UNIVERSITY OF ADEN FACULITY OF

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF
COMMUNICATION & ELECTRONIC
ENGINEERING

2kW Arduino MPPT Solar Charge Controller and Inverter

Prepared by: Reg. No.

1- Abdullah Nasser Abdullah Nasser 196501

2- Emad Adel Yahya Yahya 196528

3- Hebatallah Faisal Salem Mohammed 196581

4- Abdulrahman Ali Mohammed Hussein 196566
5- Ahmed Mashoor Saif Hamood 196535

Supervisor:
Dr. Awad Bawazier
Department of Communication &
Electronic Engineering
2023/2024
 CERTIFICATE

It certified that the project work entitled:

2kW Arduino MPPT Solar Charge Controller and Inverter

Submitted by: Reg. No.

- Abdullah Nasser Abdullah Nasser 196501

- Emad Adel Yahya Yahya 196528
- Hebatallah Faisal Salem Mohammed Salem 196581
- Abdulrahman Ali Mohammed Hussein 196566
- Ahmed Mashoor Saif Hamood 196535

For the award of bachelor's degree in communication & electronic engineering is

an authentic record of bona-fide work carried out by them under my supervision.

Supervisor:
Dr. Awad Bawazier

Signature ……………………

I
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First off, we thank Allah that give us the ability and the knowledge to complete this project and
without his grace we would not have accomplished anything or reached any point in our
project. We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to our teacher (Dr. Awad
Bawazier) who didn't keep any effort in encouraging us to do a great job, providing our group
with valuable information and advice to be better always.

II
 ABSTRACT
Renewable sources such as the photovoltaic systems (PV) have been used over decades in order
to focus on greener sources of power generation. Today it has become a matter of concern on
how to reduce cost and improve efficiency in order to harness and use these natural resources in a
much better way possible. Hence the idea of maximum power point tracking system (MPPT) has
emerged, which is basically a system used by charge controllers for wind turbines and
photovoltaic systems to employ and also provide a maximized power output. This project is
mainly concerned with the utilization of such a system in order to achieve a controlled
photovoltaic power using MPPT mechanism. The main aim of this project was to track the
maximum power point of the photovoltaic module so that the maximum possible power can be
extracted from the photovoltaic systems by varying certain conditions in algorithm.
This project will cover a project build for an ARDUINO based solar MPPT charge controller.

III
 LIST OF ABBREVIATION

Symbol Description
CCM` continuous conduction mode

DC direct current

DCM discontinuous conduction mode

EMF electromotive force

LCD liquid crystal display

LED light emitting diode

MPP maximum power point

MPPT maximum power point tracking

PCB printed circuit board

PV Photovoltaic

V Voltage

I Current

Vmpp The Maximum power point

voltage
Voc The open circuit voltage

Impp The maximum power point

current
Isc Short circuit current

R Resistor

C Capacitor

L Inductor

vL Inductor voltage

iL Inductor current

IV
Vc Capacitor voltage

V
 Ic Capacitor current

D Duty cycle

tON,HS On-time of high side

tOFF,HS off-time of high side

VOUT Output voltage

Vin Input voltage

LMIN Minimum inductance

CMIN Minimum capacitance

fSW Switching frequency

IOUT, MAX Maximum output current

LIR Inductor ripple current

IPK Peak current

∆IL Changing in inductor current

VOV Overshoot voltage

VI
Table of Contents
...................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Solar Energy..................................................................................................................................................2
1.2 History and THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOVOLTAICS..............................................................2
1.3 Solar Energy in the 1800’s...........................................................................................................................................2
1.4 Solar Energy in the 1900’s...........................................................................................................................................3
1.5 Solar Energy in the 2000’s...........................................................................................................................................4
1.6 Photovoltaic Panels.......................................................................................................................................................6
1.7 Solar power...................................................................................................................................................................7
 Background..................................................................................................................................................................7
..................................................................................................................................................................10
2.1 Photovoltaic Solar Cell...............................................................................................................................................11
2.2 Connected PV System:...............................................................................................................................................13
 Stand-Alone PV System..............................................................................................................................................14
 Calculations for Outputs Characteristics of a Solar Panel.......................................................................................15
2.3 Photovoltaic Cell Mode...............................................................................................................................................17
2.4 Basics On MPPT Charge Controller........................................................................................................................19
2.5 Maximum Power Point Tracking...............................................................................................................................20
 Comparing PWM & MPPT Charge Controllers......................................................................................................21
2.6 PWM Charge Controllers..........................................................................................................................................22
2.7 MPPT Charge Controllers..........................................................................................................................................23
 Pros and Cons of Both Types of Controllers............................................................................................................23
2.8 MPPT Methods...........................................................................................................................................................24
a. Constant Voltage Method...........................................................................................................................................24
b. Open Circuit Voltage Method...................................................................................................................................25
c. Short Circuit Current Method...................................................................................................................................27
d. Perturb and Observe Method....................................................................................................................................27
e. Incremental Conductance Method.............................................................................................................................29
2.9 PARTS THAT ARE REQUIRED............................................................................................................33
2.10 Arduino Uno.............................................................................................................................................................34
2.10.1 Arduino UNO Components..................................................................................................................................34
2.10.2 How to Program Arduino UNO...........................................................................................................................35
2.11 Current Sensor.........................................................................................................................................................36
2.11.1 Performance Specifications..................................................................................................................................38
2.12 Buck Converters.....................................................................................................................................................39
2.13 LCD Display (20x4 I2C).....................................................................................................................................47
2.13.1 What is LCD 20x4 I2C?.....................................................................................................................................47
VII
2.14 MOSFET Drivers...............................................................................................................................................48
2.14.1 Why Do MOSFETs Need Drivers?...................................................................................................................48
2.14.2 Low-Side n-Channel MOSFETs for Switching................................................................................................49
2.14.3 High-Side p-Channel MOSFETs for Switching...............................................................................................50
2.14.4 Using Drivers with n-Channel MOSFETs as High-Side Switches.................................................................52
2.14.5 MOSFET Drivers Simplify the Construction of High-Side Switches...........................................................53
2.15 Inverters in Renewable Energy.........................................................................................................................54
2.16 DC Power vs AC Power.....................................................................................................................................54
2.17 Converting DC Power to AC Power.................................................................................................................55
2.18 Pure Sine Wave vs Modified Sine Wave Inverters................................................................................................56
2.19 Sine Wave Inverters...........................................................................................................................................57
2.20 Parts List (PCB).................................................................................................................................................60
2.21 PIC16F72 8-bit PIC Microcontroller................................................................................................................61
2.21.1 Overview to PIC16F72.......................................................................................................................................61
2.21.2 PIC16F72 Pinout................................................................................................................................................62
2.21.3 Features and Specification of the PIC16F72 Microcontroller:......................................................................63
2.21.4 Programming PIC Microcontroller..................................................................................................................64
2.21.5 Application of PIC16F72....................................................................................................................................66
2.22 IR2110 description..............................................................................................................................................66
2.22.1 Main functions of IR2110...................................................................................................................................67
2.22.2 Working principle of IR2110.............................................................................................................................68
2.22.3 IR2110 Internal Working Principal Diagram:.................................................................................................69
2.22.4 Application of IR2110.........................................................................................................................................70
2.23 CD4081 - Quad 2 Input AND Gate IC.............................................................................................................73
2.23.1 CD4081 IC Pinout Description..........................................................................................................................74
2.23.2 How To Use the CD4081?..................................................................................................................................75
2.24 Sinewave Inverter...............................................................................................................................................77
.................................................................................................................................................................81
3.1 What is Proteus?........................................................................................................................................................82
3.2 The Proposed Arduino Based MPPT Solar Charge Controlled Design..................................................87
3.3 MPPT Specifications..................................................................................................................................................87
3.4 Arduino as Microcontroller.......................................................................................................................................88
3.5 Current sensing..........................................................................................................................................................88
3.5.1 Voltage Sensing........................................................................................................................................................90
3.6 Pulse Width Modulation............................................................................................................................................91
3.7 Battery Space...............................................................................................................................................................92
3.8 MPPT Controller........................................................................................................................................................92

VIII
 3.9 Protection System:......................................................................................................................................................92
3.10 LED Indicator.....................................................................................................................................................93
3.11 Software Section.................................................................................................................................................94
3.12 Arduino Code of MPPT Solar Charge Controller...........................................................................................97
...............................................................................................................................................................107
4.1 Simulation by Proteus...............................................................................................................................................108
4.2 The Scheme Designed by Proteus............................................................................................................................111
4.3 Result of Experiment................................................................................................................................................116
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................................121
 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospect............................................................................................................121
 Advantages................................................................................................................................................................122
 Disadvantages...........................................................................................................................................................123
 References.................................................................................................................................................................125

IX
 List of Figures

CHAPTER 1
FIGURE 1.1 first Solar Panel prototype.................................................................................................................................3
FIGURE 1-2 silicon P-N photo-EMF cell...............................................................................................................................3
FIGURE 1.3 Bell Solar Battery advertisement.......................................................................................................................4
FIGURE 1.4: silicon solar cells..............................................................................................................................................4
FIGURE 1.5: mini solar system..............................................................................................................................................5
FIGURE 1-6 Mechanism of a PV Panel.................................................................................................................................6
FIGURE 1-7 GLOBAL SOLAR RADIATION......................................................................................................................8
FIGURE 1-8 GLOBAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION..................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 2
FIGURE 2-1 Solar PV System with MPPT (home version example)..................................................................................11
FIGURE 2-2 Photovoltaic Solar Cell....................................................................................................................................12
FIGURE 2-3 Photovoltaic Cell.............................................................................................................................................13
FIGURE 2-4 Photovoltaic system.........................................................................................................................................13
FIGURE 2-5 (I vs V) graph for July.....................................................................................................................................15
FIGURE 2-6 P vs v for July..................................................................................................................................................15
FIGURE 2-7 P VS V FOR JULY.........................................................................................................................................16
FIGURE 2-8 P VS V FOR DIFFERENT IRRADIANCE LEVELS.....................................................................................16
FIGURE 2-9 I VS V FOR DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES...............................................................................................17
FIGURE 2-10 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF PV CELL......................................................................................................17
FIGURE 2-11 DIFFERENT VOLTAGES DEPENDING ON THE DIFFERENT PARAMETER........................................19
FIGURE 2-12 Shows the variation of maximum Power Point (MPP) at different sunlight conditions...............................20
FIGURE 2-13 Comparing PWM & MPPT...........................................................................................................................21
FIGURE 2-14 POWER CURVE FOR A PV PANEL..........................................................................................................21
FIGURE 2-15 PWM CHARGE CONTROLLER.................................................................................................................22
FIGURE 2-16 Power curve for a PV Panel with charging ranges for PWM........................................................................22
FIGURE 2-17 MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER.................................................................................................................23
FIGURE 2-18 FLOWCHART OF CONSTANT VOLTAGE METHOD..............................................................................25
FIGURE 2-19 I-V AND P-V CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE METHOD......................................26
FIGURE 2-20 FLOWCHART OF OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE METHOD.....................................................................26
FIGURE 2-21 MPPT PERTURB AND OBSERVE...........................................................................................................28
FIGURE 2-22 FLOWCHART OF PERTURB AND OBSERVE METHOD.....................................................................29
FIGURE 2-23 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD..........................................................................................30
FIGURE 2-24 FLOWCHART OF INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD..........................................................31
FIGURE 2-25 Arduino Uno electronic map........................................................................................................................34
FIGURE 2-26 Arduino Uno vs Microcontroller..................................................................................................................36
FIGURE 2-27 current sensor Examples................................................................................................................................37
FIGURE 2-28 Hardware connection...................................................................................................................................39
FIGURE 2-29 Buck Converters (Step-Down Converter)....................................................................................................40
FIGURE 2-30 The Buck Converter Circuit Diagram – Interval tON........................................................................................................................ 40
FIGURE 2-31 The Buck Converter – Inductor Voltage and Current Versus Time Graph...................................................41
FIGURE 2-32 The Buck Converter Circuit Diagram - Interval tOFF........................................................................................................................ 42
FIGURE 2-33 The Buck Converter....................................................................................................................................44
FIGURE 2-34 LCD 20x4 I2C.............................................................................................................................................47
FIGURE 2-35 MOSFET Driver Hardware connected........................................................................................................48
FIGURE 2-36 Change in DC current using a simple on/off switch....................................................................................55
FIGURE 2-37 Square wave AC current..............................................................................................................................56
FIGURE 2-38 Outputs from a modified sine wave inverter and a pure sine wave inverter.................................................57
X
FIGURE 2 - 3 9 Micro Controller Section..................................................................................................................58
FIGURE 2-40 MOSFET Switches Schematic..............................................................................................................59
FIGURE 2-41 PIC16F72 8-bit PIC Microcontroller pins.............................................................................................61
FIGURE 2-42 PIC16F72 8-bit PIC Microcontroller.....................................................................................................65
FIGURE 2-43 PIC16F72 PIC Microcontroller 2D model............................................................................................66
FIGURE 2-44 IR2110 pins...........................................................................................................................................67
FIGURE 2-45 Functional block diagram of IR2110....................................................................................................68
FIGURE 2-46 Working principle of IR2110................................................................................................................69
FIGURE 2-47 Simplified IR2110 output MOSFET connections..................................................................................71
FIGURE 2-48 HIGH side MOSFET circuits using IR2110..........................................................................................72
FIGURE 2-49 CD4081 IC............................................................................................................................................73
FIGURE 2-50 CD4081 Pinout.....................................................................................................................................73
FIGURE 2-51 2D Model and Dimensions...................................................................................................................76
CHAPTER 3
FIGURE 3-1 Proteus 8 Professional.............................................................................................................................82
FIGURE 3-2 home page of Proteus 8 Professional......................................................................................................82
FIGURE 3-3 Start project page of Proteus 8 Professional...........................................................................................83
FIGURE 3-4 schematic beginning in Proteus 8 Professional.......................................................................................83
FIGURE 3-5 the menu in Proteus 8 Professional.........................................................................................................84
FIGURE 3-6 tools or components in the menu............................................................................................................84
FIGURE 3-7 search by type from the tools or components in the menu.....................................................................85
FIGURE 3-8 how to connect components....................................................................................................................85
FIGURE 3-9 change or edit the components info........................................................................................................85
FIGURE 3-10 Arduino Schematic...............................................................................................................................86
FIGURE 3-11 MPPT Schematic proteus version.........................................................................................................86
FIGURE 3-12 Smart Solar MPPT................................................................................................................................87
FIGURE 3-13 PIN CONFIGURATION.......................................................................................................................88
FIGURE 3-14 CALIBRATION PROCEDURE...........................................................................................................89
FIGURE 3-15 calibration procedure (b).........................................................................................................................90
FIGURE 3-16 VOLTAGE DIVIDER............................................................................................................................91
FIGURE 3-17 FLOWCHART OF SOFTWARE...........................................................................................................96
CHAPTER 4
FIGURE 4-1 the end project.........................................................................................................................................108
FIGURE 4-2 MPPT Circuit..........................................................................................................................................109
FIGURE 4-3 Test of Buck Converter at 50 % Duty Cycle..........................................................................................110
FIGURE 4-4 shows the output signals from pins HO and LO.....................................................................................111
FIGURE 4-5 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section A...............................................................................112
FIGURE 4-6 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section B...............................................................................112
FIGURE 4-7 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section C...............................................................................113
FIGURE 4-8 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section D...............................................................................113
FIGURE 4-9 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section E...............................................................................114
FIGURE 4-10 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section F..............................................................................114
FIGURE 4-11 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section G.............................................................................115
FIGURE 4-12 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section H.............................................................................115

XI
FIGURE 4-13 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section I................................................................................116
FIGURE 4-14 result of simulation.................................................................................................................................116
FIGURE 4-15 simulation result.....................................................................................................................................117
FIGURE 4-16 graph result of simulation......................................................................................................................117
FIGURE 4-17 practical result........................................................................................................................................118
FIGURE 4-18 practical result........................................................................................................................................119

XII
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Solar Energy

One of the most important sources of renewable energy nowadays which have
caught the attention of many is the ‘solar energy’ and it is through harnessing this
energy that we are meeting some of our energy demands. It is a known fact nowadays
that non-renewable resources such as coal, oil and other such sources are almost on
the verge of termination. On the other hand, renewable energy sources such as the
solar energy are plentiful and it has the greatest availability compared to other energy
sources. Solar energy is clean and free of emissions, since it does not produce
pollutants or by-products harmful to nature therefore it is nowadays a booming
industry of research, where new and more efficient modes of harnessing solar energy
is a challenge. The conversion of solar energy into electrical energy has many
application fields.

There are mainly two ways in which the solar to electrical conversion can be done,
solar thermal and solar photovoltaic. In terms of solar thermal, it is the conventional
ac electricity generation produced by steam turbine; heat extracted from intense solar
ray is used to produce steam and a part is stored in thermally insulated tanks for usage
during lack of sunshine or night time. Solar photovoltaic use cells made of silicon or
certain types of semiconductor materials which convert the light energy absorbed
from incident sunshine into dc electricity. To make up for intermittency and night
time storage of the generated electricity into battery is needed. A synchronous buck
dc/dc converter was used to step the voltage down. This was required to have the
voltage be in the acceptable input range for the Arduino. Using the Arduino, a code
was created for the pulse width modulation (PWM), which determines the frequency
of the PV source. The perturb and observe (P&O) method was used to calculate the
maximum power the ‘PV’ source outputs, and the necessary duty cycle for the PWM.
That information would then be relayed back to the PV source and adjust it
accordingly, to maintain the PV source at the peak power.

1.2 HISTORY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOVOLTAICS:

The very first discovery of the solar cell marked the beginning of the change in
energy production. This change would be iterated over and over to make new
progress in the field of solar energy by researchers and is still going on. The history
of solar energy is a story of innovation that all started in the early 19th century.

1.3 Solar Energy in the 1800’s:

In 1839, French scientist Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect at the
young age of 19. He realized when electrons were in an excited state in a conduction
band, they could move freely through a material, thus creating a current. But this
wasn’t widely recognized until Einstein wrote a paper about the power of solar for
which he eventually received the Nobel prize in 1922. The first solar panel was
invented by Charles Fritts in 1883 where he coated a thin layer of selenium with an
extremely thin layer of gold.

2
 The resulting cells had a conversion electrical efficiency of only about 1%. This
invention led to the launching of a movement for producing solar energy.

Fig. 1.1: first Solar Panel prototype

1.4 Solar Energy in the 1900’s:

The solar era began in 1950 when Bell Laboratory scientists focused on photovoltaic
(PV) developments and began utilizing silicon to produce solar cells. This
breakthrough is credited to Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and Gerald Pearson which
produced an efficiency of 4% only. This breakthrough led the US government to pour
more money into solar cell technology. In the 1960s and 1970’s the production of
solar panels was made possible but the downside was it was too expensive for
mainstream consumers but scientists continued to develop solar energy technology to
reduce the cost. With the rise of semiconductors in 1941, Russel S Ohl described a
process of forming silicon ingots that led to the first P-N junction cell. Ohl cut a
section from the ingot including the top, barrier, and bottom portions, and attached
electrodes to the top and bottom portions, yielding the first silicon solar cell. The
figure below represents the first-ever patented silicon P-N -EMF (PN junction
Electromotive force) cell.

Fig. 1.2: silicon P-N photo-EMF cell

The image below is an advertisement photo that appeared in the 1956 issue of Look
Magazine, show off the “Bell Solar Battery” to the American public.

3
 Fig. 1.3: Bell Solar Battery advertisement

1.5 Solar Energy in the 2000’s:

In the 1950s the world had less than a watt of solar cells powering electrical
equipment. Fast-forward to the 21st century, 50 years of continued discovery and
development of silicon and other PV materials and still ongoing, today solar panels
provide electricity to millions of houses worldwide, power up buildings, satellites
and provide clean energy all around the world.
According to the IEA report, the global installed solar capacity will be 510GW in
2023, and the global installed renewable energy capacity is expected to reach
7,300GW between 2023 and 2028. The price of silicon PV cells in the 1950s was
76 US$/Watt which significantly declined to 0.10 US$/Watt in 2023. The figure
below shows the trend in the reduction of the cost.
Bigger factories, the use of automation and more efficient production methods have
delivered economies of scale, lower labor costs, and less material waste for the solar
sector. The average cost of a solar panel dropped by 90% from 2010 to 2020.

Fig. 1.4: silicon solar cells

Major types of Solar panels available today in the market are monocrystalline,
polycrystalline, and thin-film panels. Thin films include cells made by different
materials, unlike silicon solar cells. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.

4
 Fig. 1.5: mini solar system

The Future of Solar Energy

Solar energy has advanced at a rate that is astonishing even to experts in the field
and now promises to have a prominent role in the ongoing energy transition.
According to the Solar Energy Industry Data (SEIA) for the last decade, the global
PV industry has been growing at an average compound annual rate greater than 24%
(update to 2022). It is for sure that PV deployment will continue to grow as the
global energy portfolio transitions more towards renewable energy. The increase in
the module power of the panels from 250 W to 700 W in the last decade resulted in
the decrease of the relative contribution of the module cost to the total PV system
cost. Silicon solar cells still dominate the market and it will take some time for other
generation solar cells to gain market dominance.

5
1.6 Photovoltaic Panels

The whole process by which a photovoltaic cell works is fairly complex. To put
it quite simply the mechanism is as such; the light excites electrons to move from
one layer to another through semi-conductive silicon materials. This ultimately
produces an electric current.
This whole process is called the photo electric effect. Solar cells called photovoltaic
which are made from thin slices of crystalline silicon, gallium arsenide, or other
semiconductor materials which are capable of converting solar radiation directly into
electricity.

Fig. 1-6 Mechanism of a PV Panel

The generation of electric current happens inside the depletion zone of the p-n
junction. The area around the p-n junction is called the depletion zone where the
electrons from the “n-type” silicon, have diffused into the holes of the “p-type”
material. Whenever a photon of light hits the surface and is absorbed by one of these
atoms in the “n-type” silicon it will dislodge an electron, thus creating a free electron
and a hole. The free electron and hole produced have sufficient energy to jump out of
the depletion zone. If a wire is connected from the cathode (n-type silicon) to the
anode (p-type silicon) electrons will flow (current) through the wire. The electron is
attracted to the positive charge of the “p-type” material and travels through the
external load creating a flow of electric current.

6
 The hole which is created by the freed electron is attracted to the negative charge
of “n-type” material and drifts to the back electrical contact. As the electron enters
the “p-type” silicon from
the back electrical contact it combines with the hole reestablishing the electrical
neutrality. By connecting large numbers of these cells into modules, the cost of
photovoltaic electricity gets

reduced to certain amount per kilowatt-hour. The simplest solar cells provide small
amounts of power for watches and calculators. There are more complex systems
which can provide electricity to houses and electric grids.

1.7 Solar power

Solar power is an alternative energy source which is widely available to this
country. This renewable energy is being explored in greater depths and in recent years
its development has grown rapidly due to the large amount of funding it has received.
This energy source is receiving large amounts of funding due to its renewable appeal,
its inexhaustible capacity and its non- polluting attractive nature. Solar powers
evolution in the past ten-fifteen years has been gratefully accepted, but further work
will ensure the performance of PV cells will transform from the subpar status which
they currently hold. A system to optimize the interaction between cells and other
components would also be a major development in solar power becoming a major
player in the energy sector.

 Background
i. Solar energy has become much more important globally in recent years due to
the global energy crisis the world faces.
ii. Solar panels use light energy from the sun to generate electricity through
the photo voltaic effect.
iii. Photovoltaic is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct current (dc) electricity, using semiconductors that exhibit the
PV effect.
iv. A connected assembly of solar cells is known as a PV panel.

7
 v. Solar energy is said to be very reliable as it is easy to predict how much energy can be
produced with PV solar panels.

vi. countries nearer the equator have a lot more potential energy available to them
due the temperature & radiation levels being higher than countries further away
from the equator figure shows the global average solar radiation and shows the
global average temperature. These show that the solar power potential is the greatest
just north and south of the equator line due to the highest solar radiation levels and
temperatures being available in these regions.

Fig 1-7 Global Solar

vii. Solar panels do not emit any greenhouse gases in operation unlike conventional
sources of energy i.e., fossil fuels.
viii. Solar tracker applications are widely used to maximize the angle of incident between
the incoming light of the sun and the panel this angle should always be kept as near as
possible to 90 degrees figure 2.4 shows how much potential power is lost if the angle
of the solar array differs from 90 degrees.

ix. Driven by advances in technology and increase in manufacturing scale and

sophistication, the cost of solar energy has declined steadily since the first solar cells
were manufactured.

x. Solar cell efficiency depends on many factors such as temperature of

the sun, isolation
8
Level spectral characteristics of sunlight, dust lying on the solar panel and shading effects.

Fig 1-8 Percentage losses if sun is misaligned

9
10
 Fig 2-1 Solar PV System with MPPT (home version example)

2.1 Photovoltaic Solar Cell:

Photovoltaic effect is a phenomenon in which solar energy is converted directly
into electrical energy through the use of a solar cell. A PV cell is made of silicon,
which is purified, melted and then crystalized the majority of the cell has a slightly
positive electrical charge, with a thin layer, at the top, having a slightly negative
charge. A thin grid of metal is placed on the top of the cell which allows adequate
amounts of sunlight to be admitted but also had the ability to carry electrical energy.
Sunlight, sometimes described as particles called ‘photons’, hits the PV cell and
move into the cell.
11
Photons strike electrons and dislodge them, these then become loose and start to
move to the top of the cell. The greater the number of photons that are admitted by
the cell results in a greater flow of electrons towards the top of the cell. These then
flow into the external electrical circuit through the grid of metal placed on top of the
cell.
The electric fields in the solar cell put these free electrons in directional current, from
which the metal contacts on top of the cell can generate electricity.

Fig 2-2 Photovoltaic Solar Cell

12
2.2 Connected PV System:
The solar panel of silver lines in the photograph is the metal grid, whose purpose
has been clearly outlined. Therefore, cells produce current and voltage, the amount of
current produced depends on the area of the cell whereas the amount of voltage
produced does not depend on the cells area. Both the voltage and current are affected
by the resistance of the circuit the cell is present in. The light level and the
temperature available to the cell affect the amount of current and voltage produced
respectively, which will have a direct effect on the power output.

Fig 2-3 Photovoltaic Cell

Fig 2-4 Photovoltaic system

This is a system which connects the PV panels directly to the national grid, exporting
it directly as power is being produced. The grid therefore acts as a storage system for
the producer of the power, where the electricity is sold to the grid when there is no
demand for it by the producer and then bought back from the grid when it is required.
This system needs an inverter to transfer the power from dc, which the PV system
produces, into ac at which the grid operates. When the PV system is producing power
and the producer is using power in their home/business etc., power is fed directly

13
 from the PV system. When the full demand of power is not being produced by the PV
system, electricity is used from the grid. If the system is reversed and the PV system
is producing more power than there is required, the surplus is sold to the national grid.
The payment which people receive for supplying power to the grid is usually much
less than the cost of buying power from grid. The highest prices are paid when the
national electricity usage peaks. The systems require very little maintenance and can
result in big cost savings if the building where the PV system is located uses the
power produced directly, and there is an incentive to make money by selling power to

the grid if the 10 building is a low consumer of electricity.

Energy saving techniques may pay dividend if implemented. Connecting a source of

electrical energy such as a solar PV system to operate in parallel with ESB networks
lv system involves a number of steps and conditions. The system must be rated up to
and including 25 amperes at low voltage of 230 volts when the connection is single
phase and 16 amperes at low voltage of 230/400 volts when connection is three
phases. There is no cost of connecting such a system to the grid provided it complies
with conditions stated in the European standards.

 Stand-Alone PV System

This is a system which is not connected to the national grid but a system which
allows the producer to use the power produced directly. The power is usually stored
in batteries when production levels exceed demand levels. This type of system is
particularly useful in areas of the world which do not have a national grid such as in
the developing world for water pumping, schools and hospitals. This system has also
become very common in this country in recent years for the running of street lighting
and warning lights along the roadside. This system usually involves the use of a much
smaller panel compared to the panels used in a grid-connected PV system due to the
power demand being significantly lower.

14
 Calculations for Outputs Characteristics of a Solar Panel
Figure 2.6 shows the current versus voltage for the solar irradiance level measured in

Galway in the month of July; this was found to be 429.67w/m2. The temperature of
the cell was taken at as15°c to generate this graph.

Fig 2-5 (I vs V) graph for July

Figure 2.7 shows the power versus voltage. This graph also takes the solar irradiance
level measured in Galway in the month of July and the maximum output power was
found to be 92.4W. This value relates directly to the knee of the curve in figure 2.6,
where the current and voltage were found to be 2.2a and 41.99V respectively.

Fig 2-6 P vs v for July

Figure 2.8 and Figure 2.9 show the current versus voltage and power versus voltage
graphs respectively for different solar irradiance levels. For these graphs the cell
temperature is taken as 15°c. The highest irradiance level of 1000w/m2 gives out a
power of 214.98W while the lowest irradiance level of 200w/m2 gives out a power of
43.01W.
15
 Fig 2-7 P vs v for July

Fig 2-8 P vs V for different irradiance levels

Figure 2.8 and figure 2.9 show the current versus voltage and power versus voltage
graphs respectively for different solar irradiance levels. For these graphs the cell
temperature is taken as 15°c. The highest irradiance level of 1000w/m2 gives out a
power of 214.98W while the lowest irradiance level of 200w/m2 gives out a power of
43.01W.

16
 Fig 2-9 I vs V for different temperatures

Figure 2.10 and figure 2.11 show the current versus voltage and power versus voltage
graphs respectively for different temperatures. For these graphs the solar irradiance
level is taken as 429.67w/m2 and the reference solar irradiance level taken as
1000w/m2. The highest temperature of 55°c gives out a power of 84.3W while the
lowest temperature of 15°c gives out a power of 92.4W. It is clear from all of the
above calculated date that a higher irradiance level is more beneficial than higher
temperatures when it comes to power output.

Ideal conditions would have a very high irradiance level and low temperature, but
unfortunately such scenarios are very hard to achieve anywhere in the world as solar
irradiance levels and solar temperatures are very much so dependent on each other.
2.3 Photovoltaic Cell Mode
The characteristics of a PV cell can be further explained using an equivalent
circuit shown in the Fig: 2.11 the PV model consists of a current source, a diode and a
series resistance. The effect of parallel resistance represents the leakage resistance of
the cell which is very small in a single module. The current source represents the
current which is generated by the photons, and its output is constant under constant
temperature and constant incident radiation of light.

Fig 2-10 Equivalent circuit of PV cell

17
 Current-voltage (I-V) curves are obtained by exposing the cell to a constant level of
light, while maintaining a constant cell temperature, varying the resistance of the
load, and measuring the produced current. When an I-V curve is drawn it normally
passes through two points:
i.
Short-circuit current (Isc): this is the current produced when the positive and negative

terminals of the cell are short-circuited (i.e., when the solar cell is short circuited),
and the voltage between the terminals is zero, which corresponds to zero load
resistance.

ii.
Open-circuit voltage (Voc): this is the voltage across the positive and negative
terminals

under open-circuit conditions, when the current is zero, which corresponds to infinite
load resistance.

18
2.4 Basics On MPPT Charge Controller

Fig 2-11 different voltages depending on the different parameter

A solar panel will generate different voltages depending on the different parameters like:
1- The amount of sunlight
2- The connected load
3- The temperature of the solar panel.
Throughout the day, as the weather changes, the voltage produced by the solar panel
will be constantly varying. Now, for any given voltage, the solar panel will also
produce a current (amps). The number of amps that are produced for any given
voltage is determined by a graph called an IV curve iv curve, which can be found on
any solar panel's specification sheet and typically looks like the Figure 2.12 (Figure-1)
shown above.
In the above Figure 2.12 (Figure-2), the blue line shows a solar panel voltage of 30V
corresponding to a current of about 6.2a. The green line shows a voltage of 35V
corresponds to a current of 5a and we know that power = V X I. In the picture shown
above as you move along the red curve above you will need one point where the
voltage multiplied by its corresponding current is higher than anywhere else on
the

curve. This is called the solar panel's maximum power point (MPPT).

19
2.5 Maximum Power Point Tracking
The power-voltage or current-voltage curve of a solar panel, there is a peak
operating point at which the solar panel delivers the maximum possible power to the
load. This unique point is called the maximum power point (MPP) of solar panel. The
photovoltaic nature of the solar panels makes

the (power-voltage or current-voltage) curves depend on temperature and irradiance

(the flux of radiant energy per unit area) levels. In other words, depending on the
amount of sunlight per unit area of the panels the curve will vary hence the peak point
or MPP will vary accordingly. Therefore, it can be deduced that the operating current
and voltage which maximize power output will change with environmental
conditions. From the Fig: 2.13 it can be seen that the MPP depends on certain
conditions such as the irradiance for instance which is given by the symbol ‘g’. At
different values of g from the graph it can be seen how the values of MPP has slightly
shifted.
It is hence the work of charge controller using certain algorithm to calculate the MPP
at every instance providing the maximum power hence making the system more
efficient. In these applications, the load can demand more power than the PV system
can deliver. There are many different approaches to maximizing the power from a PV
system, this ranges from using simple voltage relationships to more complexes
multiple sample-based analyses.

Fig 2-12 Shows the variation of maximum Power Point (MPP) at different
sunlight conditions

20
 Comparing PWM & MPPT Charge Controllers
Differences between PWM & MPPT:
i. PWM: pulse-width modulation, MPPT: maximum power point tracking
ii. PWM and MPPT are the two different types of charging methods solar
charge controller scan use to charge batteries from a solar array/panel.
iii. Both technologies are widely used in the off-grid solar industry and are both
great options for efficiently charging your battery.

iv. The decision to use PWM or MPPT regulation is not purely based on which power
charging method is “better” than the other. Moreover, it involves determining
which type of controller will work best in your system’s design.

Fig 2-13 Comparing PWM & MPPT

To understand the difference between PWM and MPPT charging, let’s first look at a
typical power curve of a PV panel. The power curve is important because it states
the expected power generation of the panel based on the combination voltage (“V”)
and current (“I”) generated by the panel. The optimal ratio of current to voltage to
produce the most power is known as the “maximum power point” (MPPT). The
MPPT will change dynamically throughout the day depending on irradiation
conditions.

Fig 2-14 Power curve for a PV panel

21
2.6 PWM Charge Controllers:
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) comes into play when the battery bank is full.
During charging, the controller allows as much current as the PV panel/array can
generate in order to reach the target voltage for the charge stage the controller is in.
Once the battery approaches this target voltage, the charge controller quickly switches
between connecting the battery bank to the panel array and disconnecting the battery
bank, which regulates the battery voltage holding it constant. This quicks witching is
called PWM and it ensures your battery bank is efficiently charged while protecting it
from being overcharged by the PV panel/array.

Fig 2-15 PWM charge controller

PWM controllers will operate close to the maximum power point but often
slightly “above” it. An example operating range is shown below.

Fig 2-16 Power curve for a PV Panel with charging ranges for PWM

22
2.7 MPPT Charge Controllers
Maximum power point tracking features an indirect connection between the PV
array and the battery bank. The indirect connection includes a dc/dc voltage converter
that can take excess PV voltage and convert it into extra current at a lower voltage
without losing power.

figure 2-17 MPPT charge controller

MPPT controllers do this via an adaptive algorithm that follows the maximum power
point of the PV array and then adjusts the incoming voltage to maintain the most
efficient amount of power for the system.
 Pros and Cons of Both Types of Controllers

23
2.8 MPPT Methods:

There are some conventional methods for MPPT. Seven of them are listed here.
These methods include:

1- Constant voltage method

2- Open circuit voltage method

3- short circuit current method

4- Perturb and observe method

5- Incremental conductance method

6- Temperature method

7- Temperature parametric method out of these methods mentioned the first five
methods has been discussed in details in this paper.

a. Constant Voltage Method

The constant voltage method is quite a simple method but an inefficient method.
This method simply uses single voltage to represent the. In some cases, this value is
set by an external resistor

connected to a current source pin of the control IC. For the various different
irradiance variations, the method will collect about 80% of the available maximum
power. The actual performance will be determined by the average level of irradiance.

24
Since the maximum power point of a solar PVF module does not always lie
between70-80 percent of VOC, this is why the tracking efficiency is low in this
case.

Fig 2-18 Flowchart of Constant voltage method

b. Open Circuit Voltage Method

Another method which is similar to the constant voltage method but an
improvement to it is theopen circuit voltage method which uses Voc to calculate
Vamp. Once the system obtains the Voc
value, Vmpp is calculated by,
Vmpp = K* Voc
The Voc is the open circuit voltage of the PV panel. The k value is typically between
to 0.7 to 0.8 as it is always less than unity (commonly used as 0.76). It is necessary to
update Voc occasionally to compensate for any temperature change. Sampling the
Voc value can also help correct for temperature changes and to some degree changes
in irradiance. Monitoring the input current can indicate when the V oc should be re-
measured. The k value is a function of the logarithmic function of the irradiance,
increasing in value as the irradiance increases.

25
 Fig 2-19 I-V and P-V characteristics of Open circuit voltage method

Fig 2-20 Flowchart of Open circuit voltage method

Benefits of using this method:

i. The cost is relatively low.
ii. It is a much simpler method and easy to implement.

26
Drawbacks of this method:
i. It is not a very accurate method and may not operate exactly at the maximum
power point.

ii. The open circuit of the solar PV module varies with temperature so the open
circuit voltage needs to be measured continuously for temperature variations.

c. Short Circuit Current Method

This technique is also referred to as the constant current method. The short circuit
current method uses a value of Isc (short circuit current) to estimate Impp
(maximum power point current). The Isc is the short circuit current of the PV panel.
Impp = k × Isc
This method uses a short load pulse to generate a short circuit condition. During the
short circuit pulse, the input voltage will go to zero, so the power conversion circuit
must be powered from some other source. One advantage of this system is the
tolerance for input capacitance compared to the Voc method. The K values are
typically close to
0.9 to 0.98 (always smaller than 1).

Benefits of using this method:

i. It is simple and implementation cost is low.
ii. No input is required for this method.
Drawbacks of this method:
i. In most cases the irradiation is never exactly at the MPP due to variations on the
array that are not considered (it is not always accurate).
ii. Data varies under different weather conditions and locations.
iii. It has low efficiency. In these two methods we have to choose the right constant k
value carefully, to accurately calibrate the solar panel.
d. Perturb and Observe Method
This method is a widely used approach to determine the MPP. In this method the
controller adjusts the voltage by a small amount from the array and measures power,

27
if the power increases, then there are further adjustments made in the direction until
power no longer increases. This is called the perturb and observe method. This
method works by perturbing the system by increasing or decreasing the PV module
operating voltage and observing its impact on the output power supplied by the
module.
The voltage to a cell is increased initially, if the output power increase, the
voltage is persistently increased till the point until the output power starts declining.
Once the

output power starts decreasing, the voltage to the cell is decreased until the point
when the maximum power is reached. This process is continued until the MPPT is
attained. This results in an oscillation of the output power around the MPP. The PV
module’s output power curve is a function of the voltage (P-V curve), at the constant
irradiance and the constant module temperature, it is also assumed that the PV module
is operating at a point which is away from the maximum power point. Now if the
operating voltage of the PV module is perturbed by a minute amount the resulting
power p is then observed. If it is seen that the p is positive, then in that case it is
supposed that it has moved the operating point closer to the MPP. Hence further
voltage perturbations in the same direction will continue moving the operating point
toward the MPP. If the p is negative, in that case the operating point will be moving
away from the MPP and the path of perturbation should be inverted to move back
toward the MPP

Fig 2-21 MPPT Perturb and Observe

28
 Fig 2-22 Flowchart of Perturb and Observe Method

Benefits of using the P&O method:

i. The simplicity of its algorithm

ii. Ease of implementation

iii. It has comparatively less implementation cost

iv. It is comparatively a more accurate method imitations to using this method:

i. It cannot determine when it has actually reached the MPP. Under steady state
operation the output power oscillates around the MPP.

ii. This method is quite slow to find the MPP if the voltage is far away
from MPP

iii. In any case if there is any shadow on any of the panels (as they are in series of
parallel) then the power-voltage curve of the PV will have several peaks and the P&O
will not be able to distinguish them and find the genuine peak.

e. Incremental Conductance Method

An observation based on a p-v characteristic curve the incremental conductance
method was planned. In 1993 when this algorithm was made it was intended to
overcome some drawbacks of the P&O algorithm. The MPP can be calculated with
the help of the relation between di/dv and - i/v. The incremental conductance method
is based on the fact that, the slope of the PV array of the power curve is zero at the
MPP, positive on the left of the MPP and negative on the right on the MPP.

29
 So, if the MPP lies on right side, di/dv < -i/v and then the photo voltaic voltage
must be reduced to reach the MPP. In order to find the MPP, IC method can be used,
it has been known to improve the PV efficiency, reduce power loss and also the
system cost. When IC method is implemented in a microcontroller it is seen to
produce a much more stable performance compared to P&O method.
The procedure starts with measuring the present values of PV module voltage and
current. Then, it computes the incremental changes, di (change in current) and dv
(change in voltage), which uses the present and previous values of the voltage and
current. With the help of the relationships in the equations mentioned above the main
check is then done. If the condition satisfies the inequality equation shown above, it is
assumed that the operating point is at the left side of the MPP thus must be moved to
the right by increasing the module voltage. Similarly, if the condition satisfies the
inequality equation, it is assumed that the operating point is at the right side of the
MPP, thus must be moved to the left by decreasing the module voltage.

Fig 2-23 Incremental Conductance Method

30
 Fig 2-24 Flowchart of Incremental Conductance Method

Benefits:
v. It is able to successfully detect any changes in the irradiation and shift its MPP
value by adjusting the duty cycle.
vi. It has a good tracking efficiency
vii. This method reduces oscillation around the MPP point

31
viii. It is able to reduce power loss and system cost as well

Drawbacks:
i. The computational time is increased due to slowing down of the sampling
frequency resulting from the higher complexity of the algorithm compared to the
P&O method.

32
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

2.9 PARTS THAT ARE REQUIRED:

1. Arduino uno
2.Current Sensor ( ACS712-5A)
3.Buck Converter ( LM2596 )
4.WIFI Module ( ESP8266)
5. LCD display ( 20x4 I2C )
6. MOSFETs (4x IRFZ44N)
7. MOSFET driver ( IR2104 )
8. 3.3V Linear regulator ( AMS 1117 )
9. Transistor ( 2N2222 )
10. Diodes ( 2x IN4148 , 1 x UF4007 )
11. TVS diode (2x P6KE36CA )
12. Resistors (3 x 200R ,3 x330R,1 x 1K, 2 x 10K, 2 x 20K, 2x 100k, 1x 470K)
13. Capacitors ( 4 x 0.1 uF, 3 x 10uF ,1 x100 uF ,1x
220uF) 14.Inductor ( 1x 33uH -5A )
15. LEDs (1 x Red ,1 x Yellow ,1 x Green)
16. Prototype Board
17. Wires and Jumper wires
18. Header Pins
19. DIP Socket ( 8 pin )
19. Screw Terminals ( 3 x2 pin ,1 x 6pin )
20. Fuses ( 2 x 5A)
21. Fuse Holders (2 nos)
22. Push Switch (2 nos)
23. Rocker /Toggle Switch ( 1 no)
24. Female USB port ( 1no)
25. JST connector ( 2pin )
26. Heat Sinks
27. Enclosure
28. Plastic Base
29. Spacers

33
 2.10 Arduino Uno:
Arduino UNO is a low-cost, flexible, and easy-to-use programmable open-source
microcontroller board that can be integrated into a variety of electronic projects. This
board can be interfaced with other Arduino boards, Arduino shields, Raspberry Pi
boards and can control relays, LEDs, servos, and motors as an output.

Fig. 2-25 Arduino Uno electronic map

Arduino UNO features AVR microcontroller Atmega328, 6 analogue input pins, and 14
digital I/O pins out of which 6 are used as PWM output.
This board contains a USB interface i.e. USB cable is used to connect the board with the
computer and Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment) software is used
to program the board.

The unit comes with 32KB flash memory that is used to store the number of
instructions while the SRAM is 2KB and EEPROM is 1KB.
The operating voltage of the unit is 5V which projects the microcontroller on the
board and its associated circuitry operates at 5V while the input voltage ranges
between 6V to 20V and the recommended input voltage ranges from 7V to 12V.

2.10.1 Arduino UNO Components:

The Arduino UNO board contains the following components and specifications:
ATmega328: This is the brain of the board in which the program is stored.
34
Ground Pin: there are several ground pins incorporated on the board.

PWM: the board contains 6 PWM pins. PWM stands for Pulse Width
Modulation, using this process we can control the speed of the servo motor, DC
motor, and brightness of the LED.

Digital I/O Pins: there are 14 digital (0-13) I/O pins available on the board that can
be connected with external electronic components.

Analogue Pins: there are 6 analogue pins integrated on the board. These pins can
read the analogue sensor and can convert it into a digital signal.

AREF: It is an Analog Reference Pin used to set an external reference voltage.

Reset Button: This button will reset the code loaded into the board. This button is
useful when the board hangs up, pressing this button will take the entire board into
an initial state.

USB Interface: This interface is used to connect the board with the computer and to
upload the Arduino sketches (Arduino Program is called a Sketch)

DC Power Jack: This is used to power up the board with a power supply.

Power LED: This is a power LED that lights up when the board is connected with
the power source.

Micro SD Card: The UNO board supports a micro-SD card that allows the board to
store more information.

303V: This pin is used to supply 3.3V power to your projects.

5V: This pin is used to supply 5V power to your projects.

VIN: It is the input voltage applied to the UNO board.

Voltage Regulator: The voltage regulator controls the voltage that goes into the board.

SPI: The SPI stands for Serial Peripheral Interface. Four Pins 10(SS), 11(MOSI),
12(MISO), 13(SCK) are used for this communication.

TX/RX: Pins TX and RX are used for serial communication. The TX is a transmit
pin used to transmit the serial data while RX is a receive pin used to receive serial
data. Communication

2.10.2 How to Program Arduino UNO:

Arduino UNO is easy to program and a person with little or no technical knowledge
can get hands-on experience with this board. The Arduino UNO board is
programmed using Arduino IDE software which is an official software introduced by
Arduino.cc to program the board. The Arduino program is called a sketch which you
need to unload
35
 into the board. The sketch is nothing but a set of instructions that allow the board to
perform certain functions as per your requirements.
Each Arduino sketch comes with two main parts:
void setup () – this sets up the things that need to be done once and they don’t
happen again in the running program.
void loop () – this part comes with the instructions that get repeated again and again
until the board is turned off.
Difference between Arduino Board and Microcontroller:
Arduino boards can perform some functions that a single microcontroller is capable
of doing. But hobbyists and experts still prefer the Arduino board over the
microcontroller. Why? Because Arduino boards are easy to use and you don’t require
a lot of expertise to run these units. Simply plug the board into the computer and start
playing with it.
Moreover, while using Arduino boards, you don’t require extra peripherals and
components to run the boards. Arduino is the complete board that comes with GPIO
pins, analogue pins, and a microcontroller as the heart of the board. A
microcontroller, on the other hand, is a chip where all the necessary parts like
microprocessor, ram, and flash memory are incorporated into a single chip.

Fig. 2-26 Arduino Uno vs Microcontroller

So we can say every Arduino board is a microcontroller but not every

microcontroller is an Arduino board. Plus, Arduino is an open-source hardware and
software platform which means it is free to use and anyone can modify the boards as
per their requirements.

2.11 Current Sensor:

A current sensor detects and measures the electric current passing
through a conductor. It turns the current into a quantifiable output, such as
a voltage, current, or digital signal, which may be utilized in a variety of
applications for monitoring, control, or protection.

36
 Fig. 2-27 current sensor Examples

There are a variety of applications for current sensors. For example, some devices are
used for power metering, control system diagnosis, current supply measurement, and
the control of complex loads from electric motors. Others are used for charge
integration and condition monitoring of rechargeable batteries.
The terminals of the conductive path are electrically isolated from the sensor IC leads
(pins 5 through 8). This allows the ACS712 current sensor IC to be used in
applications requiring electrical isolation without the use of opto-isolators or other
costly isolation techniques.
Sensing and controlling current flow is a fundamental requirement in a wide variety
of applications including, over-current protection circuits, battery chargers, switching
mode power supplies, digital watt meters, programmable current sources, etc. This
acs721 current module is based on acs712 sensor, which can accurately detect ac or
dc current. The maximum ac or dc that can be detected can reach 5a, and the present
current signal can be read via analog i / o port of Arduino.
Current sensors measure ac and/or dc current levels. The sensors in this selection
guide measure current and provide some sort of output that corresponds to the
current being measured. The most important distinction to make when selecting a
current sensor is whether ac and/or dc current needs to be measured. Another
important specification to consider is if the sensor needs to be in-line with the circuit
or if it works by being clamped around the wire to be measured.

37
2.11.1 Performance Specifications:
Performance specifications describe how current sensor will interact and operate in
the desired environment.
i. Measuring range is the maximum current the sensor is capable
of measuring.
ii. Input voltage is the voltage required to operate the device.
iii. Frequency range describes the range of values of the input
frequency that the sensor can operate.

iv. Response time is the interval between the application of an

input excitation and the appearance of the corresponding
output signal.

v. Isolation voltage describes the maximum voltage that the

sensor can handle to protect the devices connected to it.
Voltages above this specification can damage the sensor and
render the measurements inaccurate.

vi. Accuracy measures the closeness of the measured value to

the true value. Current sensors should be calibrated on a
regular basis to ensure accurate measurements.

vii. Operating temperature describes the temperature range the

sensor is designed to operate in. Exposure to temperatures
outside of this range can damage the sensor.

 Features:

i. Supply voltage: 4.5v~5.5v dc

ii. Measure current range: -5a~ 5a

iii. Sensitivity: 180mv/a ~190mv/a, typical: 185mv/a

38
  Hardware Connection:

Fig 2-28 Hardware connection

2.12 Buck Converters:

The buck converter, also referred to as a step-down converter, is a popular
topology in power electronics that converts a higher input voltage to a lower
output voltage. It is crucial in various applications, from portable devices to
automotive systems, where specific components or subsystems require a lower
voltage level to operate. The primary advantage of the buck converter is its
simplicity, which enables efficient voltage conversion using a relatively small
number of components.

The operating principle of the buck converter involves controlled energy transfer
from the input to the output through switches, an inductor, and a capacitor. A
high-side switch (usually a MOSFET) and a low-side switch (typically a diode)
are employed in the buck converter to control the current flow through the

39
inductor. By adjusting the duty cycle of the high-side switch, the average output
voltage can be regulated proportionally to the input voltage. When the high-side
switch of a buck converter is switched on, it allows current to flow through the
inductor, which stores energy in its magnetic field. This stored energy is then
transferred to the output, charging the output capacitor and powering the load.
When the high-side switch is turned off and the low-side switch is turned on,
the inductor's magnetic field collapses, releasing the stored energy and
maintaining the current flow to the load. The buck converter is designed to
operate within a closed-loop control system, where a feedback mechanism
continuously compares the output voltage to a reference voltage to ensure that
the output voltage remains stable and regulated, regardless of changes in input
voltage or load conditions.

Fig. 2-29 Buck Converters (Step-Down Converter)

which consists of a source of DC power supply E, a switch S (typically a MOSFET or

IGBT), a diode D, low frequency bandpass LC filter and load R. The transistor is
represented by a switch S with a small arrow, which marks the direction of the current
that can be established through the switch. When the switch S is turned on, the diode
D becomes inversely polarized by the supply voltage E, and the voltage across the
inductor becomes equal to the difference between the supply voltage and the load
voltage. The current flowing through the inductor will increase linearly from the
minimum to the maximum value.

Fig. 2-30 The Buck Converter Circuit Diagram – Interval tON

40
 Fig. 2-31 The Buck Converter – Inductor Voltage and Current Versus Time Graph

When the switch S is turned off, the commutation process occurs in which the
inductor’s current from the source E passes into the diode D. This process is shown
in Figure 4. For better understanding the commutation process, it is necessary to take
into account that the inductor’s winding consists of a series of coils located next to
each other, so that there is not only magnetic coupling between them but also
capacitive coupling, which is represented by the capacitor CP. The moment before
switching off (the switch S), the voltage across the inductor was
$$u_L=u_{Cp}=E-U$$
After the switch S is turned off, the current through the inductor remains the same in
direction and intensity and closes through the capacitor CP (see Figure 4-a). In the
next period, the capacitor discharges and charges to the other side. The reverse
voltage of the diode is
$$u_{Dr}=U+u_L=U+u_{Cp}$$
and becomes zero when the voltage across the capacitor CP becomes equal to the
load voltage in the opposite direction. At that moment, the diode takes over the
inductor's current (see Figure 4-b), so the voltage across the inductor is equal to the
load voltage
$$u_L=-U$$
and the current through the inductor linearly decreases and reaches a minimum
value at the end of the period (see Figure 3).

41
 Fig 2-32 The Buck Converter Circuit Diagram - Interval tOFF

In steady state, over one switching cycle, the total change in inductor current is equal
to zero:
$$\Delta I_L = \frac{1}{L} \int_{0}^{T} u_L dt = 0 \Right arrow \int_{0}^{T}
u_Ldt = 0$$
This implies that in steady state, the area of the voltage waveform across the
inductor is equal to zero, that is:
$$S_+ = S_- \Right arrow (E - U) \cdot t_{ON} = U \cdot t_{OFF}$$
The average load voltage (the voltage across the resistor R) value is equal to:
$$U = E \cdot \frac{t_{ON}}{t_{ON} + t_{OFF}} = E \cdot \frac{ t_{ON}}{T} = E
\cdot d$$
where d represents the duty cycle of the switch S.
Buck converters employ a simple yet effective circuit topology to step down the
input voltage to a lower output voltage. The key components of a buck converter are
as follows:
1. The high-side switch is a controlled semiconductor device that connects
and disconnects the input voltage source to the rest of the circuit. It is
usually a MOSFET or IGBT that is controlled by a pulse-width modulation
(PWM) signal to determine the duty cycle and output voltage.
2. The low-side switch is another electronic device that ensures the current
flows through the inductor in the appropriate direction. In non-synchronous
buck converters, it is usually a diode, and in synchronous buck converters, it
is typically a MOSFET. It is also controlled by a PWM signal, but with a
phase difference to complement the operation of the high-side switch.
3. The inductor serves as an energy storage element that helps smooth the
current waveform and maintain continuous current flow in the circuit. The
inductor value is carefully chosen to ensure the desired conduction mode
(continuous or discontinuous) and minimize output voltage ripple.

42
 4. The output capacitor filters the voltage waveform to reduce voltage ripple
and provide a stable output voltage for the load. The capacitance value,
equivalent series resistance (ESR), and equivalent series inductance (ESL)
all play a significant role in determining the converter's performance and the
quality of the output voltage.
5. The control circuitry generates the PWM signals to drive the high- and low-
side switches monitor the output voltage, and adjusts the duty cycle to
regulate voltage. The control circuitry may use various feedback
mechanisms, such as voltage-mode control, current-mode control, or
advanced control strategies to optimize the converter's performance and
stability.
These components, together with some additional passive components (such as input
capacitors and resistors for feedback networks), form the basic circuit topology of a
buck converter. By properly selecting and designing these components, a buck
converter can efficiently and effectively step down the input voltage to the desired
output voltage for various applications.
Continuous and Discontinuous Conduction Modes:
In buck converters, the flow of current through the inductor can be described by two
distinct conduction modes: continuous conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous
conduction mode (DCM). Understanding these modes is essential for properly
designing and analyzing the converter.
Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM): In this mode, the current flowing through the
inductor never drops to zero during the entire switching cycle. This mode ensures
that the inductor continuously stores and releases energy throughout the cycle, while
the output voltage is primarily determined by the high-side switch duty cycle and
input voltage. Although CCM is often preferred because it offers lower output
voltage ripple, smaller filter components, and reduced stress on switches, it requires
more complex control schemes to maintain stability under varying load conditions.
Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM): In DCM, the current through the inductor
falls to zero for a portion of the switching cycle when the load current is lower than
the average inductor current. This results in the inductor fully discharging its stored
energy before the next cycle begins, leading to higher output voltage ripple and
increased EMI due to abrupt changes in current flow. However, DCM offers benefits
such as improved light-load efficiency, simpler control schemes, and reduced
reverse- recovery losses in the low-side diode.
Choosing between CCM and DCM: The choice of conduction mode depends on the
specific application requirements, such as load current range, output voltage ripple
tolerance, and efficiency targets. Designers must carefully consider these factors and
select the appropriate conduction mode for their buck converter design.
In some cases, a converter may operate in CCM under heavy-load conditions and
transition to DCM under light-load conditions. This behavior, known as boundary
conduction mode (BCM) or critical conduction mode (CrCM), can benefit both
conduction modes, such as high efficiency across a wide load range and reduced
43
component stress. However, it also introduces additional design challenges and may
require more complex control schemes to ensure stable operation.
Design Consideration and Calculations
A buck converter's design must take into account a number of crucial factors and
computations to guarantee peak performance, efficacy, and dependability. In this
section, we'll go over the main aspects that affect buck converter design as well as
the calculations that must be done.
Input and output specifications: The first stage in creating a buck converter is to
provide the required output current (Iout), desired output voltage (Vout), and input
voltage range (Vin_min and Vin_max). The operational parameters of the
converter will be chosen in accordance with these specifications.
Duty cycle and switching frequency: The duty cycle (D) is the percentage of the
whole switching period when the high-side switch is ON. It is a crucial variable that
impacts the output voltage and converter efficiency. The duty cycle can be calculated
as follows:
$$D = \frac{V_{out}}{V_{in}}$$
The switching frequency (fs) is another essential parameter that influences the size of
the inductor and capacitors and the converter's transient response, efficiency, and
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Higher switching frequencies allow for smaller
passive components but may result in higher switching losses and reduced efficiency.

Fig. 2-33 The Buck Converter

Inductor selection: The inductor is a crucial component in a buck converter, as it

stores and releases energy during the switching cycle. The inductor value (L) must be
chosen to balance the trade-offs between output voltage ripple, transient response,
and size. The required inductor value can be calculated using the following formula:

44
$$L = \frac{(V_{in} - V_{out}) \cdot D \cdot T}{\Delta I_L}$$
Where T is the switching period (1/fs), and ΔIL is the desired inductor current ripple.
Capacitor selection: The output capacitor (Cout) plays a vital role in filtering the
output voltage ripple and maintaining stability in the converter. The value of Cout
depends on the desired output voltage ripple (ΔVout), the load current, and the
switching frequency. The required output capacitor value can be estimated using the
following formula:
$$C_{out} = \frac{I_{out} \cdot D \cdot T}{\Delta V_{out}}$$
The output capacitor (Cout) filters the output voltage ripple and maintains
stability in the converter. To determine the appropriate value for Cout, we must
consider the desired output voltage ripple (ΔVout), the load current (Iout), and the
switching frequency (fs).
The output voltage ripple (ΔVout) is mainly due to the inductor current ripple (ΔIL)
charging and discharging the output capacitor during the switching cycle. The
capacitor current (Ic) can be approximated as follows:
$$I_C \approx \frac{\Delta I_L}{2}$$
Considering the relationship between the current and capacitance in the time domain:
$$I_C = C \cdot \frac{dV}{dt}$$
Where 'Ic' is the capacitor current, 'C' is the capacitance value, 'dV' is the change
in voltage across the capacitor, and 'dt' is the change in time.
Combining these two relationships, we get:
$$\frac{\Delta I_L}{2} \approx C_{out} \cdot \frac{\Delta V_{out}}{T}$$
Where 'T' is the switching period (1/fs), and 'ΔVout' is the desired output voltage
ripple.
Now, we can rearrange the equation to solve for Cout:
$$C_{out} \approx \frac{\Delta I_L \cdot T}{2 \cdot \Delta V_{out}}$$
However, it is important to note that the inductor current ripple (ΔIL) is directly
proportional to the load current (Iout) and the duty cycle (D). In practice, a higher
load current will lead to a larger inductor current ripple. Thus, we can rewrite the
equation for Cout by substituting the proportionality relationship between ΔIL
and Iout * D:
$$C_{out} \approx \frac{I_{out} \cdot D \cdot T}{\Delta V_{out}}$$
Component selection and thermal considerations: In addition to picking the right
inductor and capacitor values, it's crucial to select high- and low-side switches (often
MOSFETs) with sufficient voltage and current ratings. To ensure dependable
functioning, adequate thermal management techniques should be used, such as

45
heatsinks or thermal vias. These procedures should take into account the power losses
in these components.
Control loop design: The buck converter's control loop must also be built to maintain
output voltage regulation under a variety of input voltage and load situations.
Choosing an appropriate control topology (such as voltage mode, current mode, or
digital control) and tuning the loop compensation components for stability and the
correct transient response are common steps in this process.
In conclusion, careful consideration must be given to a number of parameters while
constructing a buck converter, including input/output requirements, duty cycle,
switching frequency, component selection, and control loop design. Engineers may
design effective and dependable buck converters for a variety of applications by
considering these elements and running the relevant calculations.
Efficiency and Losses
To maximize a buck converter's performance and guarantee reliable operation under
a variety of circumstances, it is crucial to understand its efficiency and power losses.
In this section, we'll talk about how buck converter efficiency is affected by various
variables and look at various power loss sources. Efficiency: The ratio of the output
power (Pout) to the input power (Pin) is the definition of a buck converter's
efficiency (η). It stands for the proportion of input power that successfully transforms
into usable output power. The efficiency of a buck converter can be calculated as
follows:
$$\eta = \frac{P_{out}}{P_{in}}$$
In power electronic converters, high efficiency is preferred because it decreases
power loss, lessens thermal stress on parts, and enhances overall system
performance.
Depending on the component choice and operating circumstances, typical buck
converters can attain efficiencies of 90% or greater.
Conduction losses: Conduction losses happen when power is lost because
conducting parts, including an inductor, MOSFETs, and a diode, is resistive. In
general, these losses are more substantial at larger output currents and grow linearly
with the load current. It is essential to choose low-resistance components and design
the converter's layout for the least amount of parasitic resistance to reduce
conduction losses.
Switching losses: Switching losses are caused by the energy lost as high-side and
low-side switches, which are often MOSFETs, flip between the ON and OFF
states. These losses depend on the switches' properties, input voltage, and
switching frequency. Designers can choose low gate charge MOSFETs, use soft-
switching methods, or optimize the gate drive circuitry to lessen switching losses.
Magnetic losses: Hysteresis and eddy currents cause energy to be lost in the
inductor's magnetic core, which results in magnetic losses. These losses depend on
the frequency and can be reduced by using the right core material and designing the
inductor to have the least amount of core losses.

46
Capacitive losses: Capacitive losses occur in the output capacitor due to the energy
dissipated during charging and discharging cycles. These losses are influenced by the

47
capacitor's equivalent series resistance (ESR) and the switching frequency. To
minimize capacitive losses, low-ESR capacitors should be used in the design.

2.13 LCD Display (20x4 I2C):

A 20x4 LCD means it can display 20 characters per line and there are 4 such
lines. In this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD
has two registers, namely, command and data. This is standard hd44780
controller LCD.

Fig 2-34 LCD 20x4 I2C

2.13.1 What is LCD 20x4 I2C?

This i2c 20x4 LCD display module is designed for Arduino
microcontroller. It is using i2c communication interface, with this i2c
interface, only 2 lines (i2c) are required to display the information on any
Arduino based projects. It will save at least 4 digital / analog pins on
Arduino. All connector is standard xh2.

48
 2.14 MOSFET Drivers:
2.14.1 Why Do MOSFETs Need Drivers?
When building an application with a microcontroller, you’ll want to control
something at some point. This may be a device requiring minimal current, such as an

Fig 2-35 MOSFET Driver Hardware connected

LED, or something demanding a little more power, such as a DC motor. Most

beginners quickly learn that devices, such as an Arduino or Raspberry Pi, cannot
drive heavy loads directly. In such cases, a ‘driver’ is needed, a circuit that can
accept the control signal from the microcontroller but has enough power to drive the
desired load. MOSFETs are perfect in many cases, accepting a simple voltage at their
input (gate) that allows a larger current to be controlled via their drain-source pins.
However, there are times when the MOSFET itself also needs a driver. Let’s
quickly review the role of MOSFETs as saturated switches before exploring how
MOSFET drivers work.
A MOSFET enables boards, such as an Arduino, to control large
loads, such as a DC motor.

49
2.14.2 Low-Side n-Channel MOSFETs for Switching:
MOSFETs, specifically enhancement-mode MOSFETs, come in two types: n-
channel and p-channel. N-channel MOSFETs require a higher voltage on their gate
than the voltage on the source to turn on. The voltage at which this occurs is the
threshold voltage, Vth. Pull out any n-channel MOSFET datasheet, and you’ll quickly
find this value. For example, the Toshiba SSM3K56FS, a small high-speed switching
device, gives Vth as between 0.4 V and 1.0 V when the drain-source voltage (VDS) is
3.0 V and for a drain current (ID) of 1 mA.

Such MOSFETs can be used as low-side switches, meaning they are placed between
the load and the circuit ground in a simple low-voltage DC application. Thus, we can
use a 5 V Arduino output pin connected to the gate of an SSM3K56FS, connect the
source to the ground, and attach a motor between a 15V supply and the MOSFET’s
drain. A resistor (1 MΩ) between the gate and the ground ensures that the MOSFET
remains off should the control signal from the Arduino become detached.

To demonstrate this, the circuit has been simulated in LTspice. V2 emulates the 5 V
output from an Arduino I/O pin, while R2 is used as the load instead of a motor
(we’ll ignore the difference between a resistive and inductive load). V1 is the 15 V
supply. Using a MOSFET as a low-side switch — an LTspice simulation.
The signals show that the current flowing through the MOSFET is around 720
mA when 5 V is applied to the gate, below the maximum of 800 mA allowed.

With an Arduino supplying 5 V to the MOSFET gate the switch turns on,
delivering power to the load.

There is a further point to consider when reading the datasheet. Referring again to the
SSM3K56FS, the reader will notice that the on-resistance value, RDS(ON), is dependent
on VGS. For example, at a VGS of 1.5 V, RDS(ON) is 840 mΩ, while at 4.5 V, it is just 235
mΩ. The difference here is, admittedly, slight. When driving a motor, you’re
unlikely to notice much difference between an Arduino driving the gate at 5 V and a
Raspberry Pi driving it at 3.3 V.

However, if you’ve selected the MOSFET based upon its superior low on-
resistance, it is important to remember that this is only achieved at the higher gate
voltage given.

50
According to the datasheet, the maximum allowable gate-source voltage, GGSS, is ±8
V, so plenty of headroom is available. This is important because power is lost in the
MOSFET, and the resultant heat it has to dissipate will be higher when RDS(ON) is
larger.

There is also a small disadvantage with low-side switching. Because the

MOSFET’s on-resistance is on the low side between the load and ground, the load
(and the MOSFET drain pin) floats slightly above ground. In our example, the
drain sits at
0.126 V.
Because the MOSFET is in the low side, the load is not directly connected to the
ground of the application.
To complete the analysis, we should note that the power dissipated in the MOSFET
is around 90 mW (715 mA at 0.126 V). This is comfortably inside the 150-mW
defined in the datasheet. For a motor, this ground lift is of little consequence.
However, if you wish to measure the current flowing through the motor using a small
resistor, you’ll need a differential measurement rather than measuring with reference
to ground.

If the load is a device like an Arduino, there is an additional issue as the Arduino’s
ground will no longer be the same as the ground of the rest of the application. In
fact, it will vary as the load changes. As a result, there is a risk of malfunction due to
its ground and the ground of other circuits being different.

Additionally, because the load is permanently connected to the supply, electrons can
find their way via other paths, such as I/O pins, through the microcontroller to
ground, even when the MOSFET is off. Thus, the Arduino may still have enough
power to be operational. Worst case, it may be sitting in an undefined brown-out
state performing all sorts of strange actions.
In such cases, high-side switching should be considered.

2.14.3 High-Side p-Channel MOSFETs for Switching:

If we exchange the n-channel MOSFET for a p-channel device, we can place the load
between the MOSFET and ground. The source of the MOSFET is connected to the
load’s power supply, and the load is connected to the drain. The complementary
device to the n-channel MOSFET mentioned before is the Toshiba SSM3J56MFV.
However, we immediately hit an issue.

51
A p-channel MOSFET can be used in the high side. However, this requires that
the gate be pulled down from the supply voltage, something that exceeds
the limits of an Arduino I/O pin.

Looking at the datasheet, we notice that Vth is given as -0.3 V to -1.0 V (for VDS -3.0
V and ID -1 mA). This means that the gate needs to be around 1.0 V lower than the
source to start turning on. Sticking with our previous example using a 15 V supply
for the motor, the gate needs to attain 14 V to start turning the MOSFET on. This is
obviously an issue for an Arduino or Raspberry Pi with their 5 V and 3.3 V I/O pins,
meaning an extra MOSFET or transistor is required to pull the gate down towards
ground.

There is another issue, too. According to the data provided, the on-resistance at this
gate voltage is around 4000 mΩ. To get the on-resistance down to its lowest level of
390 mΩ, the gate voltage must be -4.5 V. Even so, this is still 155 mΩ more than
the complementary n-channel MOSFET we saw earlier and highlights another issue
with p-channel MOSFETs – their higher (by comparison) RDS(ON).

Assuming there was a way for the Arduino to shift the gate voltage by -5 V, the p-
channel high-side switch would respond as follows:

Pulling the gate to 5V below the supply turns on the switch, powering the load.
The issue is how to interface this with an Arduino or Raspberry Pi.

Examining the plot in detail, it can be seen that, when on, the source voltage reaches
14.79 V, around 0.21 V below the 15 V supply. Again, with around 715 mA flowing,
this means the MOSFET is dissipating 150 mW, right at the limit of the device.

So, although p-channel MOSFETs are easier to make, n-channel MOSFETs provide
a lower on-resistance for the same size. It is clear that, if possible, we’d be better off
using an n-channel device in the high side.

However, as we have seen, to turn on an n-channel MOSFET, we need to set the

gate voltage above that of the source. If we place the n-channel MOSFET in the high
side,

52
the source and drain have almost the same voltage when it is switched on, so the gate
will need to be pushed to several volts above the level of the supply of the
application.

2.14.4 Using Drivers with n-Channel MOSFETs as High-Side Switches:

This is where MOSFET drivers come in. These clever little devices accept a low
voltage control signal at their input and convert it to the voltage required to push the
gate above the MOSFET’s source pin level. The higher voltage is generated using a
‘bootstrap’ circuit that utilizes a charge pump to push the gate voltage higher than
the source voltage used in the application. While this adds extra cost and complexity
to a circuit, designers benefit from the significantly more comprehensive range of
low on- resistance, high-current capable n-channel power MOSFETs devices on
offer.
An excellent example of a MOSFET driver for this approach is the LTC7004 from
Analog Devices (previously Linear Technology). This 10-pin device, of which only
nine pins are used, only requires a capacitor in addition to the chosen MOSFET to
operate as a switch. The input pin, INP, accepts CMOS level input signals up to 15
V. A power supply of between 3.5 V and 15 V is also required at the VCC pin. With a
0.1µF capacitor placed between the bootstrap pin BST and the top (high side) source
pin TS, the LTC7004 can follow a MOSFET’s source voltage of up to 60 V. The
device generates a gate voltage of 12 V above the source voltage. It also includes
overvoltage and undervoltage lockouts to ensure correct operation.

The LTC7004 allows a microcontroller to control an n-channel MOSFET used

as a high-side switch by generating the control voltage required for the gate.
Using the 5 V I/O pin of an Arduino to control the circuit, you can see how the
MOSFET driver quickly pushes the gate from 0 V to 24 V, 12 V above the load’s
supply.

A 5V I/O signal from an Arduino result in the MOSFET gate being pushed to 12 V
above the load's supply voltage. This ensures a fast and clean turn-on for the load.
To minimize losses in the MOSFET during switching, it is typically preferable to
switch as quickly as possible. This is typically less of an issue in applications that
are only occasionally turned on and off but much more critical in high-speed
switching
applications such as power converters (e.g., a buck converter). The LTC7004
provides a minimum rise/fall time of 13 ns and maximums of 90 ns (rise) and 40 ns
53
(fall).

54
 Another point to note is the current required by the gate of MOSFETs designed for
power applications. The capacitance seen at the gate (known as Ciss) for the Infineon
IPB039N10N3 used in this example can be more than 8400 pF. Zooming in on the
switch-on point, it can be seen that the gate current reaches a peak of around 3.2 A.
This is not unusual for power MOSFETs switching quickly and another reason why
a microcontroller alone is not suited to switching them, even in low-side
applications.

It is not unusual for power MOSFETs to require several amperes at their gate
during high-speed switching.
While turning the MOSFET on as hard and fast as possible is preferable to move it
quickly from its off-state to its lowest resistance on-state, this can also cause issues in
some applications. For example, if the MOSFET is powering a large capacitive load,
the in-rush current at turn-on could be significant. MOSFET drivers like the
LTC7400 provide two pins to control the gate, one for turn-on (TGUP) and one for
turn-off (TGDN). This allows the turn-on and turn-off rates to be defined separately.
Adding a small RC network (100 kΩ/47 nF) to the TGUP output makes it possible to
slow down the turn-on rate and limit the in-rush current. An additional 10 Ω resistor
helps to limit any oscillations. If the turn-off rate needs to be adjusted, a resistor can
be added to the TGDN path.

Thanks to separate turn-on and turn-off pins, the switching speed of the
rising and falling edges can be controlled.
The surge current into the capacitive load is now reduced to around 180 mA and the
voltage at the load ramps at around 2 V/ms.

The voltage applied to the capacitive load now rises at around 2 V/ms,
limiting the in-rush current to around 180 mA.

2.14.5 MOSFET Drivers Simplify the Construction of High-Side Switches:

Power MOSFETs are ideal for controlling large loads, such as motors, from
microcontroller-based platforms such as Arduino and Raspberry Pi. However, because
of their better overall performance and lower RDS(ON), the choice of n-channel
MOSFETs is much broader than the p-channel MOSFET offering.
If you wish to place the switch in the high side of your control circuit, the voltage
applied to the n-channel MOSFET gate will need to be higher than the voltage at
the

55
 source. Furthermore, power MOSFETs require significant current at the gate
to switch quickly from being off to their lowest on-resistance, which is
needed to minimize power dissipation in the MOSFET. MOSFET drivers,
such as the LTC7004, resolve this issue by generating the gate voltage and
current required to deliver a clean, fast turn-on in response to the control
signal provided by your chosen microcontroller development board.

2.15 Inverters in Renewable Energy:

Inverters are a very important part of the transition to renewable energy. They
are necessary because solar panels give a direct current (DC) power output,
which basically means the current flows one way. However, nearly all of our
homes and businesses use alternating current (AC) power, where the current
flows in both directions at a given frequency. Inverters sit between the solar
array and the house or business, converting the DC output from the solar
panels into useable AC output. An inverter may feed electricity directly into
the power grid, to household appliances, or into storage facilities like deep-
cycle batteries. Development of inverter technology has been a key part of the
explosion in renewable energy. Early inverters were expensive, inefficient
(throwing power away and heating up) and problematic. Even now, problems
with inverters are the most common type of problem experienced by owners of
solar arrays.
Modern inverters are more efficient, cheaper, smaller, smarter and much more
reliable than their earlier counterparts.
2.16 DC Power vs AC Power:
DC power is pretty self-explanatory. The current runs one way only. In the
case of solar cells, the current will vary fairly slowly through the day as the
suns’ intensity changes, but the current will always flow the one way. If we
plot current vs time, we get the DC graph shown below.
AC power is different. The current not only flows both ways, but it’s intensity
changes rapidly. When current is plotted against time, the curve forms a ‘wave’.
There are all sorts of different types of waves for AC power. However, the type
of wave that we use in our homes and businesses is called a ‘sine wave’. The AC
curve in the figure below is a sine wave.
The inverter’s job is to take the DC power and convert it to an AC power curve.
What is a Pure Sine Wave Inverter?
A pure sine wave inverter is a type of power inverter that converts DC (direct
current) power from batteries or other DC sources into AC power that can be

56
used to power a wide range of electronic devices and appliances, including

57
sensitive equipment such as laptops, refrigerators, air conditioners, and more.
DC (direct current) power is the type of electricity that flows in only one
direction, with a constant voltage level. It is typically generated by sources
such as batteries, solar panels, or DC power supplies. In DC power, the electric
charge flows in a single direction, maintaining a constant polarity.
AC (alternating current) power, on the other hand, is the type of electricity that
reverses its direction periodically, resulting in a changing voltage and current
flow. AC power is the type of electricity that is commonly supplied by utility
companies and used to power most household appliances and electronic devices.
The sine wave power inverter produces an AC (alternating current) output
waveform that is virtually identical to the clean and smooth sine wave produced
by utility companies. The output waveform of a pure sine wave inverter is a
smooth curve that replicates the natural waveform of utility company power,
resulting in a stable and clean power supply that is ideal for powering sensitive
electronics without causing any interference or damage. Pure sine wave inverters
are known for their high-quality and reliable power output, making them the
preferred choice for a wide range of applications, including homes, RVs, boats,
solar power systems, and more.
2.17 Converting DC Power to AC Power:
Early inverters used mechanical switches to create simple versions of AC power,
and there are some (cheap) inverters using mechanical switches still available
today. The simplest version just switches on and off, producing the ‘chopped’
waveform shown below. For higher frequency, the switch turns on and off more
rapidly.

Fig 2-36 Change in DC current using a simple on/off switch

The next step up is instead of turning the current off, the switch is more complex

58
and actually, reverses the current. This converts to the DC current to an
alternating ‘square wave’ current. Again, the frequency can be adjusted by
changing how fast the switch operates.

Fig 2-37 Square wave AC current

Some types of equipment without sensitive electronics can run on this type of
power. However, homes and businesses need their AC power to be more like
a sine wave.

2.18 Pure Sine Wave vs Modified Sine Wave Inverters:

Sine wave inverters are available in two basic types: pure sine wave
inverters and modified sine wave inverters. The difference is basically in the
electronics. Modified sine wave inverters use simpler and cheaper electronics
to produce a wave that is not quite a smooth sine wave. Pure sine wave
inverters use more expensive electronics to generate a wave that is very close
to a pure sine wave.
The figure below compares outputs from a modified sine waver inverter and a
pure sine wave inverter.

59
Fig 2-38 Outputs from a modified sine wave inverter and a pure sine wave inverter.

2.19 Sine Wave Inverters:

Sine wave inverters work in three stages: the oscillator stage, the booster or
amplifier stage, and finally the transformer stage
The oscillator stage does what the title says it does: changes the DC current to an
oscillating AC current. The oscillating current can be set to a particular
frequency: for the United States the frequency is 60 Hz. This means there are 60
full waves per second. The DC current is converted to this type of AC current
using integrated circuits. However, at this stage the oscillations, or wave heights
are quite small, too small to power anything useful. The wave heights need to be
increased, hence the next stage.

The booster stage simply takes the signal from the oscillator stage and
amplifies it. This creates waveforms with much higher wave heights, high
enough for useful power. However, there is one thing left to get right before
the power can go to a home or business: the voltage.

The final transformer stage gets the voltage right. A typical residential array may
have DC voltages up to about 600V. Commercial arrays can have even higher
voltages, for example 1000V or even higher. In the United States, AC power is
delivered at 120 V. Stability of this voltage is very important for stability of the
grid and equipment that runs off the grid. Hence voltage control is a very
important part of an inverter.

Changing DC current to sine wave AC current requires more complex

electronics. The figure below is a circuit diagram for a ‘do-it-yourself’ sine wave
inverter.

60
Fig 2-39 Micro Controller Section

58
Fig 2-40 MOSFET Switches Schematic
59
SINEWAVE HOME UPS / INVERTER
2.20 PARTS LIST (PCB)
CAPACITORS: : 4.7-ohm
: 4.7-ohm
DIODES:
C1 : 0.1u,250V AC : 10K
C2 : NOT USED : 4.7-ohm D1 : 15V,zener
C3 : 4700u,35V : 4.7-ohm D2 : 1N4148
C4 : 4700u,35V : 4.7-ohm D3 : 15V,zener
C5 : 4700u,35V : 4.7-ohm D4 : 1N4148
C6 : 0.1u,ceramic : 4.7-ohm D5 : 1N4007
C7 : 0.1u,ceramic : 4.7-ohm D6 : 1N4007
C8 : 22u,40V : 4.7-ohm D7 : 15V,zener
C9 : 220uF,40V : 4.7-ohm D8 : 1N4148
C10 : 0.1u,ceramic : 4.7-ohm D9 : 1N4148
C11 : 0.1u,ceramic : 4.7-ohm D10 : 1N4148
C12 : 220uF,40V : 4.7-ohm D11 : 1N4007
C13 : 22uF,40V : 10K D12 : 1N4007
C14 : 0.1u,ceramic : 10K D13 : 1N4148
C15 : 0.1u,ceramic : 2K2
D14 : 1N4148
C16 : 22uF,40V : 4.7-ohm
C17 : 220uF,40V : 10K D15 : 1N4007
C18 : 100uF,40V : 10K D16 : 1N4007
C19 : 0.1u,ceramic : 1K5 D17 :
C20 : 100uF,40V : 22K 15V,zener D18
C21 : 47uF,40V : 1K5 : 1N4007
C22 : 0.1u,ceramic : 2K2 D19 : 1N4148
C23 : 10uF,40V : 100-ohm D20 : 1N4148
C24 : 100uF,25V : 220E D21 : 1N4148
C25 : 10uF,40V : 2K2 D22 : 1N4148
C26 : 1uF,40V : 2K2 D23 : 1N4007
C27 : 1uF,40V : 2K2 D24 : 1N4007
C28 : 1uF,40V : 2K2 D25 : 1N4007
C29 : 0.1u,ceramic : 680-ohm D26 : 1N4007
C30 : 33pF, ceramic : 680-ohm D27 : 1N4148 (put
C31 : 33pF,ceramic : 680-ohm reverse) D28: 1N4148
C32 : 1uF,40V : 680-ohm
C33 : 0.01u,ceramic : 680-ohm SEMICONDUCTORS:
C34 : 0.1u,ceramic :2K2 U1 : IR2110
C35 : 0.01u,ceramic : 10K U2 : IR2110
C36 : 47uF,40V : 6K8 U3 : CD4081
C37 : 0.1u,ceramic : 6K8 U4 : PIC16F72
C38 : 0.1u,ceramic : 330K U5 : LM324
C39 : 1uF,40V : 2K2 XTL1 16Mhz,crystal
C40 : 1uF,40V : 680-ohm RG1 : 7812 (for 12V
C41 : 47uF,40V : 47K only) RG2 7805
: 1K Q1 - Q5 : BC547 M1
RESISTORS: : 4K7 - M16 :IRF3205,
: 33K
MOSFET
R1 : NOT USED : 100K/220K
R2 : 4.7-ohm : 4K7 (for 6V trafo) MISC:
R3 : 4.7-ohm : 10K VR1 : 10K
R4 : 4.7-ohm : 10K VR2 : 10K
R5 : 4.7-ohm VR3 : 10K
R6 : 10K : 100K PB1 :10mm Goli buzzer
R7 : 4.7-ohm RL1 : 30A,Thimble Relay
R8 : 4.7-ohm F1 - F2 : 40A, Blade fuse
LED1 - LED5 : 3mm/5mm
LEDs

60
2.21 PIC16F72 8-bit PIC Microcontroller:
2.21.1 Introduction to PIC16F72:
PIC16F72 is a low-cost, low-power, high-speed CMOS Flash technology
capable, 8-bit, fully-static Microcontroller unit that has 28 pins out of which 22
pins can be used as I/O pins. It has Power-on-Reset (POR) as well as the Power-
up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST) circuitry.

It has a SLEEP mode, which can be configured in Power saving applications.

PIC16F72 also comes with the code protection, watchdog timer mode that serve
the power and reliability feature. Also, system cost can be greatly reduced by
using this microcontroller unit.

It has a wide operating voltage ranging from 2V to 5.5V. Thus, it can be

used in 3.3V or 5.0V logic level operations. The below image is showing the
detailed pin diagram of the PIC16F72.

Fig 2-41 PIC16F72 8-bit PIC Microcontroller pins

61
2.21.2 PIC16F72 Pinout:

Pin
Pin Name Description
No.

MCLR is used during programming, mostly

1 MCLR / VPP
connected to programmer like PicKit

2 RA0 / AN0 Analog pin 0 or 0th pin of PORTA

3 RA1 / AN1 Analog pin 1 or 1st pin of PORTA

4 RA2 / AN2 Analog pin 2 or 2nd pin of PORTA

5 RA3 / AN3 / VREF Analog pin 3 or 3rd pin of PORTA

6 RA4 / T0CKI 4th pin of PORTA

7 RA5 / AN5 / SS Analog pin 4 or 5th pin of PORTA

8 Vss Ground Pin of MCU

9 OSC1 / CLKI External Oscillator or clock input pin

10 OSC2 / CLKO External Oscillator or clock output pin

0th pin of PORT C or Timer1 oscillator output

11 RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI
or Timer1 External Clock Input

12 RC1 / T1CKO 1st pin of PORTC or Timer1 external Clock Output

2nd pin of PORTC

13 RC2 / CCP1
or CAPTURE/COMPARE/PWM pin

14 RC3/SCK/SCL 3rd pin of PORTC or Serial Data Clock pin

15 RC4/SDI/SDA 4th pin of PORTC or Serial Data In pin

62
 16 RC5/SDO 5th pin of PORTC or Serial Data Out pin

17 RC6 6th pin of PORTC

18 RC7 7th pin of PORTC

19 Vss Ground Pin of MCU

20 Vdd Positive Pin of MCU (+5V)

21 RB0 / INT 0th pin of PORTB or External Interrupt pin

22 RB1 1st pin of PORTB

23 RB2 2nd pin of PORTB

24 RB3 3rd pin of PORTB

25 RB4 4th pin of PORTB

26 RB5 5th pin of PORTB

27 RB6 / PGC 6th pin of PORTB or connected to programmer

28 RB7 / PDG 7th pin of PORTB or connected to programmer

2.21.3 Features and Specification of the PIC16F72 Microcontroller:

PIC16F72 - Simplified Features and Specification

CPU Baseline 8-bit

Number of Pins 28

Operating Voltage (V) 2-5.5V

Number of I/O pins 22

63
 ADC Module 8-bit, 5-channel

2 x 8-bit
Timer Module
1 x 16-bit

x 16-bit Capture module 1

Capture/Compare/PWM
x 16-bit Compare
Peripherals
module,

1 x 10-bit PWM module,

DAC Module Nil

Communication
1 x SSP (SPI / I2C)
Peripherals

External Oscillator Up to 20Mhz

Internal Oscillator Nil

Program Memory (KB) 3.5KB

CPU Speed (MIPS) 5 MIPS

RAM Bytes 128

Data EEPROM Nil

2.21.4 Programming PIC Microcontroller

PIC microcontrollers can be programmed with different software that is available

in the market. There are people who still use Assembly language to program PIC
MCUs. The below details is for the most advanced and common software and
compiler that has been developed by Microchip itself. In order to program the
PIC microcontroller, we will need an IDE (Integrated Development

64
Environment), where the programming takes place. A compiler, where our
program gets converted into MCU readable form called HEX files. An IPE
(Integrated Programming Environment), which is used to dump our hex file into
our PIC MCUs.

IDE: MPLABX v3.35

IPE: MPLAB IPE v3.35

Compiler: XC8

Microchip has given all these three software for free. They can be downloaded
directly from their official page. I have also provided the link for your
convenience. Once downloaded, install them on your computer. If you have any
problem doing so, you can post them on the comment below.

To dump or upload our code into PIC, we will need a device called PICkit
3. The PICkit 3 programmer/debugger is a simple, low-cost in-circuit debugger
that is controlled by a PC running MPLAB IDE (v8.20 or greater) software on a
Windows platform. The PICkit 3 programmer/debugger is an integral part of the
development engineer's tool suite. A basic programming circuit for PIC16F72 is
shown below.

Fig 2-42 PIC16F72 8-bit PIC Microcontroller

65
In addition to this, we will also need other hardware like a Perf board or
breadboard, Soldering station, PIC ICs, Crystal oscillators, capacitors, etc.
2.21.5 Application of PIC16F72:
This is a basic Mid-range 8-bit microcontroller unit that can be used in the
following applications:
• Input Output operations
• Control Applications
• Analog data Processing
• Sensor’s integration and data logging
• Small scale, low-cost embedded application-based production

2D Model:
The dimensions of the PIC16F72 are shown below:

Fig 2-43 PIC16F72 PIC Microcontroller 2D model

2.22 IR2110 description:

The IR2110/IR2113 are high voltage, high speed power MOSFET and
IGBT drivers with independent high and low side referenced output
channels.
Proprietary HVIC and latch immune CMOS technologies enable ruggedized
monolithic construction. Logic inputs are compatible with standard CMOS
or LSTTL output, down to 3.3V logic.
IR2110 is a high-power MOSFET and IGBT dedicated gate drive integrated
circuit developed and put on the market around 1990 by American
66
International

67
Rectifier Company using its unique high-voltage integrated circuit and door-free
CMOS technology. It has been widely used in power drive fields such as power
conversion and motor speed regulation. Below we will introduce the
characteristics, functions, working principle and applications of IR2110 in
detail.

Fig 2-44 IR2110 pins

IR2110 is a monolithic integrated driver module that integrates dual-channel,

gate driver, high-voltage and high-speed power devices. Due to its small size,
low cost, high integration, fast response, high bias voltage, and strong driving
capability, this kind of bootstrap integrated circuit has been widely used in
motor speed regulation, power conversion and other power applications since its
introduction. In the field of driving, it is especially suitable for driving power
MOSFET and IGBT. IR2110 uses advanced bootstrap circuit and level
conversion technology, which greatly simplifies the control requirements of
power devices by logic circuits, allowing each pair of MOSFETs (upper and
lower transistors) to share an IR2110, and all IR2110s can share an independent
power supply. For a typical three-phase bridge inverter composed of 6 tubes,
only 3 pieces of IR2110 can be used to drive 3 bridge arms, and only one 10V to
20V power supply is needed. Such a design significantly reduces the size of the
drive circuit and the number of power supplies in engineering applications,
simplifies the system structure, and thereby improves the reliability of the
system.

2.22.1 Main functions of IR2110:

IR2110 has the following main functions:

• Dual input signals, supporting four different control modes

• Strong anti-interference ability and electromagnetic compatibility, can adapt
to a variety of harsh operating environments
• Built-in charge pump circuit to provide high side driving voltage to enhance
the output capability
• Support high-voltage, high-speed drive, can drive IGBT, MOSFET and
other power switching tubes
68
 • Built-in short-circuit protection, over-temperature protection, over-voltage
protection, under-voltage protection and over-current protection and other
protection mechanisms.

Fig 2-45 Functional block diagram of IR2110

Summary of features:
• dv/dt immune
• Outputs in phase with inputs
• Undervoltage lockout for both channels
• Gate drive supply range from 10V to 20 V
• Logic and power ground + /- 5 V offset
• 3.3 V logic compatible
• Separate logic supply ranges from 3.3 V to 20 V
• Fully operational to +500 V
• Fully operational to +600 V version available (IR2113)
• Cycle by cycle edge-triggered shutdown logic
• CMOS Schmitt-triggered inputs with pull-down
• Matched propagation delay for both channels
• Floating channel designed for bootstrap operation

2.22.2 Working principle of IR2110:

IR2110 mainly consists of three parts: level conversion, logic input and output
protection. The reason why IR2110 is so popular is that its many advantages
enable it to avoid many problems when building and designing system circuits.

69
 Fig 2-46 Working principle of IR2110

For example, in the design of high-voltage floating bootstrap power supply

circuits, IR2110 can effectively control the high and low ports, thereby greatly
reducing the number of additional driving power supplies required. The figure
below shows the driving half-bridge circuit of the IR2110 driver chip. It simply
and clearly demonstrates the bootstrapping principle of the high-side suspension
driving circuit. Among them, C1 is the bootstrap capacitor, VD1 is the bootstrap
diode, and C2 is the filter capacitor for the power supply voltage Vcc.

2.22.3 IR2110 Internal Working Principal Diagram:

First, it is expected that bootstrap capacitor C1 can withstand the voltage of Vcc
when S1 is turned off. When VM1 is on, VM2 is off, and HIN is high, the VC1
voltage is applied between the gate and source (or emitter) of S1. Subsequently,
the bootstrap capacitor C1 will be discharged through a loop formed by Rg1,
VM1, gate and source, making VC1 equal to the voltage source, thus triggering
S1 to turn on.
On the other hand, the signals between HIN and LIN are considered
complementary inputs. When LIN is low, VM3 is disabled and VM4 is enabled.
At this time, the charge will be quickly released to the ground through the Rg2
in the S2 gate and the chip inside the source. Electricity is an energy source, and
during this process, dead time will have an impact, ensuring that S2 is turned off
before S1 is turned on.
When HIN is low, VM1 is turned off and VM2 is turned on. At this time, the
charge in the gate of S1 will be quickly discharged through Rg1 and VM2,
causing S1 to turn off. After a short dead time (td), LIN rises to high level,
causing S2 to turn on. At this time, the power supply voltage Vcc charges the
bootstrap capacitor C1 through S2 and VD1, causing the power of the bootstrap
capacitor C1 to increase rapidly. This process will be repeated continuously,

70
forming a cycle.

2.22.4 Application of IR2110:

• White goods

• Space and satellite communications systems

• DC motor driver

• Battery management system (BMS)

• Pure sine wave inverter

Main applications:
The IR2110 is commonly used in high power inverters, AC drives and motor
drives due to its high drive capability and suitability for high power
applications. While IR2113 is suitable for small and medium power applications
such as light duty inverters, LED drivers, etc.

Pin function:
The IR2110 has an input pin for dead-time control, which allows you to set the
delay between the high-side and low-side switching elements to avoid cross-
conduction. However, the IR2113 does not have a dedicated dead-time control
pin, but a similar function can be realized with external circuitry.

Pinout and circuit layout:

The lR2110 has a relatively complex pinout due to its dual-channel structure,
requiring more external components to configure the upper and lower half-bridge
circuits. lR2113 has a relatively simple pinout due to its three-channel structure,
making it suitable for more simplified driver circuits.

Output driving capability:

IR2110 can provide high driving current in the output stage, which is suitable for
driving high power switching components. IR2113 has relatively low output
capability, which is suitable for small and medium power switching components.

Number of output channels

IR2110 is a two-channel driver with two independent output channels for
driving upper and lower half-bridge switching elements. IR2113 is a three-
channel driver with three output channels, two of which are used for high-side
and low-side switching elements, and the other for optional high-side or low-
side power supplies.

How to use IR2110 to drive a single MOSFET tube?

The basic steps for using IR2110 to drive a single MOSFET are as follows.
First, we connect the VCC pin to a 5V or 12V power supply and the COM pin to
ground. Next, we connect the source of the MOSFET to the power ground and

71
the drain to the load of the circuit. We then connect the gate of the MOSFET to
one of the HO or LO pins of the IR2110, while the other pin needs to be
connected to the power ground. According to the specific needs of the circuit,
we can optimize the circuit performance by adjusting the RC delay time, duty
cycle and other parameters of IR2110. In order to protect the MOSFET and
IR2110, we should add overcurrent, overvoltage, overtemperature and other
protection mechanisms to the circuit.

Fig. 2-47 Simplified IR2110 output MOSFET connections

Although the driving circuit of a single MOSFET tube seems simple, it still
needs to be carefully designed according to specific circuit requirements and
application scenarios to ensure the stability and reliability of the circuit. In
addition, during operation, we should strictly abide by safety regulations and
operating procedures, and beware of potential safety hazards such as electric
shock and short circuit.
1. What is IR2110 MOSFET?
The IR2110/IR2113 are high voltage, high speed power MOSFET and
IGBT drivers with independent high and low side referenced output
channels.
Proprietary HVIC and latch immune CMOS technologies enable ruggedized
monolithic construction. Logic inputs are compatible with standard CMOS
or LSTTL output, down to 3.3V logic.

2. What is the output voltage of IR2110?

The operating supply voltage range for IR2110 is 10 to 20 volt and the output
current is 2.5A. IR2210 can withstand voltage up to 500v (offset voltage). Its
output pins can provide a peak current of up to 2 amperes.

72
3. Why is IR2110 used?
IR2110 is the most popular high and low side driver IC. Logic inputs of this IC
are compatible with standard CMOS or LSTTL outputs. The output drivers
feature a high pulse current buffer stage designed for minimum driver cross-
conduction. The maximum output current for this IC is 2.5A and supply current
is 340µA.

4. Why do we need MOSFET drivers?

Gate drivers are beneficial to MOSFET operation because the high-current drive
provided to the MOSFET gate decreases the switching time between the gate
ON/OFF stages which leads to increased MOSFET power and thermal
efficiency.

Fig. 2-48 HIGH side MOSFET circuits using IR2110.

73
2.23 CD4081 - Quad 2 Input AND Gate IC:

Fig 2-49 CD4081 IC

Fig 2-50 CD4081 Pinout

The CD4081 quad AND gate IC is a monolithic CMOS IC that is constructed

with N- and P-channel enhancement mode transistors. Both the transistors have
symmetrical source and sink current capabilities and conform to standard B
series output drive. This IC also features buffered outputs that improve transfer
characteristics by providing very high gain.

74
2.23.1 CD4081 IC Pinout Description:

Pin Number Pin Name Pin Description

14 VDD Supply voltage input, 5V to 15V

7 VSS Ground reference

1, 2 INPUT AND gate one inputs

3 OUTPUT AND gate one output

5, 6 INPUT AND gate two inputs

4 OUTPUT AND gate two output

8, 9 INPUT AND gate three inputs

10 OUTPUT AND gate three output

12, 13 INPUT AND gate four inputs

11 OUTPUT AND gate four output

75
Features:

 Four two-input AND gates in one package

 Wide supply range – 5V to 15V typical
 700mW power dissipation
 Symmetrical output characteristics
 Maximum input leakage 1 µA at 15V over a full
temperature range
 Available in DIP-14 package

2.23.2 How To Use the CD4081?

The CD4081 is a quad two-input AND gate in a DIP-14 package. It is based on
the CMOS architecture, which leads to a very low quiescent current. The output
is buffered and has symmetric current source/sink capabilities. The output can
drive two 74L series inputs or one 74LS series input. The chip is specified for
operation at 5V, 10V, and 15V. The outputs of the CD4081 are dependent on the
states of the inputs, as shown in the truth table below.

Input Input Output

A B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Applications:
 Logic buffers, inverters, and decoders
 Implementing logic circuits
 Signal conditioning

2D Model and Dimensions:

If you are designing a PCB or Perf board with this component then the following
picture from the Datasheet will be useful to know its package type and
dimensions. These dimensions are for the PDSO package. If you are using a
different package IC please refer to the CD4081 datasheet.

76
Fig. 2-51 2D Model and Dimensions

77
2.24 Sinewave Inverter:
CIRCUIT WORKING:

Here the circuit is designed around PIC16F72 microcontroller with some

other analog components, but the heart of the circuit is the microcontroller.
Refer to circuit diagram to understand the working details.

INVERTER MODE:
As soon as the controller got the power from battery the controller scans the
voltage logic at its pin22 which is used for INV ON/OFF, this pin by default
kept high (5V), when the inverter switch is ON this pin becomes low and
the controller jump to inverter ON mode.

when the inverter is ON the controller start producing PWM pulse at its
pin13 (ccp out), before producing PWM pulse the controller also check the
voltage logic at its pin16 (INV/UPS switch) if this pin is high (INV mode)
then controller giving the full 70% modulated duty cycle (50 Hz modulated
with 7.8kHz) at one shot, if the pin16 is low (UPS mode) then the controller
producing the duty cycle from 1% - 70% @.250mS delay. This is for soft
delay output in UPS mode.

Along with the PWM the controller producing channel select logic from
pin12 and pin13 of the microcontroller which is fed to pin8 and pin12 of IC
CD4081. During first phase of pulse (i.e 10ms) the pin12 of the controller is
high and PWM is available from pin10 of CD4081 only and after 10mS,
pin14 of controller is high and the PWM is available from pin11 of CD4081,
hence this way two out of phase PWM is available to switch on the
MOSFETs.

Besides that, a high logic (5V) is available from pin11 of the controller, this
pin becomes high when inverter is ON and becomes low when inverter is
OFF. This high logic is fed to pin10 of both the MOSFET drivers U1 and
U2, (HI pin) to switch ON the high side MOSFETs of both the bank.

MOSFET Switching:
Refer to MOSFET switching circuit diagram.

Here U1 (IR2110) and U2 (IR2110) high side / low side MOSFET driver are
used, refer to data sheet of this IC to understand more. Here the two
MOSFET bank with high side and low side MOSFETs are used for
transformer’s primary switching. Here we are describing the operation of
bank (using IC U1) only as the other bank driving is similar to each other.

78
Once the inverter is ON the controller make the pin10 of U1 is high which in
turn switch ON the high side MOSFETs (M1 - M4) ON, PWM for channel-1
from pin10 of CD4081 is fed to pin12 of the driver IC (U1) as well as it is
fed to the base of Q1 through R25. When the PWM is high the pin12 of U1
is high and switch ON the low side MOSFETs of bank 1(M9 - M12),
alternately it switches ON the transistor Q1 which in turn make the pin10
voltage of U1 low, hence switching OFF the high side MOSFETs (M1- M4).
So, it stands that by default the high logic from pin11 of the microcontroller
switched ON high side MOSFETs of both the bank, when the corresponding
PWM is high the low side MOSFETs are ON and high side MOSFETs are
OFF, this way the switching cycle repeats.

Pin11 of U1 is used for hardware lock of both the driver. By default, this pin
kept low, when in any condition the low side MOFET switching not occurs
(say during o/p short circuit or false pulse occurs at the output), the VDS
voltage of low side MOSFETs shoots up which in turn makes the output
pin1 of comparator (U4) high and latched through D27, and makes pin11 of
U1 and U2 high, and in turn switched OFF both the MOSFET driver
completely, help the MOSFETs from burn out.

Pin6 and pin9 is of +VCC of the IC (+5V), pin3 is of +12V for MOSFET
gate drive supply, pin7 is the high side MOSFET gate drive, pin5 is the high
side MOSFET return path, pin1 is the low side MOSFET drive, and pin2 is
the low side MOSFET return. pin13 is the ground of the IC (U1).

LOW BATTERY PROTECTION:

When the controller run the inverter routine it repeatedly senses the voltage
at its pin4 (BATT SENSE), pin7 (OVER LOAD sense) and pin2 (AC MAIN
sense) If the voltage at pin4 is >2.6V the controller ignores it and jump to
other sense routine, once the voltage comes down to 2.5V the controller halt
its routine here, switched OFF the inverter routine and low battery LED
becomes ON and buzzer beeps.

OVER LOAD:
Over load is a common feature applied in every inverter system. Here to trip
the inverter when the load exceeds the rated load capacity the battery current
sensed across the negative line (i.e the voltage drops across the fuse and
negative track of the low side MOSFET bank) and this very low voltage
drop @mV is further amplified by the comparator U5 (comprising pins12,13
1nd 14) - refer to circuit diagram.

The amplified voltage output from pin14 of comparator (U5) is wired as

79
 inverting amplifier fed to pin7 of the microcontroller. The software set
voltage value for this pin is 2V. As discussed earlier the controller sensing
the voltages at this pin also while running the inverter routine, when the load
current increase the voltage at this pin also increases, when the voltage at
this pin7 of the controller is >2V the routine shuts off the inverter and jump
to overload routine, shuts off the inverter, switch ON the overload LED and
buzzer beeps, after 9-beeps the controller switched ON the inverter and scan
the voltage at pin7 again, if the controller found pin7 voltage <2V then it run
the inverter on routine normally otherwise it shut down the inverter again,
This is called the auto reset mode.

INVERTER TO MAIN CHANGEOVER:

As we have stated earlier the when is inverter, the controller checks the
voltage at its pin4 (for Low-batt), pin7 (for overload) and pin2 for AC main
voltage status. We know that the system is running in two mode (a)UPS
mode, (b) inverter mode. So before checking the pin2 voltage of controller
the routine first check in which mode the system is operating by sensing the
high / low logic at pin16 of the microcontroller.

Inverter to main changeover (INV-MODE): In this mode when the AC

main voltage is 140V AC the changeover occurs, this voltage is software
settable, it means when the pin2 volage is >0.9V the controller shuts off the
inverter and jump to main on routine where the routine scans the pin2
voltage to check the AC main failure and run the charging routine which
we have discussed later.

Inverter to main changeover (UPS-MODE): In this mode when the AC

main voltage is 190V AC the changeover occurs, this voltage is software
settable, it means when the pin2 volage is >1.22V the controller shuts off
the inverter and jump to main on routine where the routine scans the pin2
voltage to check the AC main failure and run the charging routine which
we have discussed later.

MAIN TO INVERTER CHANGEOVER:

During main ON the controller first check in which mode the system is
operating by sensing the high/low logic at pin16 of the microcontroller and
then scan the pin2 voltage of the controller for changeover in this mode.

main to inverter changeover (INV-MODE): In this mode when the AC main

voltage is 90V AC the changeover occurs, this voltage is software settable, it
means when the pin2 volage is >0.53V the controller jumps to inverter on
routine as described earlier.

80
main to inverter changeover (UPS-MODE): In this mode when the AC main
voltage is 175V AC the changeover occurs, this voltage is software settable, it
means when the pin2 volage is >1.03V the controller jumps to inverter on
routine as described earlier.

BATTERY CHARGING:
During MAIN ON Battery charging occurs. As we know during battery
charging the system working in SMPS topology, let us discussed how it works.
To charge the battery the output circuit (MOSFET and Inverter transformer)
works as a boost converter. Here the all the low side MOSFETs of both the
bank working together as a switch and the primary of the inverter transformer
act as an inductor, when all the low side MOSFETs are ON the energy stored
at the primary coil of transformer and when the MOSFETs are OFF the stored
energy rectified by the in-build diode inside the MOSFETs and transferred the
DC voltage to battery, the amount of stored energy de- pends on the ON time
of the low side MOSFETs hence the percentage of duty cycle of the charging
PWM.
When the system running in main on mode the charging PWM (from pin13 of
micro) is gradually in- crease from 1% to maximum limit, when the PWM
increases the DC voltage to battery also increases resulting increase in battery
current, the battery current is sensed across the DC fuse and negative track of
the PCB and the voltage is further amplified by the amplifier U5 (pin8, ppin9
and pin10 of the comparator) this
amplified voltage or sensed current are fed to the pin5 of microcontroller. This
pin voltage is set in software as 1V, when the voltage at this pin is >1V the
controller decreasing the PWM duty cycle till it down to <1V, if the voltage at
this pin comes down to <1V the controller increasing the PWM, in this way the
controller maintaining the voltage at this pin at 1V and hence the charging
current.

81
82
 Fig 3-1 Proteus 8 Professional

3.1 What is Proteus?

Fig 3-2 home page of Proteus 8 Professional

Proteus Design Suite is one of the best circuit simulation programs in its field. It
also has Proteus Design Suite, the PCB design, and IoT builder software.

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In this article, we cover the circuit simulation part.

How can we use the program?

Fig 3-3 Start project page of Proteus 8 Professional

This will be the first screen that appears when we open the program. Then open
a new project to create our circuit simulation.

Fig 3-4 schematic beginning in Proteus 8 Professional

After creating a new project this screen will have appeared.

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 Fig 3-5 the menu in Proteus 8 Professional

After examining the menu on the left side of the screen, you can access the tools
from this menu.
If you find it difficult to find the tools in the menu mentioned above, you can open
this menu by right-clicking on the simulation area.
There are many tools under the headings, I suggest you look in detail for better use.

Fig 3-6 tools or components in the menu

If you cannot find the desired tools or components in the menu, proceed as in the
image and come to the From Libraries section.

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 Fig 3-7 search by type from the tools or components in the menu
You can search by typing a word that covers the component you are looking for. If
you want to make a more detailed search, you can reach it by typing the specific
name of the component.

Fig 3-8 how to connect components

After you find our component, click on the field to place it.
Create a cable to the beginning of the other component by left-clicking from a
component end.

Fig 3-9 change or edit the components info

Also, you can change the resistor’s name or resistance by double-clicking.

Likewise, we can change the voltage of the source in this way.

How to Install an Arduino Library in Proteus

Proteus doesn’t come with an inbuilt Arduino library, so you have to install it
externally. Follow the steps below to install it on your PC.
1. Download all library-related files from GitHub.

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 Fig 3-10 Arduino Schematic

Finally, let’s run the simulation using the start-stop-end buttons at the bottom
left and examine the simulation results.

Fig 3-11 MPPT Schematic proteus version

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 3.2 THE PROPOSED ARDUINO BASED MPPT SOLAR
CHARGE CONTROLLERDESIGN
In our project the maximum power point tracker was implemented using an Arduino
with the preferred program to execute the desired algorithm. The panel voltage and
current is taken where the implemented program will run and with the help of this
algorithm that the MPP will be achieved. Through our research and by judging all
possible methods for calculating the MPP value we have taken necessary steps
starting from the testing process and finally implementing each component of our
design one by one hence designing the charge controller. We have mainly carried
out certain tests such as the panel testing, current sensor testing, voltage divider
testing and also battery testing. The algorithm we have used the Perturb and observe
method which we have followed for our design. The current sensing was also a
crucial part of the design.
3.3 MPPT Specifications:
The MPPT controller is in charge of:
i. Based on MPPT algorithm.
ii. Led indication for the state of charge
iii. 20x4 character LCD display for displaying voltages, current, power etc.
iv. Overvoltage / lightning protection
v. Reverse power protection
vi. Short circuit and overload protection

Fig 3-12 Smart Solar MPPT

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 3.4 Arduino as Microcontroller:
As mentioned above we have used Arduino as microcontroller for implementing our
project and it can be defined as the heart of our project. Arduino is a combination of
both physical programmable circuit board and software. As a matter of fact, it is
almost like an Ide (integrated development environment) that we use in our personal
computer. That is why we chose to use Arduino to get a more precise result in our
project. The current sensor senses the current, the voltage sensor senses the voltage
and they fed the result into Arduino and therefore Arduino compares them with the
preset instruction and changes accordingly to extract the result. It needs 5volts to get
powered up and it is supplied by the 12v lead acid battery we used. To convert the
voltage from 12v to 5v we used a lm7805 voltage regulator.
For our project, an Arduino needed to perform three distinct functions and
those were as follows:
i. Provide the correct frequency of the PWM square wave.
ii. Calculate the power using the current and voltage reading obtained from the dc/dc
buck converter every time.
iii. Implement ‘perturb and observe’ algorithm that compared the previous power to
new power and modified the duty cycle of PWM to track the maximum power point
successfully.
3.5 Current sensing
To sense the current generated by the PV module in different conditions we used a
hall-effect current sensor that is manufactured commercially for sensing ac, dc
current to use in industrial or research or communication systems. Most importantly,
it is the most preferable microchip assembled Ic to be used with microcontrollers as
Arduino.

Fig 3-13 pin configuration

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Fig 3-14 calibration procedure

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 Fig 3-15 calibration procedure (b)

3.5.1 Voltage Sensing:

When trying to read the output voltage of the buck converter, there was a problem
that
The team encountered. The Arduino UNO was the chosen component to perform
the power calculation and the MPPT algorithm.
The analog pins of the Arduino can only read the voltage from a range of 0-5v.
However, the requirement for the prototype is to be able to read the voltage with a
range of 0-25v. Therefore, to solve this problem, the team decided to use voltage
divider to change the voltage going into the input pin of the Arduino to no larger
than 5v.the reduced voltage will get converted back to its original value based on the
voltage divider ratio before the Arduino uses that value to compute thepower.to read
the voltage we use a voltage divider. Voltage could be high up to 25v from the solar
panel so we can’t read that with the Arduino. So, with a 20k and a 100k resistor we
make some voltage divide and lower the value under 5v for the Arduino ADC.

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 Fig 3-16 Voltage Divider

3.6 Pulse Width Modulation

Switching mechanism of a DC-DC converter (buck converter in our case)
requires two stages of operation:
1) Controller Stage,
2) Power Stage.
The controller stage supervises the precision of power supply stage by regulating
voltage (keeping, 2014). Therefore, pulse width modulation technique is introduced
here for regulation of voltage. Basically, PWM refers to the technique of achieving
analog result by digital means. Since, in our proposed system we are using Arduino
and also switching mechanism is involved so PWM technique has to be integrated.
PWM works by changing the duty ratio of the switches to produce a constant output
voltage. To clarify, duty ratio means the on-stage period of a digital signal where the
signal obviously is in square waveform. The duty ratio is always described in
percentage. Duty ratio in buck converter is found to be proportional to the input
voltage.
Vout = D × Vin

So, if duty ratio is 0% then it means the circuit is grounded and if the duty ratio is
100% then we will get the maximum output voltage for maximum output voltage. In
our case we tried to achieve the MPP to charge the battery at a maximum level by
varying duty cycle in our algorithm. Furthermore, we have set the duty ratio to
change
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by sensing the battery voltage level like; when it needs to be charged and when it
needs to stop charging. All things considered, PWM is the most crucial mechanism
for switching buck converter that we are implementing in our project work.
3.7 Battery Space:
In our case, for this tutorial we have a 12v battery. For this battery the bulk
maximum voltage is 14.6v and a charging current of 2a. When 14.6v are reached,
we enter absorption mode and we keep this value till the current drops below let’s
say 100ma. Then we enter float mode and we keep the battery art 13.7v indefinitely
at a very low current flow. we don’t have a huge solar panel because we leave in an
apartment. To simulate a solar panel, we will use my power supply. Usually, you
can buy panels of 12v, 24v or 36v. Remember this voltage will be affected by the
sunlight, temperature and more. So, now that we know what we have to do, let’s
build the controller
3.8 MPPT Controller:
First, what are the parts of an MPPT controller. We need a microcontroller able to
read input and output voltage, current values and process the calculations. Of course,
the Arduino will do that. We need a variable buck converter that will be able to
regulate the output voltage and keep it constant. We will make this circuit ourselves
and control it with a PWM signal from the Arduino. We need current sensors in
order to read and limit the current value. For that we will use the acs712module. We
need a relay or a MOSFET that will be used to enable or disable the load. We need a
display where we can print the values. we will use this 20 by 4 LCD. We should also
have a fixed value buck converter set to 5v that will supply the Arduino. For that we
could a small 2amps buck converter. Set it to 5v and then glue the potentiometer so
it will stay at that voltage.
3.9 Protection System:
For the balancing of the entire circuit, we have to add a protection part that will
provide security for the entire circuitry as well as for the load.
Short circuit or overcurrent protection:
We have added a fuse and two n-channel MOSFETs for protection purpose.
Basically, we all know the basic purpose of fuse. It provides protection against
overcurrent condition. Though, it gets damaged after providing one-time security
still we used it for faster response again stover current situation. It is simply a single
piece of wire that tears apart in the faulty situation.

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Low voltage disconnects protection (LVD):
This protection circuit is a great solution to windup the problem with having dead
batteries. We have used two MOSFETs to disconnect the battery from the load in
case battery voltage decreases threshold value. Fuse MOSFET in the protection
circuit acts like a switch to disconnect the battery from the load. The gate of this
MOSFET is connected to Arduino digital pin. If logic is 1 or volts, the MOSFET
will turn on pulling the drain of this MOSFET to zero. This will turn off the other
MOSFET and pulls up its battery drain to battery voltage. As a result, no current
will flow through the load.

High voltage disconnects protection (HVD):

There might be cases when the battery voltage rises to dangerous level due to
presence of another charging source in the system and this is when the HVD comes
in use which has been designed to halt charging when the battery voltages rise to
such extensive levels. As Arduino constantly monitoring the battery voltage so if it
detects a high voltage then it will set the duty cycle of the MOSFET gate to zero.
Hence disconnecting the battery from charging from the PV panel.
3.10 LED Indicator
Our compacted box comes with led indication to indicate the charging state of battery.
As mentioned earlier we used a 12v deep
cycle multi-celled battery and the led, S
will indicate different charging state by
illuminating different color. The led
indication for different level is given
below.
red, green and yellow LEDs are used to
indicate the battery voltage level.
Low voltage -- > red led Normal voltage --
> green led Fully charged --> yellow led

table the led indication

for different level

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 3.11 Software Section
As we have mentioned earlier the entire system was implemented using an Arduino
as microcontroller and it works as the heart of our project. The algorithm was both
programmed and implemented in Arduino. Arduino nowadays is an open-source
programming tool that is becoming more popular for its ease of application where
the UI (user interface) enables the user to apply different knowledge of coding in a
single platform. For this reason, we chose to implement our algorithm by Arduino
and it is also easy to debug the error.
In our project we implemented Perturb and Observe Method to track the MPP.
This Perturb and Observe Method calculates output voltage and current and it is
independent of temperature

and other climatic condition. We have already described the method of Perturb and
Observe Method how it works in the MPPT method part. Now we will just take a
brief look at the flow chart again and the coding of the Perturb and Observe
Method is added in the later part for better understanding of the implementation.
Starts reading its analog inputs:
The voltage supplied by the PV panel the current drawn by the PV panel the voltage
of the battery once all inputs are read, it calculates the current power supplied by the
PV panel by multiplying read voltage by reading current.
Then the charging configuration is set according to the above readings:
- If the supplied PV power is very low (night time, cloudy weather, dirty panels) the
charging state is set to off, the MOSFET driver is shut down, and the PWM rate is
set to 0%.
- If the supplied PV power is low and the battery is not fully charged, the charging
state is set toon, the MOSFET driver is enabled, and the PWM rate is set to
100%.
- If the supplied PV power is medium to high, and the battery level is not fully
charged, the charging state is set to bulk, the MOSFET driver is enabled, and
the PWM rate is set to 100%.
- If the supplied PV power is medium to high, and the battery level is fully charged,
the charging state is set to float, the MOSFET driver is enabled, and the PWM rate
is set to maximum.
The next task is the settings of the output load control:
- If it is night time and the battery voltage level is higher than the
“low voltage
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disconnect” threshold which is 11.9V, the output is enabled and the battery supplies its
energy to the load.
- If it is day time and the battery voltage level is higher than the “low voltage
disconnect” threshold which is 11.9V, the output is also enabled, but this time the
load is energized by the battery and by the excess energy supplied by the PV panel.
- If the battery voltage level gets below the “low voltage disconnects” threshold
which is 11.9V, the output gets disabled and the load gets disconnected.
The next step is to set the battery voltage indicators by turning on the
corresponding led:
- If the battery voltage level is lower than 11.9V, then the red led
is turned on.
- If the battery voltage level is higher than 11.9V but lower than 14.1V, then the
green led is turned on.
- If the battery voltage level is higher than 14.1V, then the yellow led is turned on.
Next, the Arduino updates the information displayed on the LCD screen according
to the above processes and then starts another reading of the inputs to start the loop
phase process once again, and then it continuously repeats this loop over and over.

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Fig 3-17 flowchart of software

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3.12 Arduino Code of MPPT Solar Charge Controller

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99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
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 Fig 4-1 the end project

SIMULATION OF MPPT AND EXPERIMENT RESULT

4.1 Simulation by Proteus
Simulation is a very powerful tool to understand how the device will work after
implementation. Before starting a project, it is a good idea to imitate it and to
virtually check how it will work. Proteus is a simulation and design software tool
developed by Lab Center Electronics for the design of electrical and electronic
circuits. We took advantage of its capabilities to simulate our buck converter before
proceeding to the realization. Figure 6.1 shows the test of buck converter at 50%
duty cycle.

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MPPT Schematic:

Fig 4-2 MPPT Circuit

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 Fig 4-3 Test of Buck Converter at 50 % Duty Cycle

We often have to use MOSFETs configured as up and down side switches. As in

half- bridge circuits, we have a high-side MOSFET and a low-side MOSFET. In
such situations, it is necessary to use high-side control circuits at the same time as
low-side control circuits. The most common way to drive MOSFETs in such
situations is to use both high-side and low-side MOSFET drivers. The most popular
control circuit is the IR2104. The integrated circuit receives the PWM signal from the
Arduino and then controls two outputs for a high and a low MOSFET. First, we
need to provide the power supply to the driver through VDC (pin 1) and its value
is between 10-20 V according to the data sheet. The high frequency PWM signal of
the Arduino goes to in (pin 2). The Arduino’s stop control signal is connected to SD
(pin 3). The two PWM output signals are generated from pins HO and LO. This gives
the user the possibility to fine-tune the switching of the MOSFETs. The capacitor
connected between VB and VS with the diode forms the charge pump.
This circuit doubles the input voltage so that the high switch can be activated.
However, this bootstrap circuit only works when the MOSFETs are switching.

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 Fig 4-4 shows the output signals from pins HO and LO

4.2 The Scheme Designed by Proteus

The schema is divided into nine sections as shown in the following figure:
Section A: is the input of the system which is the power supplied by the solar
panel. The fuseF1 and D4, D5 TVS represent the protection network against any high
current and over voltage that could happen to the circuit. The voltage divider
network (R1, and R2) are used to scale down the voltage provided by the solar panel
(VPV) so that the maximum voltage supplied to the Arduino analog input (A0)
doesn’t exceed it the maximum voltage limit which is5V. The output voltage of
the voltage divides is one-sixth (16) of the input voltage. So the maximum value for
the PV panel voltage should not exceed 30v. Va0= R2/[R1+R2] VPV= 20/
[100+20] VPV= [20/120] * VPV= 16 VPV.

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 Fig 4-5 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section A

Section B: is the current sensing network for the power supplied by the PV panel.
The acs712-5 is a hall-effect current sensor chip whose output is an analog signal
proportional to the current passing through the chip. The capacitor is a general filter
capacitor. The output of the current sensor is connected to the second analog pin of
the Arduino (A1).

Fig 4-6 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section B

Section C: Is the represent a blocking circuit that allows the current to flow in only
one direction which is from the PV panel to the charging circuit. The aim of this
circuit is to protect the PV panel from the battery voltage when the solar panel is not
producing electricity. The MOSFET transistor Q1 gate pin is connected to the
MOSFET driver chip (IR2104) through the diode d3. So that Q1 is engaged only
when the MOSFET transistors are operational.

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 Fig 4-7 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section C

Section D: Is The charging network. The MOSFET driver chip will control the
MOSFET pair Q2 and Q3 in a push-pull configuration to enable the current to
flow inside the coil. The output of this network is connected to the battery to be
charged.

Fig 4-8 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section D

Section E: is another voltage divider connected to the third analog pin (A2) of the
Arduino.
This network feed the voltage of the battery into the Arduino to measure it.
VA2= (R7 *Vbat )/(R7+R8 ) = (20* Vbat)/(100+20) = (20/120 )*Vbat= 0.1667*
Vbat.

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 Fig 4-9 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section E

Section F: Is the output load control circuit. The Arduino output pin (D6) control
the base of the NPN transistor Q5, which in turns control the gate of the MOSFET
transistor Q4 responsible for allowing/ block the current to flow from the battery to
the load. Whenever D6 is low (0V), the base of Q5 will be high, and the MOSFET
Q4will be passing the current. When D6 switch its state to high, (5V), the base of Q5
will be high, and the MOSFET Q4 will be open circuit and the current flow will be
blocked.

Fig 4-10 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section F

Section G: Is the push-pull MOSFET network driver. It drives the MOSFET

transistors Q2and Q3 based on the signals generated by the Arduino board at pins D8
and D9.

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 Fig 4-11 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section G
Section H: Is the serial LCD display. It uses the I2C protocol to communicate with
the Arduino board.

Fig 4-12 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section H

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 Section I: Is the visual indication LED used to state the voltage level of the
battery. The resistors R11, R12, R13 are current limiting resistors used to prevent
the voltage supplied by the Arduino (5V) from damaging the led which requires
only 2 volts to operate.

Fig 4-13 Project Schematic Diagram Explanation Section I

4.3 Result of Experiment

Fig 4-14 result of simulation

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 Fig 4-15 simulation result

Fig 4-16 graph result of simulation

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 Fig 4-17 practical result

To study the effect of Maximum power point tracking technique 17.2 V, 30W PV
panel is used with 12V 7AH battery. When the load is applied the LCD shows it. The
LCD will display all the voltages as indicate.

If we expose Solar Panel outside, it gives a voltage of almost 16.67V.

When we connect the Solar Panel to the input terminal of the circuit, the LCD will
display the value of Solar panel voltage, Current and Power in the first column.

When we connect the Battery to the circuit, the LCD will display Battery Voltage,
Charger state, and SOC in the 2nd column.

At last, we can connect any load to the load terminal for testing the status. The LCD
will show the PWM duty cycle and load status on the 3rd column.

The Red, Green and Yellow LEDs are used to indicate the battery voltage level.

 Low Voltage — > Red led

 Normal Voltage –> Green Led
 Fully Charged –> Yellow Led

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 Fig 4-18 practical result

These responses show that the operating point reaches the MPP with some important
oscillations around the Maximum Power Point. Figure response of PPV.

While testing we can notice that the voltage to the solar panel increases initially, if the
output power increase, the voltage continually increases until the output power starts
decreasing. Once the output power starts decreasing, the voltage to the solar panel
decreases until it reaches maximum power. This process is continued until the MPPT
is attained. This result is an oscillation of the output power around the MPP.

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Table practical result of MPPT

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CONCLUSION
In the final analysis, this project presents an efficient photo voltaic system with the
capability of tracking the maximum power point using p and o method. Each
component of this system such as the solar panel, charge controller, DC-DC
converter has all been discussed about. Since the purpose of this project was to
design a more efficient MPPT solar charge controller using an Arduino, so we have
explained the maximum power point tracking and the procedure we have followed to
achieve that point. A brief comparison has been made between MPPT and PWM.
The use of an Arduino and its advantages has been provided in this project along
with the converter used for our design of the solar charge controller.
Experimental results conclude that MPPT based charge controller is much more
effective in case of solar panel to extract the maximum power out of the panel.
MPPT based charge controller increases battery health by charging the battery at
constant charging current and avoiding overcharging.

 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospect

Solar energy is the ultimate source of ultra clean, sustainable and natural energy.
Most importantly it is the most cost-efficient energy source we can use in our favor
and for securing financial benefits. In this regard developing more efficient charge
controller is a progressive step to fulfill the need of power generation using green
energy. For that purpose, it is our wish to continue further study on making the PV
module more efficient. To be specific, the charge controller can be more improved by
making the circuit more integrated and coming up with new algorithm to make the
maximum power point tracking more efficient. Additionally, more digital logic can
be implemented for maximizing the output hence reducing the physical work and
onwards from the battery an inverter can be connected to power the ac loads.

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 Advantages:
With the advanced MPPT technology, MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) inverters
offer several key advantages over traditional inverters:
1. Increased Energy Yield
MPPT inverters are designed to increases the energy yield from solar panels by continuously
tracking and adjusting the operating point to extract maximum possible power at any given
time, even under varying conditions like partial shading or panel mismatches. This results
higher overall energy production by 10-30% compared to traditional inverters. For a 5kW
solar system, with an MPPT inverter can result in an additional 500-1500 kWh of energy
production per year.
2. Higher Efficiency
By operating solar panels at their maximum power point, MPPT inverters typically convert
95-99% of the available solar energy into usable electrical power. This efficiency stems from
their ability to match the panel’s output voltage and current to the optimal levels from
maximum power generation. Higher efficiency translated into greater energy savings and
faster return on investment for solar power systems.
3. Flexible System Design
The flexibility in system design is another advantage of MPPT inverters. They can
accommodate a wide range of solar panel configurations, including panels connected in
series or parallel and with different orientations and panel sizes. This adaptability allows for
easier system expansion and different installation conditions, it enables system designers to
work around site-specific constraints or limitations and efficient solar power solutions.
4. Faster Battery Charging
In hybrid solar or off-grid systems with battery storage, MPPT inverters can charge the
batteries more efficiently, the charge rates is up to 30% compared to non-MPPT. By
delivering the maximum available power from the solar panels, these inverters ensure that
batteries are charged more quickly, it can reduce charging time by 1-2 hours per day. It is
crucial for solar systems to maintain a reliable and consistent power supply, and it can lead to
improved battery life and better overall system performance.
5. Performance Monitoring
Many MPPT inverters provide advanced performance monitoring capabilities, allowing users
to track the real-time performance of each solar panel array or string separately, such as
energy production, consumption, and system efficiency. This granular monitoring facilitates
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 proactive maintenance and troubleshooting, ensuring optimal system performance and
reducing downtime of their solar power setup.
 Disadvantages:
While MPPT inverters offer several key advantages over traditional inverters, they also have
some potential disadvantages:
1. Higher Upfront Cost: MPPT inverters are generally more expensive than traditional
inverters due to their advanced technology and additional components required for maximum
power point tracking. The higher initial cost can be a barrier, especially for smaller
residential solar systems.
2. Added Complexity: The MPPT algorithm and circuity add complexity to the inverter
design and operation compared to standard inverters. It can lead to more intricate installation
processes, configuration, and maintenance more challenging, which can increase the risk of
failures and make troubleshooting more difficult, requiring specialized knowledge and
training.
3. Potential Reliability Issues: While MPPT inverters are designed to be durable, with more
components and complexity, they may be more prone to higher failure rates over time
compared to simpler inverter designs. Additionally, the high-frequency switching required
for MPPT can generate more heat, which might necessitate more frequent repairs or
replacements.
4. Performance in Extreme Conditions: In certain extreme conditions, such as very high
temperatures or partial shading, the performance advantage of MPPT inverters may be
diminished or even negated, leading to reduced energy yield compared to ideal conditions. In
these environmental stresses, MPPT may not provide significant benefits over simple inverter
designs.
Applications of MPPT Inverters
· Residential solar power systems: MTTP inverters ensure optimal performance of rooftop
solar panels. Increasing energy yield and reducing electrical bills for homeowners.
· Commercial and industrial solar installations: Large-scale commercial and industrial
solar projects often employ MPPT inverters; they can handle diverse panel orientations,
shading conditions, and mismatch losses to optimize energy production and ensure efficient
operation.
· Off-grid and hybrid systems: MPPT inverters are essential components in off-grid setup
and hybrid systems, where they help charge batteries more efficiently and manage power
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flow between solar panels, batteries, and load. This is particularly beneficial in remote areas or
applications where grid power is unreliable or unavailable.
For reliable and efficient hybrid solar energy systems, Hinen offers a range of solar inverters
with MPPT technology. Hinen Microinverter boasts a 4-in-1 design for maximum
efficiency, independent MPPT control, and component-level monitoring. It delivers up to
2000W of power, making it ideal for modern energy systems.

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 References:

1. https://www.instructables.com/ARDUINO-SOLAR-CHARGE-CONTROLLER-
Version-30/
2. Choudhary, Dhananjay and Saxena, Anmol Ratna (2014) ‘DC-DC
Buck Converter For MPPT Of PVSystem’, International Journal Of
Emerging Technology AndAdvanced Engineering, 4(7).
3. https://todayshomeowner.com/solar/guides/pure-sine-wave-inverters-how-do-
they-work/
4. Kotak, V.C. And Tyagi, P. (2013) ‘DC To DC Converter In Maximum
Power Point Tracker’, International Journal Of Advanced Research In
Electrical, Electronics AndInstrumentation Engineering, 2(12).
5. Radio-Electronis.Com (No Date) Available At:
Http://Http://Www.Radio-Electronics.Com/Info/Power-
Management/Switchingmode-Power-Supply/Step-Down-Buck- Regulator-
Converter-Basics.Php (Accessed: 10 July 2016).
6. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/mppt-62585377/62585377
7. Harjai, A., Bhardwaj, A. And Sandhibigraha, M. (No Date) ‘STUDY OF
MAXIMUM POWER POINTTRACKING (MPPT) TECHNIQUES IN A
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY’.
8. Power Electronics By Daniel W. Hart.
9. MOSFET Block Diagram By Calvin.
10. Http://Www.Edn.Com/Design/Components-And-Packaging/4341997/A-Simple-
Guide-To-Selecting- Power-Mosfets.
11. Https://Www.Edn.Com/Design/Components-And-Packaging/4341997/A-
Simple-Guide-To- Selecting-Power-Mosfets.
12. https://resources.pcb.cadence.com/blog/synchronous-vs-nonsynchronous-dc-dc-
conversion