrode, usually a calomel electrode connected by KCl Bridge to
the pH sensitive glass electrode and an indicating unit which indicates the pH corresponding
to the electromotive force is then detected. Before measurement, pH meter should be
calibrated by using at least two buffers.

Requirements:

1. pH meter
2. pH electrode filled with KCL solution
3. Buffer solutions of pH4 and pH 7
4. Clean beakers
5. Tissue papers
6. Distilled water
7. Thermometer

Procedure:

* Plug in the pH meter to power source and let it warm up for 5 to 10 minutes
* Wash the glass electrode with distilled water and clean slowly with a soft tissue.
* Note the temperature of water and set the same on the pH meter
* Place the electrode in pH 7 buffer solution and set the value of 7 on the pH meter turning the Calibrate
knob on the meter.
* Take out the electrode, wash with DW and clean.
 5

* Dip the electrode in the pH 4 buffer solution. Adjust the value on the pH readout meter by the Slope
switch. Repeat with pH 7 and pH4 buffers till a correct and stable reading is displaced.

* While moving and cleaning the electrode, put the selector switch on standby mode. Turn to pH mode
for recording the pH.
* Now place the electrode in the water sample whose pH is to be determined.
* You can take a number of simultaneous readings for different samples until the power is on.

Result: ………………………

Precaution:
1. The pH meter can be standardized by measuring the 7-pH buffer solution or any other solution of
standard pH. Sometimes, the manufacturer of the pH meter may suggest other methods of
standardizing, which too have to be followed.
2. The electrodes have to be inserted into the water so that it does not touch the bottom of the beaker.
Bottom contact with damage may cause damage to the electrodes.
3. Any cause of slow response due to the polarization can be solved by washing the electrodes
thoroughly.
4. Periodic check has to be conducted to check the electrodes
5. During the electrode storage, they have to be kept moist. And also follow the instructions of the
manufacturer.

Fig. pH Meter

Reference:
1. YouTube: Determination of pH value - A Complete Procedure (youtube.com)

2. Book: Environmental Science A Practical Manual (Authors- G. Swarajya

Lakshmi, P Prabhu Prasadini, Ramesh Thatikunta, VNLV tayaru)
3. Internet Sources
 6

Aim: Determination of pH of
soil

Introduction:

The term “pH” refers to the measurement of hydrogen ion activity in the solution. Since the
direct measurement of the pH is very difficult, specific electrodes are needed for quick and
accurate pH determination. pH is measured on a scale of 0 to 14, with lower values indicating
high H+ (more acidic) and higher values indicating low H+ ion activity (less acidic). A pH of 7
is considered as neutral. Every whole unit in pH represents a ten-fold increase in or decrease
in hydrogen ion concentration. The soil pH is the negative logarithm of the active hydrogen
ion (H+) conc. in the soil solution. It is the measure of soil salinity, acidity or neutrality. It is a
very crucial estimation for soils, since soil pH influences to a great extent on the availability
of nutrients to crops. It also influences microbial population in soils. Most nutrients are
available to the plants in the pH range of 5.5 to 6.5.

Requirements:
1. pH meter
2. Clean Beaker
3. Glass rod
4. Distilled water
5. Thermometer
6. Reagent: Buffer solutions of pH 4, 7 and 9.2

Procedure:
1. Calibrate the pH meter, using 3 buffer solutions, one should be the buffer with neutral pH (7.0)
and the other should be chosen based on the range of pH in the soil.
2. Take the buffer solution in the beaker. Insert the electrode alternately in the beakers containing
2 buffer solutions and adjust the pH.
3. The instrument indicating pH as per the buffers is ready to test the samples.
4. Weigh 10.0g of soil sample into 50 or beaker; add 25 ml of distilled water. Thoroughly stir for
10 second using a glass rod.
5. Record the pH on the calibrated pH meter.
 7

Result/ Observation:
Table: Based on soil pH values, following types of soil reactions are distinguished:

pH Range Soil Reaction Rating

<3.5 Extremely acid
3.5-4.0 Very strongly acid
4.0-5.0 Strongly acid
5.0-6.0 Moderately acid
6.0-6.5 Slightly acid
6.6-7.4 Neutral
7.5-8.0 Slightly alkaline
8.0-8.5 Moderately alkaline
>8.5 Strongly alkaline

The acidic soils need to be limed before they can be put to normal agricultural production.
The alkalisoils need to be treated with gypsum to remove the excessive content of sodium.

Note: Students must compare your results with above charts and write proper conclusion in
remark area like pH value and nutrient availability.

Reference:
Book: Environmental Science a Practical Manual (Authors- G. Swarajya Lakshmi, P Prabhu
Prasadini, Ramesh Thatikunta, VNLV tayaru).
 8

Aim: Determine the total hardness of given water samples

Introduction:
Hardness in water is due to the presence of dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium. It
is unfit for drinking, bathing, washing and it also forms scales in boilers. Hence it is necessary
to estimate the amount of hardness producing substances present in the water sample. Once it
is estimated, the amount of chemicals required for the treatment of water can be calculated.
The estimation of hardness is based on complexometric titration. Hardness of water is
determined by titrating with a standard solution of ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA)
which is a complexing agent. Since EDTA is insoluble in water, the disodium salt of EDTA is
taken for this experiment. EDTA can form four or six coordination bonds with a metal ion. Two
type of hardness is present in water first is temporary hardness and second is permanent
hardness. Temporary hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium
ions. It can be easily removed by boiling. Permanent hardness is due to the presence of
chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium ions. This type of hardness cannot be
removed by boiling.

Requirements:
1. Water sample
2. Burette 25-30ml
3. Glass funnel
4. Pipette 1ml
5. Flask
6. Dropper
7. Measuring cylinder
Reagents:
EDTA, Eriochrome Black-T, NH2CL, Ammonia Buffer, Magnesium Carbonate, 90% ethyl
alcohol, Distilled water.
Reagent Preparation:
1. EDTA solution: 4gm EDTA and 0.1gm magnesium bicarbonate dissolve in 800 ml
distilled water.
2. Eriochrome Black-T: 0.4gm Ericrome Black T, 4.5 gm hydroxylamine hydrochloride
add in 100ml 95% ethyl alcohol.
 9

3. Ammonia Buffer: Stock A: 16.9gm of NH4CL in 143ml of conc. NH4OH, Stock B:

1.25gm magnesium salt of EDTA dissolve in 50 ml distilled water. Mix both stock
solutions and dilute to 250ml with DDW. Dilute 10ml of the solution to 100ml with
DDW.
Procedure:
1. The burette is filled with standard EDTA solution to the zero level.
2. Take 50ml sample water in flask. If sample having high Calcium content, then take
smaller volume and dilute to 50ml.
3. Add 1ml Ammonia buffer.
4. Add 5 to 6 drop of Ericrome black – T indicator. The solution turns into wine red colour.
5. Note the initial reading.
6. Titrate the content against EDTA solution. At the end point colour change from wine
red to blue colour.
7. Note the final reading and record it. Repeat the process till we get concordant value.
8. Take 50ml sample in another flask and boiled it. (Add distilled water to get final volume
of water.)
9. Repeat step 3-7.

Calculations:
S.No. Water Sample Initial Value Final Value Ml of EDTA
(50ml)
1
2
3

Total hardness of water mg/L (CaCO3 Scale) =ml of EDTA used (unboiled) * 103 /ml of sample
Permanent hardness of water mg/L (CaCO3 Scale) = ml of EDTA used (boiled) *103 /ml of
sample
Temporary hardness of water mg/L (CaCO3 Scale) = Total hardness of water - Permanent
hardness of water
 10

Observation:
The colour of soluble distilled water and R.O water instantly changed into blue while tap water
and pond water turned wine red when Ericrome black T was added and therefore after turned
blue when titrated against EDTA solution.

Result:
The collected water sample contains Total hardness = ppm
Permanent hardness = ppm
Temporary hardness = ppm

References:
Book: Environmental Science A Practical Manual (Authors- G. Swarajya Lakshmi, P Prabhu
Prasadini, Ramesh Thatikunta, VNLV tayaru).
Internet Source
You Tube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=85tMHHOj7PU
 11

Aim: To determine the quantity of oil and grease present in the given sample of water
by partition gravimetric method

Introduction:

The oil and grease contents of domestic and certain industrial wastes and the sludge, is of an
important consideration in the handling and treatment of these material for ultimate disposal.
Knowledge of the quality of the oil and grease present is helpful in proper design and operation
of wastewater treatment system. The term grease applies to wide variety of organic substance
that is extracted from aqueous solution or suspension by hexane. Hydrocarbons, esters, oils,
fats, waxes and high molecular weight fatty acids are the major materials dissolved by hexane.
All these materials have a greasy feel and are associated with the problems in wastewater
treatment related to grease.

In the Partition-Gravimetric method, dissolved or emulsified oil and grease is extracted

from water by intimate contact with trichloro trifluoroethane; petroleum ether (40/60) or
hexane.

Requirements:

1. Beaker
2. Separating funnel
3. Distilling flask
4. Desiccators
5. Vacuum pump

Reagents:

1. Trichlorotrifluosoethane (freon).
2. HCl

Procedure:

1. Collect about 1 litre of sample and mark sample level in bottle for latter determination
of sample volume. Acidity to pH 2 or lower; generally, 5 ml HCl is sufficient. Transfer
to a separating funnel. Carefully rinse sample bottle with 30 ml trichlorotrifluoroethane
and solvent washing to separating funnel.
 12

2. Preferably shake vigorously for 2 minutes. However, if it is suspected for stable

emulsion shakes gently 5 to 10 minutes.
3. Let layer separate out, drain solvent layer through a funnel containing solvent–
moistened filter paper into a clean, evacuated distilling flask. If a clear solvent layer
cannot be obtained, add 1g Na2SO4, if necessary.
4. Extract twice more with 30 ml solvent each time but first rinse sample container with
solvent. Combine extracts in evacuated distilling flask and mash filter paper with an
additional 10 ml to 20 ml solvent.
5. Distill solvent from distilling flask in a water bath at 70°C. Place flask on water bath
at 70°C for 15 minute and draw air through it with an applied vacuum for final 1
minute after the solvent has evaporated. If the residue contains visible water, add 2 ml
acetone evaporates on a water bath and repeat the addition and evaporation until all
visible water has been removed. Cool in a desiccators for 30 minute and weigh it.

Observation:

Temperature of measurement= ........... °C

Mass of evacuated flask= ........... g
Mass of evacuated flask + residue= ............g
Mass of residue= ............mg
Volume of sample = ............ mL

Calculation:

The amount of oil and grease in the sample can be calculated as,
Oil and Grease (mg/L) = (A - B) 1000/volume of the sample
where,
A = mass of evacuated flask and residue (g)
B = mass of evacuated flask (g)

Result:

The amount of oil and grease in given water sample = ............. mg/L.

Precautions:
 13

No known solvent will dissolve effectively only oil and grease. Solvent removal results in
the loss of short chain hydrocarbon and simple aromatic compound by volatilisation, and
heavier residual of some effluents may contain significant portion of material that are not
extracted with the solvent.

References:

Book:
Environmental Science A Practical Manual (Authors- G. Swarajya Lakshmi, P
PrabhuPrasadini, Ramesh Thatikunta, VNLV tayaru).
Internet Source:
https://biocyclopedia.com/index/enivronmental_science_engineering_laboratory_meth
o dology/determination_of_oil_and_grease.php
 14

Aim: To study of tools for different weather-related measurements

1. Thermometer:
Thermometers, one of the most widely recognized weather instruments, are tools used to
measure ambient air temperature. The SI (international) unit of temperature is degrees
Celsius, but in the U.S., we record temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit.

2. Barometer:
A barometer is a weather instrument used to measure air pressure. Barometer is the two
main types, mercury and aneroid, aneroid are more widely used. Digital barometers, which
use electrical transponders, are used in most official weather stations. Italian physicist
Evangelista Torricelli is credited with inventing the barometer in 1643.
 15

3. Hygrometer:

First invented in 1755 by Swiss "renaissance man" Johann Heinrich Lambert, the
hygrometer is a tool that measures humidity, or moisture content in the air.

Hygrometers come in all types:

 Hair tension hygrometers relate the change in length of a human or animal hair
(which has an affinity to absorbing water) to a change in humidity.
 Sling psychrometers use a set of two thermometers (one dry and one moistened
with water) are spun in the air.
 Of course, as is true of most modern weather instruments used today, the digital
hygrometer is preferred. Its electronic sensors change in proportion to the level
of moisture in the air.

4. Anemometer:
Anemometers are devices used to measure winds. While the basic concept was developed
by Italian artist Leon Battista Alberti around 1450, the cup- anemometer wasn't perfected
until the 1900s. Today, two kinds of anemometersare most often used:

 The three-cup anemometer determines wind speed based on how fast the cup
wheel spins and wind direction from the cyclical changes in cup wheel speed.
 Vane anemometers have propellers on one end to measure wind speed and tails
on the other for determining wind direction.
16
 17

AIM: DETERMINATION OF Total Dissolved Solids and Total Suspended Solids

Introduction: Total Suspended Solids (TSS) in water refer to the solid particles suspended in
the water column, including organic and inorganic matter. Monitoring TSS levels is crucial
because they can affect water quality, aquatic life, and human health. High TSS levels can
indicate pollution, sedimentation, or erosion issues, impacting ecosystems and water treatment
processes. Regular monitoring helps assess the health of water bodies and ensures the
effectiveness of water treatment strategies.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in water refer to the total concentration of dissolved
substances present in the water, including minerals, salts, metals, and organic compounds.
Monitoring TDS levels is essential because they can affect the taste, odor, and overall quality
of water. High TDS levels may indicate the presence of contaminants or minerals, which can
pose health risks or affect the suitability of water for various purposes such as drinking,
agriculture, or industrial use. Regular monitoring helps ensure water safety and quality
standards are met.

Requirements:

1. Beaker
2. Balance
3. Measuring cylinder
4. Filter paper/Gooch crucible
5. Funnel
6. Dropper

Procedure:

1. Take a clear dry glass beaker of 150 ML capacity (which was kept at 103°C in an oven
for 1 hour) and put appropriate identification mark on it. Weight the beaker and note
the weight.
2. Pour 100ml. of the thoroughly mixed sample, measured by the measuring cylinder, in
the beaker.
3. Place the beaker in an oven maintained at 103°C for 24hours. After 24 hours, when
whole of the water has evaporated, cool the beaker and weight. Find out the weight of
solids in the beaker by subtracting the weight of the clean beaker determined in step
(1).
 18

4. Calculate total solids (TS) as follows:

Total solids in water = Difference of the weight of the beakers/ Volume of the sample × 1000

Measurement of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

1. Same as above (step 1 of total solids).
2. Take a 100 ml. of sample and filter it through a double layered filter paper or a Gooch
Crucible and collect the filtrate in a beaker.
3. Then repeat the same procedure as in steps (3) and (4) of the total solids determination and
determine the dissolved solids contents as follows:

Calculation:
Dissolved solids, TDS (mg/l) = mg of solids in the beaker / (volume of sample) x 1000
Also, total solid (TS)= Suspended Solids + Total dissolved Solids (TDS)

Reference:
Book: Environmental Science a Practical Manual (Authors- G. Swarajya

Lakshmi, P Prabhu Prasadini, Ramesh Thatikunta, VNLV tayaru)

 19

Aim: Determination of Acidity in Drinking Water

Introduction:

Acidity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize bases. Acidity is the sum of all
titrable acid present in the water sample. Strong mineral acids, weak acids such as carbonic
acid, acetic acid present in the water sample contributes to acidity of the water. Usually
dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) is the major acidic component present in the unpolluted surface
waters.

The volume of standard alkali required to titrate a specific volume of the sample to pH 8.3 is
called phenolphthalein acidity (Total Acidity).

The volume of standard alkali required to titrate a specific volume of the water sample
(wastewater and highly polluted water) to pH 3.7 is called methyl orange acidity (Mineral
Acidity).

Apparatus Requirements

1. Burette with Burette stand

2. Porcelain tile
3. 500 ml conical flask
4. Pipette with elongated tips
5. Pipette bulb
6. Conical flask
7. Measuring cylinders
8. Wash bottles and beakers

Chemical Requirements:

1. Sodium hydroxide
2. Phenolphthalein
3. Methyl orange
4. Ethyl alcohol
5. Distill water

Procedure:
 20

 Preparation of reagents
 Sodium hydroxide (0.02N)
 Take a 1000 ml standard measuring flask and fill 3/4th with distill water
 Accurately measure 20ml of 1 N sulphuric acid solution using a pipette and
transfer to 1000ml standard flask containing the distill water. Make up to
1000ml using distilled water.
 Phenolphthalein Indicator
 Weight accurately 1g of Phenolphthalein and dissolve it in 95% ethyl
alcohol.
 Take 100ml standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it.
 Transfer it to the 100ml standard flask and make up to 100ml using 95%
ethyl alcohol.
 Methyl Orange Indicator
 Weight accurately 1g of methyl and dissolve it in distill water
 Take 100ml standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it
 Transfer it to the 100ml standard flask and make up to 100ml using distill
water.
 Testing A Sample:
1. Rinse the burette with 0.02N sodium hydroxide and then discard the solution
2. Fill the burette with 0.02N sodium hydroxide and adjust the burette
3. Fix the burette to the stand
4. A sample size is chosen as the titrate values and does not exceed 20ml of the
titrant. For highly concentrated samples, dilute the sample. Usually, take 100ml
of a given sample in a conical flask using pipette.
5. Add few drops of methyl orange indicator in the conical flask
6. The color changes to the orange. Now titrate the sample against the 0.02N
sodium hydroxide solution until the orange colour faints
7. Note down the volume (V1) consumed for titration 0.4ml. This volume is used
for calculating the mineral acidity
8. To the same solution in the conical flask add few drops of phenolphthalein
indicator
9. Continue the titration, until the colour changes to faint pink colour.
 21

10. Note down the total volume (V2) consumed for titration 2.3ml. This volume is
used for calculating the total acidity
11. Repeat the titration for concordant values

Precaution

1. Colored and turbid samples may interfere in end point. Those samples may be analyzed
electrometrically, using pH meter.
2. Do not keep the indicator solution open since it contains the alcohol which tense to
evaporate. The mixed indicator solution is containing die in it. Care should be taken so
that it is not spill to your skin. If it spills on your skin the scare will remain for at least
2 to 3 days.
 22

3. Presence of residual chlorine may interfere in the color response, which can be nullified
by addition of small amount of sodium thiosulphate or destroy it with ultraviolet
radiation
4. Presence of iron and aluminum sulphate may interfere in the color response while
titrating in room temperature, which can be nullified by titrating the sample at boiling
temperature
5. Dissolved gases contributing to acidity such as CO2, H2S may interfere in the titration,
hence avoid vigorous shaking.
6. Samples suspected to have hydrolysable metal ions or reduced forms of polyvalent
cations need hydrogen per oxide treatment.

Calculation

Table-1 (Mineral Acidity)

S. No. Volume of Burette Reading (ml) Volume of

Sample (ml) NaOH(ml)
Initial Final

Burette Solution: Sodium Hydroxide

Pipette Solution: Sample

Indicator: Methyl Orange

End Point: Faint of Orange Color

For the calculation of Mineral Acidity:

 The Sodium Hydroxide is taken in in the burette.

 For the First titration the volume of water sample taken is 100 mL. The initial reading
is 00, the final reading is 0.5 mL.
 The volume of NaOH consumed to get the end point is 0.5mL.
 23

 For Second titration the volume of water sample taken is 100 mL. The initial reading is
00, the final reading is 0.4mL..
 The volume of NaOH consumed to get the end point is 0.4 mL.
 For third titration the volume of water sample taken is 100mL. The initial reading is 00,
the final reading is 0.4 mL.
 The volume of NaOH (V₁) consumed to get the end point is 0.4 mL.
 For second and third titration the burette reading is same so we have achieved
concordant values. We can go for the calculations.

Table-2 Total Acidity

S. No. Vol of sample Burette Reading Vol of NaOH

(ml) (ml) (ml)
Initial Final

Burette Solution: Sodium Hydroxide

Pipette Solution: Sample

Indicator: Phenolphthalein

End Point: Faint Pink Color

For the calculation of Total Acidity:

 The Sodium Hydroxide is taken in the burette.

 For the First titration the volume of water sample taken is 100 mL. The initial reading
is 00, the final reading is 2.2 mL.
 The volume of NaOH consumed to get the end point is 2.2 mL.
 For Second titration the volume of water sample taken is 100 mL. The initial reading
is 00, the final reading is 2.3 mL.
 The volume of NaOH consumed to get the end point is 2.3 mL.
 For third titration the volume of water sample taken is 100 mL. The initial reading is
00, the final reading is 2.3 mL.
 The volume of NaOH (V2) consumed to get the end point is 2.3 mL.
 24

 For second and third titration the burette reading is same so we have achieved
concordant values. We can go for the calculations.

References:

Book: Environmental Science a Practical Manual (Authors- G. Swarajya Lakshmi, P Prabhu

Prasadini, Ramesh Thatikunta, VNLV tayaru).