For quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx +c = 0, where a  0

Three ways of solving a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx +c = 0, where a  0

Factorisation: Splitting the middle term (let us split b = b1 and b2 in such a way that
b1 + b2 = b and b1 x b2 = a x c
9x2+ 11x +2 = 0 can be re written as 9x2+ 9x+ 2x +2=0
9x(x+1) + 2(x+1) = 0 or (9x+2)(x+1) = 0 i.e. either (9x+2)= 0 or (x+1) =0
 x =-2/9 or x = -1

Completing the square: ax2 + bx +c = 0 (Trying to use the formula; (x+y)2 = x2+y2+2xy or (x-y)2 = x2+y2-2xy
ax2 + bx +c = 0 or x2 + bx/a +c/a = 0
x2 + bx/a +c/a +b2/4a2= b2/4a2 (adding b2/4a2 both sides of the equation)
(x+b/2a)2 +c/a = b2/4a2 or (x+b/2a)2 = (b2/4a2 )-c/a
(x+b/2a)2 = (b2-4ac)/4a2 or (x+b/2a) = (b2-4ac)/2a
x = (-bb2-4ac)/2a
e.g. x2 + 4x – 5 = 0 (adding 4 to both sides of the equation)
x2 + 4x – 5 + 4= 4 or x2 + 4x + 4= 4 +5 or (X+2)2 = 9 or x+ 2 =3
 x = 1, -5

Quadratic Formula
1. The roots of the quadratic equation are: x = (-bb2-4ac)/2a or
 = (-b+ b2-4ac)/2a and  = (-b- b2-4ac)/2a
2. b2 - 4ac is called the discriminant.
(i) if b2 - 4ac < 0, roots are complex or imaginary or unreal
(ii) if b2 - 4ac = 0, roots are real and equal.
(iii) if b2 - 4ac > 0, roots are real and distinct.

Sum of roots = -b/a; product of roots = c/a x2 + (sum of roots) x + (product of roots)= 0
 +  = -b/a and  x  = c/a x2 + (  + ) x + ( x  )= 0

The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola.

y-intercept. (0,c) x−intercepts (,0) and (,0) Line of symmetry x=−b/2a. Vertex(−b/2a,f(−b/2a))

vertex is the lowest point on the graph. It is either going to be the lowest or highest point on the graph of
a quadratic function.
axis of symmetry is the vertical line through the vertex, about which the parabola is symmetric.

Remainder Theorem: When a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x - a), then remainder = f(a)
e.g. 2x3 + 3x2 +4x -8 when divided by x+2
f(-2)= 2 (-2)3+ 3 (-2)2+4 x-2 -8 = -16 + 12 -8 -8 = -20

Factor Theorem: If x - a is a factor of f(x), then f(a) = 0

e.g. is x+2 a factor of 2x3 + 3x2 +4x +12 ; f(-2)= 2 (-2)3+ 3 (-2)2+4 x-2 +12 = -16 + 12 -8 +12 = 0
Factor theorem can be used to factorise a polynomial also 2x2- x+ 6
e.g Factorise 2x3 + 3x2 +4x +12 = 0 x+2 2x3 + 3x2 +4x +12
3 2
f(-2) =0 x + 2 is a factor of 2x + 3x +4x +12 = 0 2 x3 + 4x2
Thus, divide 2x3 + 3x2 +4x +12 by x+2 -x2 +4x
 2x3 + 3x2 +4x +12 by x+2 -x2 - 2x
2
(x+2)(2x -x+ 6) =0 6x +12
2
Now, we can either factorise 2x -x+ 6 or use quadratic formula 6x + 12
2 2
2x -x+ 6 =0 or 2x -4x + 3x+ 6 =0
2x(x-2)-3(x-2) =0
(2x-3)(x-2)=0
2x3 + 3x2 +4x +12=0 is (2x-3)(x-2)(x+2)=0

Ratio And Proportion

If a : b is the given ratio then a is called antecedent and b is called the Consequent.
duplicate ratio a2 : b 2
triplicate ratio a3 : b 3
sub-duplicate ratio a :  b
3
sub-triplicate ratio a : 3 b
reciprocal ratio 1/a : 1/b or b : a
If the given ratios a : b and c : d; then compound ratio is a x c = b x d or Simply multiply the ratios.
 In a : b = c : d, ‘a’ and ‘d’ are called extremes (end - terms) and ‘b’ and ‘c’ are called means (middle
terms).
 a : b= c : d  a/b = c/d  a x d = b x c  product of extremes = product of means.
 If a, b and c are in continued proportion a : b = b : c or b2 = ac (From above)
 Fourth proportion of a, b, c is a : b = c : x where x is fourth proportion.
 Third proportion of a, b is a : b = b : x where x is third proportion.
 Mean proportion of a, b is a : x = x : b where x is the mean proportion.
 Given that, a/b = c/d or a : b= c : d
Invertendo b = d Taking reciprocal of a/b =c/d (Inverting)
a c
altcrnendo a = b Cross multiplying a/b = c/d
c d
componendo a+b = c+d Adding 1 to both sides of a/b= c/d
b c
dividendo a-b = c- d Subtracting 1 from both sides of a/b= c/d
b c
componendo - dividendo a+b = c+d Dividing compendo by dividendo
a- b c-d
theorem on equal ratios a+c = value of each ratio
c-d

Order of Matrix = Number of Rows x Number of Columns

A= 3 4 9 B=2 -6 13
12 11 35 32 -7 -23
-9 9 15
8 25 7
A is 2 x 3 matrix and B = 4 x 3 matrix

The order of a matrix is denoted by a × b, and the number of elements in a matrix will be equal to the
product of a and b.

If a matrix is of m × n order, it will have mn elements, BUT if matrix has mn elements, it is not necessary
that it will be m x n matrix, because

 mn × 1 = mn
 1 × mn = mn
 m × n = mn
 n × m = mn

Unit or identity Matrix: A diagonal matrix, in which each element of the leading diagonal is unity. It is
denoted by I. I = 1 0
0 1

Transpose of a matrix: Transpose of a matrix obtained on interchanging its row and columns. If A is matrix,
then its transpose is denoted by At.
3 1 2 3 0
t
If, A = then A = 1 6
0 6 -4 -2 -4

Addition of two matrices:

Possible only if both matrices have the same order. If A, B and C are the matrices of same order, then
1. A + B = B + A, the addition of matrices is commutative.

2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C, the addition of matrices is associative.

3. A + X = B  X = B - A 0 0
4. Null matrix (all elements are zero) = 0 0

Multiplication of two matrices: Two matrices are compatible for multiplication if and only if the number of
columns of the first matrix is equal to the number of rows of the second.
e.g. A mxn x B nxp  C mxp

1. For any matrices A, B and C which are compatible for multiplication the number of column of first
should be equal to number of rows of the second.
2. Number of rows of first is equal to number of rows of product matrix.
3. Number of columns of second matrix is equal to number of columns of product matrix.
4. In general AB ≠ BA i.e product of matrices is not commutative.
5. (AB) C = A(BC) i.e product of matrices is associative.
6. If A ≠ 0 and AB = AC, then it is not necessary that B = C.
7. If AB = 0, then it is not necessary that A = 0 or B =0.
8. If A = 0 or B = 0, then AB = 0 = BA.
9. A (B + C) = AB + AC i.e multiplication of matrices is distributive with respect to matrix addition.

I - the unit matrix is called the identity matrix for multiplication, i.e A x I = I x A = A

Arithmetic Progression:

a, a+d, a +2d, a+3d, a+4d ( e.g. 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ….)

First term = a (2) and common difference =d (=3)
Second Term = First term + Common difference
Third term = Second Term + Common difference
Fourth term = Third Term + Common difference
Also, a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = . . . = an – an – 1 = d

General Term [Tn = a + (n-1) d]

Tn Term = Tn-1 Term + Common difference
Sum of ‘n’ Terms (Sn) = n/2[2a+(n-1)d]
the sum of the first n terms of an AP is given by Sn =n/2[2a + (n – 1) d]
Sn = n/2 [a+a+(n-1)d] or n/2[a+an] or n/2[a+l]

First 3 terms of AP: a-d, a and a+d

First 4 terms of AP: a-3d, a-d, a+d, a+3d
First 5 Terms of AP: a-2d,a-d, a , a+d, a+2d

Sum of natural numbers: (Sn) = n (n+1)/2

Sum of square of ‘n’ natural numbers (Sn) = [n(n+1)(2n+1)]/6
Sum of Cube of ‘n’ natural numbers (Sn) =[n(n+1)/2]2

If a, b, c are in AP, then 2b = a + c , and b is called the arithmetic mean of a and c or b=a+c/2

Inequations:
1. Sign does not change of an inequality, if the same number is added or subtracted from inequality on
both sides
2. Sign of an inequality will change if the inequality is multiplied by or divided by a negative number on
both sides

R or Q = {all negative numbers, all positive numbers, 0, including fractions}

A  B: common elements between A and B

A  B: all elements that belong to A and B
Compliment of A written as A’ -element other than belonging to A
A - B: all elements in A which do not belong to B.

Recurring Deposit:
If n is a natural number, then
1+2+3+4+…..+n =n(n+1)/2

I= P x n(n+1) x r
2 x12 100
I = Simple Interest; P = the money deposited per month; n = the number of months the money has been
deposited and r= rate of interest
Maturity Value (MV) = P x n + I

If the table of recurring deposit amount is not given, then

Step 1: Find the equivalent principal using the formula: P’ = n(n+1) P/ 2
Where n = the number of equal monthly instalments and P = the amount deposited every month.
Step 2: Find the interest on this equivalent principal for one month using
I = P’xTx r where T = 1/12; I = Interest; P’ = Equivalent Principal

Step 3: The amount payable at the end of the term i.e maturity value(MV) will be
Maturity Value (MV) = P x n + I

Trigonometry

Trigonometric Ratios: The values of the ratios of the sides of any right triangle with respect to any angle
(other than 90°) are called trigonometric ratios of that angle. For example: In right triangle ABC, the ratios
of the sides of the triangle with respect to A are called trigonometric ratios of A.
Fundamentals of Statistics
1. The word statistics is used in both singular as well as plural.
2. In singular, it means "science of collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data".
3. In plural, it means "numerical facts collected with definite purpose".
4. The number of times an observation occurs in the given data is called the frequency.
5. Frequency distribution is of two types :
i. Discrete Frequency distribution
ii. Continuous or Grouped Frequency distribution
6. Classes/class intervals are the groups in which all the observations are divided.
7. Suppose class-interval is 10-20, then 10 is called lower limit and 20 is called upper limit of the class.
8. Mid-value of class-interval is called Class-mark
Class-mark = (lower limit + upper limit)/ 2
Class-mark = lower limit + l/2
9. If the frequency of first class interval is added to the frequency of second class and this sum is added to
third class and so on then frequencies so obtained are known as Cumulative Frequency (c.f.).

3 Median = Mode + 2 Mean

Mean Of Grouped Data: If x1 , x2 , x3 , ....... xn , are observations with respective frequency

f1 , f2 , f3 , ....... fn , it means observation x1 occurs f1 times, observation x2 occurs f2 times and so on. Mean
is denoted by x . There are three different ways to find the mean of a grouped data which are:
1. Direct Method.
2. Assumed Mean Method.

Where, a is any arbitrary value, chosen as assumed mean (somewhere in the middle of x i) and di = xi - a
3. Shortcut Method (Step-Deviation Method).

Where a is any arbitrary value , chosen as assumed mean (somewhere in the middle of x i)
h = class size; and

Combined Mean: If x1 and x2 are the means of two groups having same unit of measurement computed
from n1 and n2 values.

Arithmetic mean of raw data (when frequency is not given): The arithmetic mean of a raw data is
obtained by adding all the values of the variables and dividing the sum by total number of values that are
added.

Median of Grouped Data:

Case 1: where data is discrete
 Step 1: Arrange the data in ascending order
 Step 2: If the total frequency is odd: Then {(n +)/2}th , observation is median
 Step 3: If the total frequency is even, then mean of

Case 2: where data is continuous and in the form of frequency distribution, then median

l = lower limit of median class

n = total number of observations
c = cumulative frequency of the preceding class
f = frequency of each class
h = class size
Median from graph:
1. Let A be the point on y axis representing frequency. n/2 = 32/2 =16
2. Through A, draw a horizontal line to meet the ogive at P.
3. Through P, draw a vertical line to meet the x axis at M. The abscissa of the Point M represents 84
marks.
4. The median = 84

Mode of Grouped Data: The class with maximum frequency is called the modal class.

Where, l = lower limit of the modal class

h = class-size
f1 = frequency of the modal class
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class
f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class

Mode from graph

(a) Draw a histogram of the data.
(b) Inside the highest rectangle (which represents the class with maximum frequency i.e. modal
class) draw two straight lines from the corner of the rectangle on either side of the highest rectangle to the
opposite corners of the highest rectangle.
(c) Through the point of intersection of the two straight lines drawn, draw a vertical line to
meet the x axis at the point M
GST
Dealer: Any person who buys goods or services for resale is known as a dealer (or trader). A dealer can be
a company or individual
Only dealer is authorised to charged and collect GST on the sale of goods or services.
Intra State sales: Within state (e.g. within Maharashtra)
Inter state sales : Between two states (e.g between Haryana and Tamilnadu)
Input GST and Output GST: GST is paid by dealers on purchase of Goods and services and is collected from
customers on sales & goods. GST paid by dealer is Input GST and GST collected by dealer (from its
customers) is called Output GST
Types of taxes under GST Both taxes levied on “intra state” sales, GST is
 CGST (Central Goods and Services Tax) divided equally among centre & states
 SGST (State Goods and Services Tax)
 IGST (Integrated Goods and Services Tax) : inter -state and collected totally by center

Geometry

Postulates of similarity:
(i) A - A or A - A - A (ii) S – A - S (iii) S - S - S

Properties of similar triangles:

(i) If two triangles are similar, their corresponding sides are proportional.

PQ/YX = PR/YZ = QR/ XZ

(ii) Their corresponding angles are equal.

P= Y; Q =X; R = Z

(iii) The ratio of their areas is square of their corresponding sides.
Ar(△ PQR)/ Ar(△YXZ) = (PQ/YZ)2 = (QR/XZ)2 = (RP/ZY)2

If two triangles have a common vertex then the ratio of their areas is equal to ratio of their bases.

If angle is bisected by segment AD in triangle ABC then, BD/DC = AB/ AC

The length of the perpendicular from the right angle of a right angled triangle to the hypotenuse is equal to
the product of the parts of the hypotenuse i.e. BD2 = AD x DC
∆ ABC ABC ~ ADB and ABC ~ BDC
ADB ~ BDC
So, AD/ BD = DB/DC or BD2 = AD x DC

Basic proportionality Theorem: A line drawn parallel to the base of the triangle divides the other two sides
proportionally.

If PQ || BC , then AP/PB = AQ/ QC or AB/PB = AC/QC

Mid-point Theorem: The segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third
side and is half of the third side. If L & M are mid points of AB and AC.

LM = ½ BC and LM || BC

Circles:

 Equal chords of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre.

If, AB = CD, then AOB =  COD

 If the angles subtended by the chords of a circle at the centre are equal, then the chords are equal.
If, AOB =  COD then AB = CD

 The perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.
If OM  AB, then AM = MB
 The line drawn through the centre of a circle to bisect a chord is perpendicular
to the chord. If, AM = MB then OM  AB
 There is one and only one circle passing through three given non-collinear points.

 Equal chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) are equidistant from the centre
(or centres). If PQ = RS, then OL = OM
 Chords equidistant from the centre of a circle are equal in length.
If OL = OM, then PQ = RS

 If two chords of a circle are equal, then their corresponding arcs are congruent and conversely, if
two arcs are congruent, then their corresponding chords are equal.
If, PQ = RS, then arc(PQ)  arc (RS) or If arc(PQ)  arc (RS) , then PQ= RS

 Congruent arcs (or equal arcs) of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre.
If arc(PQ)  arc (RS) , then POQ =  ROS
 The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle subtended
by it at any point on the remaining part of the circle.
POQ = 2 x  PAQ

 Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.

PAQ =  PCQ

 Angle in a semi-circle is a right angle i.e. PAQ = 90o

 If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two other points lying on the same
side of the line containing the line segment, the four points lie on a circle (i.e. they are concyclic).

 The sum of either pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180º.

ACD + ABD = CDB + CAB = 180o

 If the sum of a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is 180º, the quadrilateral is cyclic.

 The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the opposite interior angle.
CBE = CDA
 The tangent at any point of a circle and the radius through the point are perpendicular to each
other. If line l is tangent to circle at A, then OA  l

 If two circles touch (internally or externally) , the point of contact lies on the straight line joining
their centres. APB and ABP is a straight line or APQ+ QPB = 180o

OR
 From any point outside a circle, two tangents can be drawn, and they are equal in length.
If PA and PB are tangents, then AP = BP
 If two chords intersect internally or externally then the product of the lengths of the segments are
equal. AP x BP = CP x DP and AX x BX = DX x CX

 If a chord and a tangent intersect externally, then the product of the lengths of segments of the
chord is equal to the square of the length of the tangent from the point of contact to the point of
intersection. ZT2 = ZX x YZ

 If a line touches a circle and from the point of contact, a chord is drawn, the angles between the
tangent and the chord are respectively equal to the angles in the corresponding alternate
segments. QPB() = PRQ ()

quadrilateral too. ∠p = ∠r and ∠s = ∠q

 The alternate segment theorem is applicable to find the alternate segments in the
DCT - Direct Common Tangent TCT - Transverse Common Tangent

where d (OP)is the distance between the centers of the circles, and R and r are the radii of
the given circles.

Slope: Equation of line

 Equation of a line parallel to x -axis and ‘a’ units away is y = a

 Equation of a line parallel to y-axis and ‘b’ units away is x = b
 Equation of the x -axis is y = 0. Equation of y-axis is x = 0
 The mirror line is the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining the point and its image.
 x co-ordinate is also known as abscissa and y co-ordinate is also known as ordinate
 If a point lies on the x -axis its y co-ordinate is zero. It is assumed as ( x , 0)
 If a point lies on the y-axis its x -co-ordinate is zero. It is assumed as (0, y)

 Distance Formula

 Section Formula

Slope (gradient): m = tan θ. (θ -inclination ∠ line makes with the positive direction of x -
 Mid-point Formula

axis)
 y = m x + c (m - slope, c → y - intercept)
 If two lines are parallel m1= m2 : perpendicular m1× m2 = -1
 Equation of line: To find the equation,
 Slope point form: y – y1 = m ( x - x 1) (equation of line passing through one fixed point A
(x1,y1) and having a slope ‘m’)
 Two point form: equation of line passing through two fixed points A(x1,y1) and B (x2,y2)
y2-y1 = m (x2-x1)
 slope intercept form: y = m x + c : m slope, c = y intercept.
 Equidistant: PA = PB. Use distance formula.

Isosceles triangle Two sides equal

Right angled triangle Pythagoras satisfied
Equilateral triangle All sides equal
Parallelogram Opposite sides are equal
Rectangle Opposite sides and diagonals equal
Rhombus All sides equal
Square All sides and diagonals equal
 VOLUME CSA TSA
Cylinder πr2h 2πrh 2πr(r+h)
Cone 1/3 πr2h πrl πr (r+l)
where l 2= r2 +h2
Sphere 4/3 πr3 4 πr2 4 πr2
Hollow πh (R+r)(R-r) 2π rh + 2πRh 2π rh + 2πRh + 2π (R2-r2)
cylinder