a) Two Components of a Computer System

A computer system consists of two primary components: hardware and software.

• Hardware refers to the physical parts of the computer, including the motherboard,
CPU, RAM, storage devices, and peripherals such as keyboards and monitors

• Software comprises the programs and applications that run on the hardware, enabling
it to perform specific tasks

b) Terminology in Computer Organization

(i) Byte: A byte is a unit of digital information that consists of 8 bits. It is the basic
addressable element in many computer architectures and can represent a single character of
data, such as a letter or digit
. (ii) Word: A word is a fixed-sized data unit that a computer's processor can handle in one
operation. The size of a word can vary depending on the architecture (e.g., 16-bit, 32-bit, or
64-bit systems) and typically represents the amount of data processed or transmitted at one
time

c) Advantages of USB Connections

1. Universal Compatibility: USB connections are widely supported across various
devices and operating systems, making it easy to connect peripherals like keyboards,
mice, and external drives without needing special drivers

2. Hot Swappable: USB devices can be connected or disconnected while the computer
is running without requiring a reboot, which enhances user convenience and
flexibility
d) System Utility Definition and Programs
A system utility is software designed to help manage, maintain, and control computer
resources.

• Disk Cleanup: This utility helps free up space on a hard drive by removing
unnecessary files.
• Antivirus Software: Protects the system from malware by scanning for viruses and
other threats.
• File Management Tools: These programs assist users in organizing and managing
files on their systems efficiently

e) Functions of the Central Processing Unit (CPU)

1. Data Processing: The CPU performs arithmetic and logical operations on data as
instructed by programs.
2. Control Unit Operations: It directs the operation of the processor by managing
instructions from memory and coordinating how data moves between different
components.
3. Memory Management: The CPU retrieves instructions from memory, executes
them, and then stores results back into memory as needed

f) Factors Influencing CPU Architecture Choice

1. Performance Requirements: The expected workload and performance needs dictate
whether to choose a high-performance CPU or a more energy-efficient model.
2. Cost Considerations: Budget constraints can influence the selection of CPU
architecture based on price versus performance trade-offs.
3. Compatibility with Software: The choice may depend on the software requirements
that necessitate specific CPU architectures for optimal performance

g) Features of Second Generation Computers

1. Transistor Technology: They replaced vacuum tubes with transistors, leading to
smaller size, lower heat generation, and increased reliability.
 2. Magnetic Core Memory: Utilized magnetic core memory for faster access times
compared to earlier technologies.
3. Higher Speed and Efficiency: Second-generation computers were significantly faster
than their predecessors due to improved circuitry and design

h) Principal Functions of an Operating System

1. Process Management: Manages processes in execution, including scheduling and
resource allocation.
2. Memory Management: Controls how memory is allocated and accessed by
applications.
3. File System Management: Handles file storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and
protection.
4. Device Management: Manages device communication via drivers to ensure proper
functioning of hardware components

i) Suitable Office Application for Data Storage

For storing monthly expenditure data over the last financial year, Ramesh Ahuja should use
Microsoft Excel, as it provides powerful tools for organizing data in spreadsheets,
performing calculations, and generating reports

j) Decimal to Binary Conversion

To convert 45104510 (decimal) to binary:

1. Divide 45104510 by 22: Quotient = 22552255, Remainder = 00

2. Divide 22552255 by 22: Quotient = 11271127, Remainder = 11
3. Divide 11271127 by 22: Quotient = 563563, Remainder = 11
4. Divide 563563 by 22: Quotient = 281281, Remainder = 11
5. Divide 281281 by 22: Quotient = 140140, Remainder = 11
6. Divide 140140 by 22: Quotient = 7070, Remainder = 00
7. Divide 7070 by 22: Quotient = 3535, Remainder = 00
8. Divide 3535 by 22: Quotient = 1717, Remainder = 11
9. Divide 1717 by 22: Quotient = 88, Remainder = 11
10. Divide 88 by 22: Quotient = 44, Remainder = 00
11. Divide 44 by 22: Quotient = 22, Remainder = 00
12. Divide 22 by 22: Quotient = 11, Remainder = 00
 13. Divide 11 by 22: Quotient = 0, Remainder = 1

Reading from bottom to top gives us: 451010=1000110111102451010=1000110111102

Question Two
a) Definition of Port
A port is an interface through which external devices connect to a computer system.

• USB Port: Used for connecting various peripherals like keyboards, mice, printers,
etc., facilitating data transfer and power supply.
• HDMI Port: Used for transmitting high-definition video and audio from devices like
computers to displays or TVs

b) Functions of Computer Buses

1. Data Transfer: Buses facilitate communication between various components within
the computer system by transferring data.
2. Addressing Memory Locations: They carry addresses from the CPU to other
components to specify where data should be read from or written to.
3. Control Signals Transmission: Buses transmit control signals that manage
operations among different hardware components

c) Memory Management Terminology

(i) Cache Memory: A small-sized type of volatile memory that provides high-speed data
access to the CPU by storing frequently accessed data. (ii) Main Memory (RAM): This is
volatile memory used to store data temporarily while programs are running; it allows quick
read/write access. (iii) Secondary Memory: Non-volatile storage used for long-term data
retention (e.g., hard drives or SSDs); it retains information even when powered off

Distinction Between Computer Architecture and

Computer Organization
Computer architecture and computer organization are two fundamental concepts in computer
science that describe different aspects of a computer system.

• Computer Architecture refers to the abstract design and functional behavior of a

computer system. It encompasses the instruction set architecture (ISA), data types,
and the overall structure that dictates how a computer operates. For example, the x86
architecture used in Intel processors defines how instructions are executed and how
data is processed.
• Computer Organization, on the other hand, deals with the physical implementation
of the architecture. It focuses on how the components of a computer are
interconnected and how they function together. For instance, the arrangement of the
CPU, memory, and input/output devices in a specific system reflects its organization.

In summary, architecture defines what a computer does (its functionalities), while

organization explains how it does it (the physical arrangement and connections).

Benefits of Multiprocessor Systems

1. Increased Performance: Multiprocessor systems can perform multiple tasks
simultaneously, leading to improved overall performance for applications that can
leverage parallel processing.
2. Enhanced Reliability: If one processor fails, others can take over its tasks, increasing
system reliability and uptime.
3. Scalability: These systems can be easily scaled by adding more processors to handle
increased workloads without significant redesign.

Technological Advancements: Second vs. Third

Generation Computers
• Second Generation Computers (1956-1963) utilized transistors instead of vacuum
tubes, which made them smaller, faster, more reliable, and energy-efficient. They also
introduced magnetic core memory for faster data access.
• Third Generation Computers (1964-1971) further advanced technology by using
integrated circuits (ICs), which allowed for even smaller and more powerful
machines. This generation also saw the development of operating systems that could
manage multiple tasks simultaneously.

In summary, while second-generation computers marked a shift from vacuum tubes to

transistors, third-generation computers transitioned to integrated circuits, resulting in greater
efficiency and capabilities.

Distinguishing Between Number Word and Instruction

Word in Von Neumann’s Architecture
In Von Neumann architecture:
 • Number Word: Represents data values stored in memory. For example, a number
word might represent an integer like 42 or a floating-point number like 3.14.
• Instruction Word: Contains encoded instructions for the CPU to execute. For
instance, an instruction word might specify an operation like ADD followed by the
addresses of the operands.

Diagrams
text
Number Word Representation:
+------------------+
| 42 |
+------------------+

Instruction Word Representation:

+------------------+
| ADD R1, R2 |
+------------------+

Consequences of Moore's Law on Modern Computers

1. Increased Performance: As transistor density doubles approximately every two
years, performance improvements in CPUs lead to faster processing speeds.
2. Cost Reduction: The cost per transistor decreases over time, making powerful
computing more accessible.
3. Enhanced Miniaturization: Devices become smaller as more transistors fit into
integrated circuits without increasing size.
4. Innovation in Software Development: More powerful hardware enables complex
software applications that were previously impractical.

CPU Techniques Enhancing Speed of Execution

1. Pipelining: This technique allows multiple instruction phases to be processed
simultaneously in different stages, improving throughput.
2. Cache Memory Utilization: CPUs use cache memory to store frequently accessed
data close to the processor for quicker access than main memory.
3. Superscalar Architecture: This allows multiple instructions to be issued and
executed simultaneously by having multiple execution units within the CPU.

Graph of Evolution of Processor Logic Speed vs Data

Transfer Speed
text
Speed (in GHz)
|
| *
| **
| * *
| * *
| * *
| * *
| * *
| * *
|* *
|* *
+---------------------> Time
Note: The graph illustrates an upward trend in both processor logic speed and speed of data
transfer over time.

Methods of Arbitration in System Bus Operation

1. Centralized Arbitration: A single arbiter controls access to the bus; devices request
access through this arbiter which grants permission based on predetermined criteria.
2. Distributed Arbitration: Each device has equal authority to request bus access;
devices communicate among themselves to decide who gets control based on priority
or round-robin schemes.

These methods ensure orderly access to shared resources within a multiprocessor

environment.

Question 2
a) Binary Subtractions Using Two's Complement
i) To perform 1000002−00000121000002−0000012:

1. Convert 00000120000012 to its two's complement:

o Invert bits: 11111021111102
o Add 11: 11111121111112
2. Add 1000002+11111121000002+1111112:

text
100000
+ 111111
---------
0111111 (ignoring carry)

2.

ii) To perform 11111112−1010101211111112−10101012:

1. Convert 1010101210101012 to its two's complement:

o Invert bits: 0101010201010102
o Add 11: 0101011201010112
2. Add 11111112+0101011211111112+01010112:

text
1111111
+ 0101011
---------
10111010 (ignoring carry)
 2.

b) Verification Using Ordinary Binary Subtraction

i) For 100000−000001100000−000001:
text
100000
- 000001
---------
011111 (which is correct as shown above)

c) Decimal Conversion
i) To convert 10011110121001111012:
=1×28+0×27+0×26+1×25+1×24+1×23+0×22+1×21=256+32+16+8+0+2=31710=1×28+0×2
7+0×26+1×25+1×24+1×23+0×22+1×21=256+32+16+8+0+2=31710
ii) For 16278101627810, it remains as is since it's already decimal. iii) For hex
A4E116A4E116:
=A×165+4×164+E×163+1×162+6×161=(10×1048576)+(4×65536)+(14×4096)+(1×256)+(6
×16)=A4E11616=decimalvalue=...=decimalvalue=A×165+4×164+E×163+1×162+6×161=(1
0×1048576)+(4×65536)+(14×4096)+(1×256)+(6×16)=A4E11616
=decimalvalue=...=decimalvalue

d) Binary Conversion with Working Shown

i) To convert 2451024510:
text
245 / 2 = 122 remainder = 1
122 / 2 = 61 remainder = 0
61 / 2 = 30 remainder = 1
30 / 2 = 15 remainder = 0
15 / 2 = 7 remainder = 1
7 / 2 = 3 remainder = 1
3 / 2 = 1 remainder = 1
1 / 2 =0 remainder =1

Reading from bottom to top gives us:

245_{10} = '11110101'_b.
ii) For hex B257F16B257F16:
Convert each hex digit:

• B = 1011
• 0010
• 0101
• 0111
• F = 1111

Combine them for binary representation:

B257F16=′101100100101011111b′.B257F16=′101100100101011111b′.
Distinctions Between Terms
i. Nibble and Byte
• Nibble: A nibble consists of 4 bits, which allows it to represent 16 possible values
(from 0000 to 1111 in binary). It can be represented by a single hexadecimal digit (0-
F) and is often used in computing for tasks such as encoding data or representing a
single digit in binary-coded decimal (BCD) format.
• Byte: A byte is made up of 8 bits, which means it can represent 256 different values
(from 00000000 to 11111111 in binary). A byte is the standard unit of data used to
encode a character in text (e.g., 'A' or '1') and is the smallest addressable unit of
memory in many computer architectures.

ii. Processor and Processor Core

• Processor: The term "processor" refers to the entire computing unit that executes
instructions and processes data. It encompasses all cores, caches, and control units
within a single chip. For example, a modern multi-core processor can have several
cores working together to perform tasks.
• Processor Core: A processor core is an individual processing unit within a processor.
Each core can independently execute instructions and perform calculations. For
instance, a quad-core processor has four separate cores, allowing it to handle multiple
tasks simultaneously.

iii. EPROM and EEPROM

• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): EPROM is a type of
non-volatile memory that can be erased using ultraviolet light and reprogrammed. It
retains data without power but requires removal from the circuit for erasure.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): EEPROM
is also non-volatile memory but can be erased and reprogrammed electrically while
still in the circuit. This allows for easier updates without physical removal.

iv. Northbridge and Southbridge Connectors

• Northbridge: Northbridge is a chip that connects the CPU to high-speed components
such as RAM and graphics cards. It handles communication between the CPU and
memory, ensuring fast data transfer rates.
• Southbridge: Southbridge is responsible for connecting lower-speed peripherals such
as USB ports, audio devices, and hard drives to the CPU. It manages input/output
functions and acts as a bridge between the CPU and these slower components.

Factors to Consider in Evaluation of Computer Hardware

1. Performance: Assessing the speed and efficiency of hardware components like CPU,
RAM, and storage.
 2. Compatibility: Ensuring that new hardware components work with existing systems
or software.
3. Cost: Evaluating the price relative to performance benefits; balancing budget
constraints with hardware capabilities.
4. Reliability: Considering the durability and failure rates of hardware components to
ensure long-term use.

Types of Cache Memory

1. L1 Cache (Level 1 Cache): This is the fastest cache memory located directly on the
processor chip. It stores frequently accessed data and instructions, providing quick
access to enhance CPU performance.
2. L2 Cache (Level 2 Cache): This cache is larger than L1 but slightly slower. It may
be located on the CPU or on a separate chip close to the processor, serving as an
intermediary between L1 cache and main memory.

Characteristics of Computer Memory Systems

1. Volatility: Memory can be volatile (loses data when powered off) or non-volatile
(retains data without power).
2. Speed: Different types of memory have varying access speeds; for example, cache
memory is faster than RAM.
3. Capacity: The amount of data that can be stored varies by memory type; some
systems have limited storage while others offer large capacities.
4. Accessibility: Memory can be random access (any location can be accessed directly)
or sequential access (data must be accessed in order).

Importance of a Computer Hard Drive

A computer hard drive is crucial for storing data permanently, including operating systems,
applications, files, and user data. It provides non-volatile storage that retains information
even when the computer is turned off.

Factors When Choosing an Operating System

1. Hardware Compatibility: Ensuring that the OS supports the hardware components
of the computer.
2. User Interface: Considering whether the OS provides an intuitive interface suitable
for user needs.
3. Software Availability: Checking if essential applications are available for the chosen
OS.
4. Security Features: Evaluating built-in security measures to protect against malware
and unauthorized access.

Decimal Conversion from Binary

To convert 111101.11112111101.11112 to decimal:
 1. For 11110121111012:

=1×25+1×24+1×23+1×22+0×21+1×20=32+16+8+4+0+1=6110=1×25+1×24+1×23+
1×22+0×21+1×20=32+16+8+4+0+1=6110

2. For 0.111120.11112:

=1×2−1+1×2−2+1×2−3+1×2−4=12+14+18+116=0.937510=1×2−1+1×2−2+1×2−3+1
×2−4=21+41+81+161=0.937510

Combining both parts gives:

111101.11112=61+0.9375=61.937510111101.11112=61+0.9375=61.937510

Binary Division Calculation

To compute 11100.11211100.112 divided by 1.0121.012:
Convert both numbers into decimal:

• 11100.112=28+0.75=28.751011100.112=28+0.75=28.7510
• 1.012=1+0.25=1.25101.012=1+0.25=1.2510

Now perform division:

28.7510÷1.2510=231028.7510÷1.2510=2310
To convert back to binary:
23 in binary is 101112101112. Thus,
11100.112÷1.012=10111211100.112÷1.012=101112

Question Two
a) Functional Units of a Computer
The functional units of a computer include:

• Central Processing Unit (CPU): Executes instructions from programs.

• Memory Unit: Stores data temporarily (RAM) or permanently (hard drives).
• Input Unit: Accepts data from external sources (e.g., keyboard, mouse).
• Output Unit: Delivers processed information to users (e.g., monitor, printer).

Diagram
text
+-------------------+
| Input |
| (Keyboard) |
+-------------------+
|
v
+-------------------+
| CPU |
| |
+-------------------+
|
v
+-------------------+
| Memory |
| (RAM/Storage) |
+-------------------+
|
v
+-------------------+
| Output |
| (Monitor) |
+-------------------+

b) Types of Special Memories

1. Cache Memory: A small-sized type of volatile memory that provides high-speed
access to frequently used data by storing copies closer to the CPU.
2. Virtual Memory: A memory management technique that uses disk space to extend
RAM capacity, allowing larger applications to run on systems with limited physical
memory.
3. Flash Memory: A type of non-volatile storage that retains data without power;
commonly used in USB drives and SSDs due to its speed and durability.

c) Functions of a Computer Motherboard

1. Connects Components: Acts as the main circuit board connecting all hardware
components like CPU, RAM, storage devices, etc.
2. Power Distribution: Distributes power from the power supply unit to various
components on the motherboard.
3. Data Communication: Facilitates communication between different parts through
buses and connectors.
4. BIOS/UEFI Storage: Contains firmware necessary for booting up the computer
system.

d) Definition of a Computer Port

A computer port is an interface or connection point on a computer that allows external
devices to connect and communicate with it, such as USB ports or HDMI ports.

Question Three
a) File Access Modes
i) Indexed Sequential Access
Indexed sequential access combines both sequential access methods with an index table for
faster retrieval times by allowing direct access via index pointers while still maintaining
sequential organization for bulk processing.

ii) Random Access

Random access allows any byte of data to be accessed directly without needing to read
through preceding bytes, enabling quick retrieval from any location within the file.

b) Memory Hierarchy Diagram

text
+---------------------+
| Registers | <--- Fastest & smallest capacity
+---------------------+
| Cache |
+---------------------+
| Main Memory |
+---------------------+
| Secondary Storage |
+---------------------+

c) Parameters Determining Performance of Computer

Memory
1. Access Speed: The time it takes for the CPU to retrieve data from memory affects
overall system performance.
2. Capacity: The total amount of data that can be stored influences how many
applications can run simultaneously without slowing down.
3. Latency: The delay before data transfer begins after a request is made; lower latency
improves performance.

Question Four
a) HDD vs SSD Differences
i) Access Time
• HDDs have longer access times due to mechanical parts; typically around
milliseconds.
• SSDs provide much faster access times measured in microseconds due to electronic
components.

ii) Reliability
• HDDs are more prone to mechanical failure due to moving parts.
• SSDs are generally more reliable as they have no moving parts.
iii) Noise
• HDDs produce noise due to spinning disks and moving heads.
• SSDs operate silently since they use flash memory technology.

iv) Physical Size

• HDDs are generally larger due to their mechanical structure; they come in various
sizes like 3.5 inches or 2.5 inches.
• SSDs are smaller and more compact; they can fit into thinner devices easily.

b) Advantages of PCI Bus Technology

1. High Bandwidth: PCI technology provides high-speed data transfer rates suitable for
modern peripherals.
2. Device Compatibility: Supports multiple devices on one bus system, making it
versatile for various hardware configurations.
3. Hot Swapping Capability: Allows users to add or remove devices without shutting
down the system, enhancing usability.

c) Types of Operating Systems Based on User Interface

1. Graphical User Interface (GUI): Provides visual elements like windows, icons, and
menus; examples include Windows and macOS.
2. Command-Line Interface (CLI): Users interact with the system through text
commands; examples include Linux terminals or DOS prompt.
3. Touch User Interface (TUI): Designed for touch-based devices where users interact
by tapping or swiping; examples include mobile operating systems like Android or
iOS.

Question Five
a) Functions of BIOS
1. Power-On Self Test (POST): Checks hardware components during boot-up for
functionality before loading the OS.
2. Boot Loader Functionality: Locates and loads operating system files into memory so
that the system can start up properly.
3. Hardware Initialization: Configures hardware settings before handing control over
to the operating system.
4. System Configuration Settings: Allows users to configure hardware settings through
BIOS setup utility screens.

b) Conversions
i) Decimal 52139105213910 to Hexadecimal:
text
52139 /16 =3258 remainder=11(B)
3258 /16=203 remainder=10(A)
203 /16=12 remainder=11(B)
12 /16=0 remainder=12(C)

So,
52139_{10} = CAB(B)_16

ii) Decimal 126318126318:

text
1263 remains as it is since it's already decimal

iii) Decimal 815910815910 to Octal:

text
8159 /8=1020 remainder=7
1020 /8=127 remainder=4
127 /8=15 remainder=7
15 /8=1 remainder=7
1 /8=0 remainder=1

So,
8159_{10}=17747_8

iv) Hexadecimal A5.32816A5.32816:

text
A5 converts as follows:
A*16^1 +5*16^0 =10*16+5*16^0=160+5=165

For .328:
3*16^-1 +2*16^-2 +8*16^-3 =3/16 +2/256+8/4096

Calculating gives us:

165+(3/16)+(0 .0078125)=165 .1875

So,
A5 .328_{16}=165 .1875_{10}

c) Compute Binary Expression 111012−10102111012

−10102:
text
Performing binary subtraction gives us:

text
Carry : - - - -
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
-------------------
| | | |
 | | | |
-------------------
`01011`(which equals `11` in decimal)

Definitions of Data, Information, and Knowledge

1. Data: Data refers to raw, unorganized facts and figures that are collected and stored.
It can take various forms, such as numbers, text, images, or other inputs. Data lacks
context and meaning on its own, making it the most basic representation of
information. For example, a list of temperatures recorded over a week is considered
data.
2. Information: Information is processed and organized data that has been structured to
provide context and meaning. It answers questions and can be used for decision-
making. For instance, stating that "the average temperature over the week was 75°F"
transforms raw temperature data into meaningful information.
3. Knowledge: Knowledge is the understanding and expertise gained from processing
information and personal experience. It allows individuals to make informed
decisions and solve problems effectively. An example of knowledge would be
knowing how to interpret weather patterns based on past temperature data to predict
future trends.

Distinction Between Data and Information

i. Format
• Data: Often presented in raw formats such as numbers or text strings (e.g., "100",
"John Doe").
• Information: Structured and organized formats that provide context (e.g., "John Doe
scored 100 points in the exam").

ii. Dependency
• Data: Independent; it exists without needing context.
• Information: Dependent on data; it requires data to be meaningful.

iii. Measuring Unit

• Data: Measured in bits and bytes (e.g., 8 bits = 1 byte).
• Information: Measured in terms of relevance and usefulness (e.g., how many
decisions can be made based on it).

iv. Support for Decision Making

• Data: Cannot support decision-making directly; it needs to be processed.
• Information: Directly supports decision-making by providing insights.
v. Knowledge Level
• Data: Represents the lowest level in the hierarchy; it cannot be used for
understanding or decision-making.
• Information: Represents a middle level; it provides context but lacks deeper
understanding without further analysis.

vi. Usefulness
• Data: Generally less useful on its own; requires processing to become valuable.
• Information: More useful as it provides context that can guide actions or decisions.

Data Processing Cycle

The data processing cycle involves several stages:

1. Data Collection: Gathering raw data from various sources.

2. Data Input: Entering the collected data into a computer system.
3. Data Processing: Transforming raw data into meaningful information through
calculations, sorting, filtering, or analysis.
4. Data Output: Presenting processed information in a readable format (e.g., reports,
graphs).
5. Data Storage: Saving the processed information for future use or reference.

Hierarchy of Data
The hierarchy of data is structured as follows:

1. Bit: The smallest unit of data (0 or 1).

2. Byte: A group of 8 bits.
3. Field: A single piece of information (e.g., name or age).
4. Record: A collection of related fields (e.g., a row in a database).
5. File: A collection of related records (e.g., a database table).
6. Database: A structured collection of files that are organized for easy access and
management.

Functions of Utility Programs

Utility programs perform essential tasks that help manage, maintain, and control computer
resources effectively:

1. File Management: Organizing files for easy access (e.g., file explorers).
2. Disk Management: Managing disk drives by formatting, partitioning, or checking for
errors.
3. Backup and Recovery: Creating backups of important files and restoring them when
needed.
 4. System Monitoring: Providing tools to monitor system performance and resource
usage.

Common Tasks Performed by Utility Programs

1. Disk Cleanup: Removing unnecessary files from the hard drive to free up space.
2. Antivirus Scanning: Detecting and removing malware from the system.
3. Data Compression: Reducing file sizes for storage efficiency.
4. System Optimization: Tweaking system settings to improve performance and speed.

These definitions and descriptions provide a comprehensive understanding of the concepts

related to data, information, knowledge, utility programs, and their functions within computer
systems and organization contexts.