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Starting Of Class 1401

Unit–X Oscillations and Waves
p.d 26 Marks.10
Chapter–14: Oscillations
Chapter–15: Waves

Chapter–14: Oscillations

Syllabus

Periodic motion - time period, frequency,

displacement as a function of time, periodic
functions.

Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M) and its

equation; phase;

Oscillations of a loaded spring- restoring

force and force constant;

Energy in S.H.M. Kinetic and potential

energies;

Simple pendulum derivation of expression for

its time period.

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Free, forced and damped oscillations

(qualitative ideas only), resonance.

Experiments

7. Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T2

graph and use it to find the effective length
of second's pendulum.

8. To study variation of time period of a

simple pendulum of a given length by taking
bobs of same size but different masses and
interpret the result.

Activities

7. To study dissipation of energy of a simple

pendulum by plotting a graph between square
of amplitude and time.

PERIODIC MOTION
Motion that repeats itself over and over again
at regular intervals of time is called periodic
or harmonic motion.

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The heart beats of a human being are

periodic. The periodic time is about 0.8
second for a normal person.

The motion of the moon around the earth is

periodic. Its time period is 27.3 days.
The motion of the hands of a clock is periodic.

OSCILLATORY OR HARMONIC MOTION

If a body moves back and forth repeatedly
about its mean position, its motion is said to
be oscillatory or vibratory or harmonic
motion.

Example:

The vibrations of the string of a guitar.

The swinging motion of the pendulum of a
wall clock

PERIODIC MOTION VS. OSCILLATORY

MOTION
Every oscillatory motion is necessarily
periodic because it is repeated at regular
intervals of time. In addition, it is bounded
about one mean position. But every periodic
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motion need not be oscillatory. For example,

the earth completes one revolution around
the sun in 1 year but it is not a to and fro
motion about any mean position.

PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

Function that repeats itself at regular

intervals of its argument is called a periodic
function.

f(θ + T) = f(θ) =sin (θ + 2π) = sin θ

The value of the function f remains same
when the argument is increased or
decreased by an integral multiple of T for all
values of θ.

cos (θ + 2π) = cos θ

2πt 2πt
f1 t = sin and g1 t = cos
T T

We can check the periodicity by replacing

by t + T.
Thus
2π 2πt
f1 t + T =sin t + T = sin + 2π
T T
2πt
= sin T
= f1 t

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Similarly, g1 (t + T) = g1 (t)
PERIODIC, HARMONIC AND NON-HARMONIC
FUNCTIONS

Function that repeats itself at regular

intervals of its argument is called a periodic
function. The following sine and cosine
functions are periodic with period T:
2πt
f (t) = sin ωt = sin T
2πt
and g (t) = cos ωt = cos T

These functions vary between a maximum

values + 1 and minimum value -1

All harmonic functions are necessarily

periodic but all periodic functions are not
harmonic. The periodic functions which
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cannot be represented by single sine or

cosine function are called non-harmonic
functions. Fig. shows some periodic
functions which repeat themselves in a
period T but are not harmonic.

Example 1. Which of the following functions

of time represent (a) periodic and (b) non-
periodic motion? Give the period for each
case of periodic motion, [ω is any positive
constant]. [NCERT]
(i) sin ωt + cos ωt
(ii) sin ωt + cos 2ωt + sin 4ωt

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(iii) e-ωt
(iv) log (ωt).
Solution. (i) Here
x (t) = sin ωt + cos ωt
π π
= 2 sin ωt cos 4 + cos ωt sin 4
= 2 sin (ωt + π/4)
Moreover,
2π 2π
x t+ = 2 sin ω t + +π 4
ω ω
π
= 2 sin ωt + 2π +
4
π
= 2 sin ωt + = x t .
4

Hence sin ωt + cos ωt is a periodic function

with time period equal to 2 π / ω.
(ii)
x (t) = sin ωt + cos 2ωt + sin 4ωt
sin ωt is a periodic function with period =
2π/ω = T

cos 2 ωt is a periodic function with period =

2π/2ω = π/ω = T/2

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sin 4ωt is a periodic function with period =

2π/4ω = π/2ω = T/4

Clearly, the entire function

x(t) repeats after a minimum time
T = 2 π / ω. Hence the given function is
periodic.
(iii) The function e-ωt decreases
monotonically to zero as t → ∞. It is an
exponential function with a negative
exponent of e, where e ≃ 2.71828. It never
repeats its value. So it is non-periodic.
(iv) The function log (ωt) increases
monotonically with time. As t → ∞, log (ωt) →
∞. It never repeats its value. So it is non-
periodic.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

if a particle moves to and fro about a mean

position under the action of a restoring force
which is directly proportional to its
displacement from the mean position and is
always directed towards the mean position.
for small x.
Restoring force ∝ Displacement
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F ∝ x or F = -kx
F = ma
∴ma = -kx
k
or a = - x i.e., a ∝ x
m

A particle is said to possess simple harmonic

motion if it moves to and fro about a mean
position under an acceleration which is
directly proportional to its displacement from
the mean position and is always directed
towards that position.
Examples of simple harmonic motion
(i) Oscillations of a loaded spring.
(ii) Vibrations of a tuning fork.
(iii) Vibrations of the balance wheel of a
watch.
Some important features of S.H.M.
(i) The motion of the particle is periodic.
(ii) It is the oscillatory motion of simplest
kind in which the particle oscillates back and
forth about its mean position with constant
amplitude and fixed frequency.

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(iii) Restoring force acting on the particle is

proportional to its displacement from the
mean position.
(iv) The force acting on the particle always
opposes the increase in its displacement.
(v) A simple harmonic motion can always be
expressed in terms of a single harmonic
function of sine or cosine.

Starting Of Class 1402

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR S.H.M

F = -kx
The negative sign shows that F and x are
oppositely directed. Here k is spring factor or
force constant.
By Newton's second law,
d2x
F=m 2
dt
d2x
where m is the mass of the particle and dt2
is
its acceleration.

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d2x d2X k
∴m dt2 =− kx or dt2
=− x
m
k 2 d2x
Put = ω , then =− ω2 x
m dt2
d2X
or + ω2 x = 0 …(1)
dt2

Possible solution of equation (1) may be

x = A cos ωt + ϕ0
dx
Then =− ωA sin ωt + ϕ0
dt
d2 x
and =− ω2 A cos (ωt + ϕ0 ) =− ω2 x
dt2
d2x
or + ω2 x = 0
dt2

Which is same as equation (1). Hence the

solution of the equation (1) is
x = A cos (ωt + ϕ0) …(2)
ϕ = ωt + ϕ0, is the phase of the oscillating
particle.
ϕ0 is the initial phase (at t = 0) or epoch.
2π
Time period of S.H.M. If we replace t by t + ω
in equation (2), we get
2π
x = A cos ω t + + ϕo
ω
= A cos (ωt + 2π + ϕ0)
= A cos (ωt + ϕ0)

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i.e., the motion repeats after time interval

"# "#
$
.Hence $
is the time period of S.H.M.
2π 2π k
∴T= = ∵ ω2 =
ω k m m
m Inertia factor
or T = 2π k
= 2π Spring factor

In general, m is called inertia factor and k

the spring factor.
IMPORTANT TERMS CONNECTED WITH S.H.M.
Harmonic oscillator A particle executing
simple harmonic motion is called harmonic
oscillator.
Displacement The distance of the oscillating
particle from its mean position at any instant
is called its displacement.

Amplitude The maximum displacement of the

oscillating particle on either side of its mean
position is called its amplitude. It is denoted
by A. Thus xmax = ± A
Frequency It is defined as the number of
oscillations completed per unit time by a
particle. It is denoted by ν (nu). Frequency is
equal to the reciprocal of time period. That is,
1
v= T
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SI unit of frequency = s-1 = cps = Hz.

Angular frequency It is the quantity obtained
by multiplying frequency ν by a factor of 2π.
It is denoted by ω
2π
Thus, ω = 2π ν =
T

SI unit of angular frequency

= rad s-1.
Phase The phase of a vibrating particle at
any instant gives the state of the particle as
regards its position and the direction of
motion at that instant. It is equal to the
argument of sine or cosine function occurring
in the displacement equation of the S.H.M.

x = A cos (ωt + ϕ0)

Then phase of the particle is:

ϕ = ωt + ϕ0
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION AND S.H.M

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Displacement of projection N from centre O

at any instant t is x = ON.
In right-angled ∆ONP,
∠PON = ωt + ϕ0
ON
∴ OP = cos (ωt + ϕ0)
x
or A
= cos (ωt + ϕ0)
or x = A cos (ωt + ϕ0)

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This equation gives displacement of a

particle in S.H.M. at any instant t. The
quantity ωt + ϕ0 is called phase of the
particle and ϕ0 is called initial phase or phase
constant or epoch of the particle.

A linear combination of sine and cosine

functions like
x(t) = a sin ωt + b cos ωt
Represents a simple harmonic motion.
Expression for S.H.M. We are given
x = a sin ωt + b cos ωt ...(1)
Differentiating w.r.t. time t, we get
dx
dt
= ωa cos ωt - ωb sin ωt
Again, differentiating w.r.t. time t, we get
d2 x
dt2
= -ω2a sin ωt – ω2b cos ωt
= - ω2 (a sin ωt + b cos ωt)
d2 x
or dt2
= - ω2 x
i.e., acceleration ∝ displacement
the equation (1) represents S.H.M.
To determine its amplitude and phase
constant, we put
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a = A cos ϕ ...(2)
and b = A sin ϕ …(3)
Then x = A cos ϕ sin ωt + A sin ϕ cos ωt
= A (sin ωt cos ϕ + cos ωt sin ϕ)
or x = A sin (ωt + ϕ)
PHASE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND
ACCELERATION
x(t) = A cos ωt
dx
Velocity, v (t) = dt
= - ω A sin ωt
π
= ωA cos ωt + 2
dv
Acceleration, a (t) = dt
= -ω2 A cos ωt
= ω2A cos (ωt + π)

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Time, t 0 T T 3T T
4 2 4
2π
0 π π 3π 2π
Phase angle, ωt =
T 2 2
t

Displacement, x (t) +A 0 -A 0 +A
max. min. max. min. max.

Velocity, v(t) 0 - ωA 0 + ωA 0
min. max. min. max. min.

Acceleration, a (t) - ω2A 0 + ω2A 0 - ω2A

max. min. max. min. max.

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Starting of Class 1403

VELOCITY IN S.H.M

v (t) = Velocity of the particle P' at any

instant t
= Projection of the velocity v of the reference
particle P
= P'Q’ = PQ = -v sin (ωt + ϕ0)
or v (t) = - ω A sin (ωt + ϕ0).
The negative sign shows that the velocity of
P is directed towards left i.e., in the negative
X-direction.
Moreover,

x2
v t = ‐ωA 1‐cos2 ωt + ϕ0 = ‐ωA 1‐ 2
A
or v t = ‐ω A2 ‐x2 ∵ x = A cos cot + ϕ0
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ACCELERATION OF A PARTICLE IN S.H.M

The instantaneous acceleration of a particle

executing S.H.M. will be
a (t) = Acceleration of particle P' at any
instant t
= Projection of the acceleration ac of the
reference particle P
= Projection of PQ on diameter XX'
= P'Q' = -ac cos (ωt + ϕ0)
or a (t) = - ω2 A cos (ωt + ϕ0) = - ω2x
2π 2
∴amax = ω A = 2
T
A.
Example 2. The following figures depict two
circular motions. The radius of the circle, the
period of revolution, the initial position and
the sense of revolution are indicated on the
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figures. Obtain the simple harmonic motions

of the x-projection of the radius vector of the
rotating particle P in each case. [NCERT]

Fig.
Solution. (a) As shown in Fig.(a), suppose the
particle moves in the anticlockwise sense
from P to P' in time t:
Angle swept by the radius vector,
2π 2π
θ = ωt = T
t= T
t [∵ T = 4 s]
N is the foot of perpendicular drawn from P'
on the x-axis.
Displacement,
ON = OP' cos (θ + π/4)
2π π
or x (t) = a cos t+
4 4

This represents S.H.M. of amplitude a, period

4 s and an initial phase = π/4 rad.

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Fig.
(b) As shown in Fig.(b), suppose the particle
moves in the clockwise sense from P to P' in
time t.
Angle swept by the radius vector,
2π 2π
θ = ωt = T
t= 30
t [∵ T = 30 s]
Displacement,
'
π
ON = OP cos ‐θ
2
π 2π
or x t = b cos ‐
2 30
t
2π π
or x t = b cos t‐
30 2

[∵ cos (-θ) = cos θ]

This represents S.H.M. of amplitude b, period
30 s and an initial phase = - π/2 rad.
Example 3. A body oscillates with SHM
according to the equation,
x = (5.0 m) cos [(2π rad s-1) t + π/4].
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At t = 1.5s, calculate
(a) displacement, (b) speed and
(c)acceleration of the body. [NCERT]
Solution. Here co = 2π rad s-1, T = 2π/ω = 1s, t
= 1.5 s
(a) Displacement,
x = 5.0 cos (2π× 1.5 + π/4) = 5.0 cos(3π + π/4)
= - 5.0 cos π/4 = - 5.0 × 0.707 = - 3.535 m.
(b) Velocity,
dx d
v= dt
= [5.0 cos (2 πt + π/4)]
dt

= - 5.0 × 2 π sin (2 πt + π/4)

= - 5.0 × 2π sin (2π × 1.5 + π/4)
22
= + 5.0 × 2π sin π/4 = 5.0 × 2 × × 0.707
7

= 22.22 m s-1.
(c) Acceleration,
dv d
a= dt
= dt
[- 10π sin (2 πt + π/4)]
= -20π2 cos (2 πt + π/4)
= - 4π2 [5.0 cos (2π × 1.5 + π/4)]
= - 4 × 9.87 × (- 3.535) [Using (a)]
= 139.56 m s-1.

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Example 4. In a HCl molecule, we may treat

Cl to be of infinite mass and H alone
oscillating. If the oscillation of HCl molecule
shows frequency 9 × 1013s-1, deduce the force
constant. The Avogadro number = 6 × 1026
per kg-mole.
Solution. Frequency, v = 9 × 1013s-1
M 1
Mass of a H‐atom, m = N
= 6×1026 kg
1 k 1 k
As v = 2π m
or v2 = 4π2 . m

∴k = 4π2 mv2
2
22 1 2
=4 ×
26
× 9 × 1013
7 6 × 10
= 533.4 Nm-1.
ENERGY IN S.H.M.: KINETIC AND POTENTIAL
ENERGIES
(i) Kinetic energy. At any instant, the
displacement of a particle executing S.H.M.
is given by
x = A cos (ωt + ϕ0)
dx
∴Velocity, v = dt
= - ω A sin (ωt + ϕ0)
Hence kinetic energy of the particle at any
displacement x is given by

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1 1
K= 2
mv2 = 2
mω2 A2 sin2 (ωt + ϕ0)
But A2 sin2 (ωt + ϕ0)
= A2 [1 - cos2 (ωt + ϕ0)]
= A2 - A2 cos2 (ωt + ϕ0) = A2 - x2
1
∴K = 2
mω2 A2 sin2 (ωt + ϕ0)
1 1
or K = 2
mω2 (A2 - x2) = 2
k(A2 - x2)
(ii) Potential energy. When the displacement
of a particle from its equilibrium position is x,
the restoring force acting on it is
F = -kx
If we displace the particle further through a
small distance dx, then work done against
the restoring force is given by
dW = -Fdx = + k x dx
The total work done in moving the particle
from mean position (x = 0) to displacement x
is given by
x
x x2 1
W = = dw = =0 k x dx =k = kx2
2 0 2

This work done against the restoring force is

stored as the potential energy of the particle.
Hence potential energy of a particle at
displacement x is given by
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1 1 1
U= 2
kx2 = 2
mω2x2 = 2
mω2A2 cos2 (ωt + ϕ0).
(iii) Total energy. At any displacement x, the
total energy of a harmonic oscillatory is
given by
1 1
E=K+U= 2
k (A2 - x2) + 2
kx2
1 1
or E = 2
k A2 = 2
mω2 A2 = 2 π2 mv2 A2
[∵ ω = 2 πv]
Thus total mechanical energy of a
the
harmonic oscillator is independent of time or
displacement. Hence in the absence of any
frictional force, the total energy of a
harmonic oscillator is conserved.
Obviously, the total energy of particle in
S.H.M. is
(i) Directly proportional to the mass m of the
particle,
(ii) Directly proportional to the square of its
frequency v, and
(iii) Directly proportional to the square of its
vibrational amplitude A.

Graphical representation.
At the mean position, x = 0
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1 1
Kinetic energy, K = 2k (A2 - 02) = 2
kA2
1
Potential energy, U = 2
k (02) = 0
Hence at the mean position, the energy is all
kinetic.
At the extreme positions, x = ± A
1
Kinetic energy, K = 2
k (A2 - A2) = 0
1
Potential energy, U = 2
kA2
Hence at the two extreme positions, the
energy is all potential.
The graphs for K and U are parabolic while
that for £ is a straight line parallel to the
displacement axis. At x = 0, the energy is all
kinetic and for x = ± A, the energy is all
potential.

Variations of energies K, U and E of a

harmonic oscillator with time t. Clearly,
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twice in each cycle, both kinetic and

potential energies assume their peak values.
Both of these energies are periodic functions
of time, the time period of each being T / 2.

Example 5 .A block whose mass is 1 kg is

fastened to a spring. The spring has a spring
constant of 50 N m-1. The block is pulled to a
distance x = 10 cm from its equilibrium
position at x = 0 on a frictionless surface
from rest at t = 0. Calculate the kinetic,
potential and total energies of the block
when it is 5 cm away from the mean position.
[NCERT]
Solution. Here m = 1 kg, k = 50 N m-1,
A = 10 cm = 0.10 m, y = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Kinetic energy,
1 1
Ek = k (A2 - y2) = × 50 [(0.10)2 - (0.05)2]
2 2

= 0.1875 J.
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Potential energy,
1 1
Ep = 2
ky2 = 2
× 50 × (0.05)2 = 0.0625 J.
Total energy,
E = Ek + Ep = 0.1875 + 0.0625 = 0.25 J.
Example 6. A spring of force constant 800
Nm-1 has an extension of 5 cm. What is the
work done in increasing the extension from 5
cm to 15 cm?
Solution. Here k = 800 Nm-1, x1 = 5 cm = 0.05
m, x2 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
W = Increase in P.E. of the spring
1
= k(x22 − x21 )
2
1
= 2
× 800 [(0.15)2 - (0.05)2] J
= 8 J.
Example 7. A particle of mass 10 g is
describing SHM along a straight line with a
period of 2 s and amplitude of 10 cm What is
the kinetic energy when it is (i) 2 cm (ii) 5 cm,
from its equilibrium position ? How do you
account for the difference between its two
values?
Solution. Velocity at displacement y is

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v = ω A2 – y2
Given A = 10 cm, T = 2 s
Angular frequency,
2π 2π
ω= T
= 2
= π rad s-1
(i) When y = 2 cm,
v = π 100 – 4 = π 96 cm s-1
1 1
∴K.E.= 2
mv2 = 2
× 10 × π2 × 96
= 480 π2 erg.
(ii) When y = 5 cm,
v = π 100 − 25 = π 75 cm s-1
1
∴ K.E.= 2
mv2
1
= 2
× 10 × π2 × 75 = 375 π2 erg.
Example 8. A particle executes simple
harmonic motion of amplitude A. (i) At what
distance from the mean position is its kinetic
energy equal to its potential energy? (ii) At
what points is its speed half the maximum
speed?
Solution. The potential energy and kinetic
energy of a particle at a displacement y are
given by
1
Ep = 2
ky2
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1
and Ek = 2
k (A2 - y2) ...(1)
where A is the amplitude
and k is the force constant.
(i) As Ek = Ep
1 1
∴2 k (A2 -y2) = 2
ky2 or 2y2 = A2
A
or y = ± 2
= ± 0.71 A
= 0.71 times the amplitude on either side of
mean position.
1
(ii) Here, v = 2
vmax
In general, kinetic energy
2
1 2 1 1 1 1
= mv = m v max = . mv2max
2 2 2 4 2
1
= × Maximum kinetic energy
4
1
or Ek = 4 x Ek max …(2)
From equation (1),
1
Ek = k A2 − y2
2
1
∴ Ek max = kA2 [Put y = 0]
2

Putting these values in equation (2), we get

1 2 2
1 1 2
k A − y = × kA
2 4 2

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or 4y2 = 3A2
3
or y =± 2
A =± 0.86A
= 0.86 times the amplitude on either side of
mean position.
Starting of Class 1404

OSCILLATIONS DUE TO A SPRING

F = -kx
The negative sign indicates that the force is
directed oppositely to x.
If d2x / dt2 is the acceleration of the body,
then
d2X
m 2 = ‐kx
dt
d2 x k
or =− x = ‐ω2 x
dt2 m
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the acceleration is proportional to

displacement x and acts opposite to it.
Hence the body executes simple harmonic
motion. Its time period is given by
2π 2π
T= =
ω k m
m
or T = 2π
k

Frequency of oscillation will be

1 1 k
v= =
T 2π m
Clearly, the time period T will be small or
frequency v large if the spring is stiff (high k)
and attached body is light (small m).

Vertical oscillations of a mass less loaded

spring

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mg = kd
The weight mg of the body acts vertically
downwards while the restoring force k(d + x)
due to elasticity acts vertically upwards.
Therefore, the resultant force on the body is
F = mg - k(d + x)
= kd – kd - kx [∵ mg = kd]
or F = - kx
If d2x / dt2 is the acceleration of the body,
then
d2 x d2 X k
m =− kx or =− x =− ω2 x
dt2 dt2 m

2 2π 2
as [a = ω x = T
x]
Thus acceleration is proportional to
displacement x and is directed opposite to it.
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Hence the body executes S.H.M. and its time

period is
2π 2π m
T= = or T = 2π k
ω k m

Obviously, the force of gravity has no effect

on the force constant k and hence the time
period of the oscillating mass.
OSCILLATIONS OF LOADED SPRING
COMBINATION

F1 = - k1 y and F2 = -k2y
The total restoring force is
F = F1 + F2 = -(k1 + k2)y …(1)

Let kp be the force constant of the parallel

combination. Then

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F = -kpy ...(2)
From (1) and (2), kp = k1 + k2
Frequency of vibration of the parallel
combination is

1 kp 1 k1 + k2
vp = =
2π m 2π m
Series
Let x1 and x2 be the extensions produced in
the two springs. The restoring force F acting
in the two springs is same.
∴F = - k1x1 = - k2x2
F F
or x1 =− k and x2 =− k
1 2
F F
Total extension, x = x1 + x2 =− k − k
1 2

1 1 k1 + k2
=− F + =− F
k1 k2 k1 k2
k1 k2
or F =− k1 +k2
x …(3)

Let ks be the force constant of the series

combination. Then
F = -ksx ...(4)
k1 k2
From (3) and (4), k = k1 +k2
.

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Frequency of oscillation of the series

combination is

1 ks 1 k1 k2
vs = = .
2π m 2π m k1 + k2

Example 9. A spring compressed by 0.2 m

develops a restoring force of 25 N. A body of
mass 5 kg is placed over it. Deduce:
(i) force constant of the spring
(ii) the depression of the spring under the
weight of the body and
(iii) the period of oscillation, if the body is
disturbed. Take g = 10 N kg-1.
Solution. (i) Here y = 0.2 m, F = 25 N
∴ Force constant,
F 25
k= y
= 0.2
= 125 Nm-1.

(ii) Here F = 5 kg wt = 5 × 10 N = 50 N
∴Displacement,
F 50
y= k
= 125
= 0.4 m.
(iii) Here m = 5 kg, k = 125 Nm-1
Time period,
m 5 2π
T = 2π k
= 2π 125
= 5
s.
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Example 10. A 5 kg collar is attached to a

spring of force constant 500 Nm-1. It slides
without friction on a horizontal rod as shown
in Fig.(b). The collar is displaced from its
equilibrium position by 10.0 cm and released.

Fig. (b)
Calculate : (i) the period of oscillation,
(ii) the maximum speed, and
(iii) the maximum acceleration of the collar.
[NCERT]
Solution. Here m = 5 kg,
k = 500 Nm-1,
A = 10.0 cm = 0.10 m
(i) Period of oscillation,

m 5
T = 2π = 2π
k 500
1
= 2 × 3.14 × E = 0.628E.
10
(ii) The maximum speed of the collar,
L 500
F GHI = JK = K= × 0.10 = 1.0GE−1
G 5

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It occurs at x = 0.
(iii) The maximum acceleration of the collar,
L 500
H GHI = J2 K = K = × 0.10 = 10 GE−2
G 5

It occurs at x = ±10 cm.

Example 11. Two identical springs, each of
spring factor k, may be connected in the
following ways. Deduce the spring factor of
the oscillation of the body in each case.
Solution. For each spring,
F = -ky ...(1)
where F = restoring force, k = spring factor,
and y = displacement of the spring.

(i) In Fig.(a), let the mass m produce a

displacement y in each spring and F be the

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restoring force in each spring. If k1 be the

spring factor of the combined system, then
2 F = - k1 y
L1
or F = - 2
y …(2)
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
L1
2
= k or k1 = 2k.
(ii) In Fig.(b), as the length of the spring is
doubled, the mass m will produce double the
displacement (2y). If k2 be the spring factor
of the combined system, then
F = -k2(2y) = -2k2y ...(3)
Comparing (1) and (3),
L
2 k2 = k or k2 = .
2

(iii) In Fig.(c), the mass m stretches the upper

spring and compresses the lower spring,
each giving rise to a restoring force F in the
same direction. If k3 be the spring factor of
the combined system, then
2 F = -k3y
or F = -yy -(4)
Comparing (1) and (4),
L3
= k or k3 = 2k.
2
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Example 12. The identical springs of spring

constant k are attached to a block of mass m
and to fixed supports as shown below.

Fig.
Show that when the mass is displaced from
its equilibrium position on either side, it
executes a simple harmonic motion. Find the
period of oscillations. [NCERT]
Solution. As shown in Fig, suppose the mass
m is displaced by a small distance x to the
right side of the equilibrium position O. Then
the left spring gets elongated by length x and
the right spring gets compressed by the
same length x.
Force exerted by the left spring,
F1 = - kx, towards left

Force exerted by the right spring,

F2 = - kx, towards left
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The net force acting on mass m is

F = F1 + F2 = -2kx
Thus the force acting on the mass m is
proportional to its displacement x and is
directed towards its mean position. Hence
the motion of the mass m is simple harmonic.
Force constant is
k' = 2k
The period of oscillation is
G G
M = 2N = 2N .
L' 2L

Simple pendulum
An ideal simple pendulum consists of a point-
mass suspended by a flexible, inelastic and
weightless string from a rigid support of
infinite mass. In practice,
Expression for time period In the equilibrium
position, the bob of a simple pendulum lies
vertically below the point of suspension. If
the bob is slightly displaced on either side
and released, it begins to oscillate about the
mean position.

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Suppose at any instant during oscillation, the

bob lies at position A when its displacement
is OA = x and the thread makes angle θ with
the vertical. The forces acting on the bob are
(i) Weight mg of the bob acting vertically
downwards.
(ii) Tension T along the string.

The force mg has two rectangular

components (i) the component mg cos θ
acting along the thread is balanced by the
tension T in the thread and (ii) the tangential
component mg sin θ is the net force acting
on the bob and tends to bring it back to the
mean position. Thus, the restoring force is

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R3 R5
F = −GO EPQ R =− GO R − 3! + 51 − …. .
R2 R4
=− GO R 1 − + − …. .
6 120
where θ is in radians. Clearly, oscillations are
not simple harmonic because the restoring
force F is not proportional to the angular
displacement θ.
However, if θ is so small that its higher
powers can be neglected, then
F = - mg θ
If L is the length of the simple pendulum,
then
HUV I
θ (rad) = UHWPXE = Y
I
∴Z =− GO Y
GO
or GH =− Y
I
O 2 2π 2
or H =− I =− J I [a = ω x = 2
x]
Y T

Thus, acceleration of the bob is

the
proportional to its displacement x and is
directed opposite to it. Hence for small
oscillations, the motion of the bob is simple
harmonic. Its time period is
2N 2N Y
M= J
= or M = 2N O
O Y
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Obviously, the time period of a simple

pendulum depends on its length l and
acceleration due to gravity g but is
independent of the mass m of the bob.
Example 13. What is the length of α simple
pendulum, which ticks seconds? [NCERT]
Solution. The simple pendulum which ticks
seconds is a second pendulum whose time
period is 2 s. Thus
T = 2 s, g = 9.8 ms-2
Y Y
As M = 2N or M2 = 4N2 O
O

M2 O − 2 2 × 9.8
∴Y = 4N2 = 4 × 9.87
= [. 992G.

Example 14. Two pendulums of lengths 100

cm and 110.25 cm start oscillating in phase.
After how many oscillations will they again
be in same phase?
Solution. The two pendulums will be in same
phase again when large pendulum completes
v oscillations and small pendulum completes
(v + 1) oscillations.
For larger pendulum,
1 O 1 O
F= =
2N Y 2N 110.25
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1 O
For smaller pendulum, F + 1 = 2N 100

F+1 110.25
∴ =
F 100

1 2
100 + 10.25 10.25
= = 1+
100 100
1 1 10.25
or 1 + F = 1 + 2 × 100
= 1 + 0.05
1
or F = 0.05 = 20
Thus the two pendulums will be in same
phase when the larger pendulum completes
20 oscillations or smaller pendulum
completes 21 oscillations.
Starting of Class 1405
Oscillations of a liquid column in a U-tube
Initially, suppose the U-tube of cross-section
A contains liquid of density ρ up to height h.
Then mass of the liquid in the U-tube is
m = Volume × density = A × 2h × ρ

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The liquid in one arm is depressed by

distance y, it rises by the same amount in the
other arm. If left to itself, the liquid begins to
oscillate under the restoring force,
F = Weight of liquid column of height 2y
F = -A × 2y × ρ × g = -2 A ρ g y
i.e., F ∝ y
Thus the force on the liquid is proportional to
displacement and acts in its opposite
direction. Hence the liquid in the U-tube
executes SHM with force constant,
k=2Aρg
The time-period of oscillation is

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G K × 2ℎ × ] ℎ
M = 2N = 2N = 2N
L 2K]O O

If l is the length of the liquid column, then

Y
Y = 2ℎ and M = 2N 2O
.

Oscillations of a body dropped in a tunnel

along the diameter of the earth.
As shown in Fig., consider earth to be a
sphere of radius R and centre O. A straight
tunnel is dug along the diameter of the earth.
Let g be the value of acceleration due to
gravity at the surface of the earth.

A body of mass m is dropped into the tunnel

and it is at point P i.e., at a depth d below the

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surface of the earth at any instant. If g' is

acceleration due to gravity at P, then
W ^‐W
O' = O 1 − =O
^ ^
If y is distance of the body from the centre of
the earth (displacement from mean position),
then
_
R – d = y ∴ g’ = g ^

Force acting on the body at point P is

GO
F = - mg’ = - ^
y i.e., F ∝ y
Negative sign shows that the force F acts in
the opposite direction of displacement i.e., it
acts towards the mean position O. Thus the
body will execute SHM with force constant,
GO
k= ^

The period of oscillation of the body will be

G G ^
M = 2N = 2N = 2N .
L GO ^ O

Oscillations of a floating cylinder

In equilibrium, weight of the cork is balanced
by the upthrust of the liquid.

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the cork be slightly depressed through

distance y from the equilibrium position and
left to itself. It begins to oscillate under the
restoring force,
F = Net upward force
= Weight of liquid column of height y
or F = -A y ρ1 g = - A ρ1 g y i.e., F∝y
Negative sign shows that F and y are in
opposite directions. Hence the cork executes
SHM with force constant,
k = A ρ1 g
Also, mass of cork = A ρ h
∴Period of oscillation of the cork is
G 4]ℎ ]ℎ
M = 2N = 2N O
= 2N .
L K]1 ]1 O

Oscillations of a ball in the neck of an air

chamber

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Figure shows an air chamber of volume V,

having a neck of area of cross-section A and
a ball of mass m fitting smoothly in the neck.
If the ball be pressed down a little and
released, it starts oscillating up and down
about the equilibrium position.

The ball be depressed by distance y, then the

decrease in volume of air in the chamber is
ΔV = Ay.
`a K_
∴Volume strain = a
=
a

If pressure P is applied to the ball, then

hydrostatic stress = P
∴Bulk modulus of elasticity of air,
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c c bK
b =− `a =− K_ or c =− _
a
a a

Restoring force,
bK_ bK2
Z = cK =− K =− _
a a
Thus F is proportional to y and acts in its
opposite direction. Hence the ball executes
SHM with force constant,
bK2
L=
a
Period of oscillation of the ball is

G G Ga
M = 2N = 2N = 2N
L bK2 ℬK2
a
(i) If the P‐V variations are isothermal, then E
= P,
Ga
∴M = 2N cK2
.

(ii) If the P‐V variations are adiabatic, then E

= γP
Ga
∴M = 2N ecK2
.

Example 15. A test tube weighing 10 g and

external diameter 2 cm is floated vertically in
water by placing 10 g of mercury at its
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bottom. The tube is depressed in water a

little and then released. Find the time of
oscillation. Take g =10 ms-2.
Solution. Total mass of test tube and mercury,
m = 10 + 10 = 20 g = 0.02 kg
Area of cross-section of the test-tube,
22 2
1 2 22
K = NU = × = × 10−4 G2
7 100 7
Density of water, ρ = 103 kg m-3
Let the tube be depressed in water by a little
distance y and then released.
Spring factor,
Z K_. ]. O
L= = = K]O
_ _
22 22
= × 10−4 × 103 × 10 = fG-1.
7 7

Inertia factor, m = 0.02 kg

G 22 0.02 × 7
∴M = 2N L
=2×
7
×
22
= 0.5E.

FREE, DAMPED AND MAINTAINED

OSCILLATIONS
Free oscillations
1 L
v0 = 2N G

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Important features of free oscillations are

(i) In the absence of dissipative forces, such
a body vibrates with a constant amplitude
and fixed frequency, as shown in Fig. Such
oscillations are also called undamped
oscillations.
(ii) The amplitude of oscillation depends on
the energy supplied initially to the oscillator.
(iii) The natural frequency of an oscillator
depends on its mass, dimensions and
restoring force i.e., on its inertial and elastic
properties (m and k).

Examples. (i) The vibrations of the prongs of

tuning fork struck against a rubber pad.
(ii) wire vibrations of the string of a sitar
when pulled aside and released.
Damped oscillations

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Oscillations in amplitude
which the
decreases gradually with the passage of time
are called damped oscillations.
In actual practice, most of the oscillations
occur in viscous media, such as air, water,
etc. A part of the energy of the oscillating
system is lost in the form of heat, in
overcoming these resistive forces. As a
result, the amplitude of such oscillations
decreases exponentially with time,

(i) The oscillations of a swing in air.

(ii) The oscillations of the bob of a pendulum
in a fluid.
Maintained oscillations
Energy is continuously supplied from outside
at the same rate at which the energy is lost
by it, then its amplitude can be maintained
constant.
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Examples. (i) A child's swing in which energy

is continuously fed to maintain constant
amplitude.

(ii)The oscillations of the balance wheel of a

watch in which the main spring provides the
required energy
FORCED AND RESONANT OSCILLATIONS
Forced
A body oscillates under the influence of an
external periodic force, not with its own
natural frequency but with the frequency of
the external periodic force,
Resonant oscillations and resonance

It is a particular case of forced oscillations in

which the frequency of the driving force is
equal to the natural frequency of the
oscillator itself and the amplitude of
oscillations is very large.
Example The air-column in a resonance tube
produces a loud sound when its frequency
matches the frequency of the tuning fork.
COUPLED OSCILLATIONS
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A system of two or more oscillators linked

together in such a way that there is mutual
exchange of energy between them is called a
coupled oscillator.

Question 1. Can a motion be periodic and not

oscillatory?
Solution. Yes. For example, uniform circular
motion is periodic but not oscillatory.
Question 2. Every simple harmonic motion is
periodic motion, but every periodic motion
need not be simple harmonic motion. Do you
agree? Give one example to justify your
statement.
Solution. Yes, every periodic motion need not
be simple harmonic motion. For example, the
motion of the earth round the sun is a
periodic motion, but not simple harmonic

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motion as the back and forth motion is not

taking place.
Question 3. What provides the restoring force
for simple harmonic oscillations in the
following cases:
(i) Simple pendulum (ii) Spring
(iii) Column of Hg in U-tube?
Solution. (i) Gravity (ii) Elasticity (iii) Weight
of difference column.
Question 4. When are the displacement and
velocity in the same direction in S.H.M.?
Solution. When a particle moves from mean
position to extreme position, its
displacement and velocity are in the same
direction.
Question 5. Will a pendulum clock lose or
gain time when taken to the top of a
mountain?
Solution. On the top of the mountain, the
value of g is less than that on the surface of
the earth. The decrease in the value of g
increases the time period of the pendulum on
the top of the mountain. So the pendulum
clock loses time.
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Question 6. A spring having a force constant

k is divided into three equal parts. What
would be the force constant for each
individual part?
Z
Solution. Force constant of the spring k = I
,
where F is the restoring force. When the
spring is divided into three parts, the
displacement for the same force reduces to x
/ 3, therefore, the force constant for each
individual part is
'
Z Z
L = =3 = 3L
I 3 I
Question 7 corresponds to two circular
motions. The radius of the circle, the period
of revolution, the initial position, and the
sense of revolution (i.e., clockwise or anti-
clockwise) are indicated on each figure.

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Obtain the corresponding simple harmonic

motions of the x-projection of the radius
vector of the revolving particle P, in each
case.
Ans.

(a) As shown in Fig. (a), suppose the particle

moves from P to P' in time t.
Angle swept by the radius vector,
2π 2π
θ = ωt = t= t = πt rad
T 2

Displacement,
π
ON = OP' cos − 8 = OP' sin θ
2

or - x (t) = 3 sin θ
[Displacement being to the left O]
or x (t)= - 3sin πt cm.

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(b) As shown in Fig.(b), suppose the particle

moves from P to P' in time t.
Angle swept by the radius vector,
2π 2π πt
θ = ωt = t= t= rad
T 4 2

Displacement,
ON = OP' cos θ
πt πt
or −x t = 2 cos 2 ∵ OP' = 2m, θ = 2
πt
or x t =− 2 cos m.
2

Question 8 Plot the corresponding reference

circle for each of the following simple
harmonic motions. Indicate the initial (t = 0)
position of the particle, the radius of the
circle, and the angular speed of the rotating
particle. For simplicity, the sense of rotation
may be fixed to be anticlockwise in every
case (x is in cm and t is in s).
(i) x = -2 sin (31 + π/3)
(ii) x = cos(π/6 - t)
(iii) x = 3 sin(2πt + π/4) (iv) x = 2 cos πt.
Ans. (i) x = - 2 sin (3t + π / 3)
= 2 cos (3t + π / 3 + π / 2)
or x = 2cos (3t + 5π/6) [-sin θ = cos (π/2 + θ)]

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Comparing with x = 4 cos (ωt + ϕ0), it follows

that
A = 2 cm, ω = 3 rad s-1, ϕ0 = 5π / 6 rad
The reference circle is shown in Fig. (a).

(ii) x = cos (π/ 6 - t) = cos [- (t - π/6)]

or x = cos (t - π / 6) [∵ cos (- θ) = cos θ]
Comparing with x = A cos (ωt + ϕ0), it follows
that
A = 1 cm, ω = 1 rad s-1, ϕ0 = -π/6 rad.
The reference circle is shown in Fig. (b).
π π
(iii) x = 3 sin (2πt + π/4) = - 3 cos 2πt + 4 + 2
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or x = - 3 cos (2πt + 3π/4)

The negative sign shows that the motion
starts on the negative side of x-axis.
Here 4 = 3 cm, ω = 2π rad s-1, ϕ0 = 3π/4 rad
The reference circle is shown in Fig. 14.49(c).
(iv) x = 2 cos πt
Comparing with x = A cos (ωt + ϕ0)/ it follows
that
A = 2 cm, ω = π rad s-1, ϕ0 = 0.
The reference circle is shown in Fig. (d).

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