UNIT 6 AC MACHINES AC Machines

Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Synchronous Generators
6.2.1 Constructional Features of Synchronous Generators
6.2.2 Armature Windings and Generated emf
6.2.3 Alternator on Load
6.3 Synchronous Motors
6.3.1 Synchronous Motor Equivalent Circuit
6.3.2 Synchronous Motor Phasor Diagram
6.3.3 Methods of Starting a Synchronous Motor
6.4 Three-phase Induction Motor
6.4.1 Constructional Features
6.4.2 Revolving or Rotating Magnetic Field
6.4.3 Production of Torque
6.4.4 The Equivalent Circuit
6.4.5 Torque-speed Characteristics
6.5 Single-phase Motors
6.6 Summary
6.7 Answers to SAQs
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In unit 6 the principles of electromechanical energy conversion underlying the behaviour
of rotating electrical machines were presented. Next you studied the constructional
details, theory and characteristics of dc generators and motors.
In this unit, we focus our attention to alternating current machines. We shall study
construction, principles of operation and characteristics of synchronous generators and
motors. 3-phase and single-phase induction motor and single-phase universal motor.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 explain the constructional features, principles of operation of three-phase
synchronous generators and motors and compute performance under given
operating conditions,
 explain the mechanism of production of rotating magnetic field due to
3-phase currents in three-phase windings and describe the principles of
operation of a 3-phase induction motor,
 compute performance of 3-phase induction motor using equivalent circuit of
the induction motor,
 explain constructional features and principles of operation of single-phase
induction motors and single-phase universal motor, and
 select ac motors for a given application.

6.2 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

Synchronous generators are also called alternators – (i.e. alternating current generators).
These are driven by prime movers and convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
6.2.1 Constructional Features of Synchronous Generators
A synchronous generator consists of a stator and a rotor.
The stator is wound with 3-phase armature windings. The advantages of making
armature windings stationary are :

69
Basic Electrical – II
(i) The high voltage, high current 3-phase armature windings can be connected
directly to the load or power system network.
(ii) Since the armature windings are located on the stator, these are not
subjected to centrifugal forces, insulating the armature windings is easier.
The field windings is provided on the rotor. Direct current excitation is supplied to the
filed winding, to produce magnetic poles on the rotor.
The synchronous machine are classified into two principle types :
(i) round rotor machines, and
(ii) salient pole machines.
Generators driven by steam turbines (turbo generators) cylindrical (round) rotors with
slots in which distributed field windings are placed (Figure 6.1). Most of the new
generators have 2 or 4 poles.

Figure 6.1 : Elementary Two-pole Cylindrical Rotor Field Winding

Generators driven by hydraulic turbines have salient (protruding) pole rotors with
concentrated windings, usually a large number of poles (Figure 6.2.).

Figure 6.2 : Elementary Four-pole 3-phase Alternator

Synchronous Speed
The operating speed of a synchronous generator is constant. This speed is called
synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is related to the frequency of the stator
voltage and the number of magnetic poles on the rotor. The relationship is
expressed in the following equation :
120 f
Ns  . . . (6.1)
P
where, Ns = synchronous speed in revolutions for minute,
f = frequency in Hz, and
P = number of poles.
Example 6.1
Determine the number of poles required for an alternator driven by a prime-mover
having a speed of 1000 rpm to generate AC at frequency of 50 Hz.
120 f
Ns 
P

70
 120 f 120  50
P  6 AC Machines
Ns 1000
The distribution of magnetic field in the air gap is made nearly sinusoidal (in
space) the waveform of the induced emf (in-time) in the armature windings is
sinusoidal.
6.2.2 Armature Windings and Generated emf
There are many different methods of winding the armature of 3-phase machines.
Figure 6.3(a) illustrates the cross-section of a four-pole alternator. If two coils 1-2 and
3-4 are connected in series and inserted in the four slots as shown in Figures 6.3(a) and
(b), the total voltage from b to a will be the sum of voltages in the four coil sides. If
another set of two coils 5-6 and 7-8 is placed on this same armature is exactly the same
manner but placed 90o electrical degrees from winding a-b as shown in Figure 6.3(b) a
voltage from b to c will be produced which is equal to that from b to a in magnitude but
90o electrical degrees out of phase with it. This second set of windings constitutes of a
second phase and the machine can be considered a two-phase generator. However, for
3-phase machines three such sets of windings are needed which are displaced space by
120 electrical degrees from each other. In this case there is only one coil side per slot and
for this reason the winding is called single layer winding. In double layer windings two
coil sides are located in each armature slot (Figure 6.4). The double layer windings are
commonly used in practice.

a b

o
90
1

6 5
c
N
N S N S
2 S S 4
5 1 6 2 7 3 8 4
N
d c a
7 8 d b

(a) Cross-section of a Four-pole Alternator (b) Location of Windings of each Phase

Figure 6.3

16 14

3 1

N 8
15
2 9 S S 13 6
A
11 N
A 4

5 7

10 12

(a)
Figure 6.4 : Double Layer Windings of Single-phase of a Two-phase Alternator

The rms value of the induced emf each phase of the armature winding is
E p  4.44 K w f Na  p volts . . . (6.2)

where, kw = armature winding factor ,

Na = number of turns/phase of the armature winding,

71
Basic Electrical – II p = flux per pole in webers, and
f = frequency in Hz.
Example 6.2
A 3-phase eight pole, 750 rpm star connected synchronous generator has 120 turns
per phase and winding factor is 0.90. A voltage of 2400 V is measured across the
machine terminals on no load. Determine flux per pole.
2400
Phase emf EP  volts
3
NP 750  8
f    50 Hz
120 120
2400
 4.44  0.9  120  50  P
3
2400 1
P    0.0578 Wb
3 4.44  0.9  120  50

The induced voltages expressed in phasor form, with the phase a voltage chosen as
reference phasor for phases a, b and c respectively are :

Ea  E  0o

Eb  E  120o

Ec  E   240o . . . (6.3)

This forms a balanced 3-phase system of voltages (i.e. the three voltage phasors are
equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by 120o in phase).
Open Circuit Characteristic or Magnetization Characteristic
A synchronous generator is driven by prime mover at synchronous speed with
armature windings on open circuit. The field current If generators emfs in the
armature windings. Balanced 3-phase voltages Ea , Eb and Ec are established in
the stator phases, the magnitude being determined by the field current If.
Figure 6.5 shows the magnetization characteristic. This characteristic is non-
linear, primarily due to saturation of the magnetic circuit.

Induced
emf E

Field Currect If

Figure 6.5 : Magnetization Characteristic of a Synchronous Generator

6.2.3 Alternator on Load

When the machine functions as an alternator (speed and If kept constant), supplying
currents to the balanced loads, the terminal voltages of the phases no longer remains the
same as on open circuit. The change in terminal voltage when supplying load is due to
the following reason :
(i) the armature resistance

72
 (ii) leakage reactance
AC Machines
(iii) armature reaction (this is the more predominant factor).
The armature reaction is the magneto motive force (emf) produced by the armature
currents.
For lagging power factor loads, supplied by the generator, the armature mmf would tend
to demagnetize the poles and cause a reduction of the terminal voltage.
When leading power factor loads are supplied, the armature reaction mmf would cause
an increase in the field flux and thereby cause an increase in terminal voltage.
The nature of the armature reaction is such that it produces changes in terminal voltage
in very much the same manner as leakage reactance. Because of the similarity in the
effects that they produce, they are combined and expressed in terms of the total
reactance, which is made up of the leakage reactance Xl and a fictitious reactance Xf. The
fictitious reactance Xf then produces a voltage drop which is equal to that produced by
the armature reactions. The sum Xl + Xf denoted as Xs, and is called synchronous
reactance. The synchronous impedance is defined as Z s  Rs2  X s2 , where Rs is the
armature resistance per phase. Synchronous reactance Xs of the generators can be
determined by performing open circuit and short circuit test on the generator.
Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator
For balanced three-phase operation, each phase, say phase a can be represented by
an equivalent circuit comprising a voltage source Ea in series with synchronous
impedance Z s  Rs  j X s (Figure 6.6). It is assumed that the three-phases are
connected in star at the common terminal N, the remaining terminals are A, B and
C respectively. The voltage Ea , can be expressed in terms of the terminal voltage
Va , i.e.

Z s  Va  Rs I a  j X s I a . . . (6.4)

Rs jXs A

Ia

Ea Va

Figure 6.6 : Single-phase Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator

Alternator Supplying an Isolated Load

When supplying a balanced 3-phase isolated load, the equivalent circuit can be
represented as in Figure 6.7. In this figure, the balanced load is represented by an
equivalent star-connected load with phase impedance Z L .
Rs jXs

Ia Ia

Ea Va ZL

N NL

73
Basic Electrical – II Figure 6.7 : Single-phase Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator with Load Impedance ZL
Figure 6.8 shows the phasor diagram for a lagging power-factor load.

Ea

jIaXs

 Va
IaRs

Ia

Figure 6.8(a) : Phasor-diagram for Lagging Power-factor Load

It is clearly seen that is larger than the terminal voltage Va for the lagging pf load.
The phase angle  between Ea and Va is called torque angle or power angle.
Figure 6.8(b) shows the phasor diagram for the leading pf load. For leading pf
load, the excitation voltage Ea can be less than the terminal voltage Va depending
on load and power factor.

Ea
jIaXs

Ia
 Ia Rs

Va

Figure 6.8(b) : Phasor Diagram of a Synchronous Generator Supplying Leading pf Load

Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation of an alternator is the difference between the no-load
terminal voltage and full-load terminal voltage expressed in percent of full-load
voltage.
V  Vfull-load
% regulation  no-load  100 . . . (6.5)
Vfull-load
Example 6.3
Calculate the % voltage regulation for a 3-phase, star-connected 20 MVA, 13.8 kV
synchronous generator operating at full load 0.8 pf lagging. The synchronous
reactance is 8  per phase, and the armature resistance can be neglected.
Solution
The rated voltage of 13.8 kV is normally given as line-to-line voltage. The per
phase terminal voltage is taken as reference phasor; thus
13.8  103
Va   0o  7963  0o volt
3
At rated operating condition and 0.8 power factor lagging. The stator current

20  103
Ia   cos1  0.8o  836.7   36.9o Amps
13.8  3
The generator voltage (or excitation voltage) is computed as follows
Ea  Va  I a ( Rs  j X s )

 7967  0o  836.7   36.9o (0  j 8)

74
  13125  24o volts AC Machines
Since at no-load stator current Ia = 0, Vno-load = Ea. Hence, the % voltage regulation
is computed as follows :
13125  7967
% voltage regulation   100  64.7%
7967
Synchronization of Alternators
An individual synchronous generator supplying power to impedance load acts as a
voltage source whose frequency is determined by the speed of rotation of its
prime-mover and whose voltage is determined by its excitation system. The major
disadvantage of such an operating practice is that any time the generator is out of
order, or is under maintenance, the supply of electricity to the load is interrupted.
The electricity supply systems have hundreds of synchronous generators operating
in parallel. These generators are interconnected by a network of transmission lines
and satisfactions. The main reasons for interconnection are reliability of service,
economy of power system operation, and improved operating efficiency of the
individual generators.
The point of connection of the generator to the power system is called an infinite
bus. The infinite bus can be represented as a voltage source of constant magnitude
and constant frequency. When a synchronous generator is connected to a large
power system, the frequency and rms voltage at the generator terminals are fixed
by the power system.
The process of properly connecting a synchronous generator is parallel with the
other generators in the power system, or to the infinite bus, is called
synchronization. In order to synchronize properly, the following conditions have
to be satisfied :
(i) The magnitude of the terminal voltage of the incoming generator must be
the same as the voltage at the point of interconnection with the power
system of infinite bus.
(ii) The frequency of the incoming generator must be the same as the frequency
of the power system of infinite bus.
(iii) The generator must have the same phase sequence as the infinite bus.
(iv) The phase angles of corresponding phases of the incoming generator and
the power system must be equal.
A simple form of synchroscope consists of synchromizing lamps which may be
connected in two ways.
(i) All lamps Dark Method
(ii) Two lamps bright and one lamp dark method.
All Lamps Dark Method
Figure 6.9 shows the schematics diagram for syncrhomisation considering all
lamps dark method. The field rheostat of the generator is adjusted to vary the field
current until the generator voltage V2 becomes equal to, or slightly greater than,
the infinite bus voltage V1. If the phase sequences of the generator and the infinite
bus are different, the three lamps will brighten up alternately. To correct this
improper condition, any two of the three connections to the synchronous generator
are interchanged. If the phase sequence is correct, the lamps are all bright or dark
at the same time.

75
 Infinite Bus
Basic Electrical – II

V1

A B C
Circuit Synchronizing
Breaker Lamps
a b c

V2

Incoming Synchronous Generator

Figure 6.9 : Schematic Diagram of Synchromisation using Synchronizing Lamps

If the frequencies are slightly different, the three lamps will brighten or darker at
the same time – corresponding is the frequency difference. The speed of the prime
mover of the synchronous generator is adjusted so that the generators frequency is
the same as that of the infinite bus, at which time all bulbs stay dark. When all
four conditions are satisfied simultaneously, the circuit breaker is closed and the
generator is now operating in parallel with the rest of the synchronous machines of
the system.
Two Lamps Bright and One Lamp Dark Method
Figure 6.10 shows the schematic diagram for synchronization of an alternator with
the infinite bus considering two lamps bright and one lamp dark method. All the
conditions for synchronization are satisfied when lamps 1 and 3 are bright and
lamp 2 is dark simultaneously.
Power System
(Infinite Bus)

A B C
1 2 3
a b c

Incoming Synchronous Ge nerator

Figure 6.10 : Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method

This technique is preferred over “all lamps dark method”. This is primarily
because the lamps remain dark even if there exists a substantial voltage across it.
Example 6.4
A 3-phase, star connected alternator is rated for 5000 kVA, 5 kV, 50 Hz, 150 rpm.
It has negligible armature resistance and a synchronous reactance Xs = 1.5 . Find
the induced emf and torque angle when the machine is supplying full-load current
at rated voltagre at (i) upf, (ii) 0.8 pf lag and (iii) 0.8 pf lead.
Solution
By the problem, rated terminal voltage /ph
76
 5 kV
Va   2887 V AC Machines
3
5000
Full load current Ia   577.4 A
35

Let, Ea = internal voltage (induced emf).

(i) UPF Condition

Ea  Va  j I a X s

= 2887 + j 577.4  1.5

= 3014.12  16.7o V
Hence, the induced emf is 3014.12 V/ph.
Torque Angle  = 16.7o
(ii) 0.8 pf Lag
Let, pf angle = 
Hence, cos  = 0.8
 sin  = 0.6

Ea  Va  j I a X s

 2887  j 577.4 (0.8  j 0.6)  1.5

= 3476.4  11.5o
Hence, the induced emf is 3476.4 V/ph.
Torque angle  = 11.5o
(iii) 0.8 pf Load
Let, pf angle of .
Hence, cos  = 0.8
Sin  = 0.6

Ea  Va  j I a X s

 2887  j 577.4 (0.8  j 0.6)  1.5

= 2466.7  16.31o
Hence, the induced emf is 2466.7 V/ph.
Torque angle  = 16.31o
Example 6.5
A 3-phase, 1500 kVA, 13.2 kV, star-connected synchronous generator has
armature resistance of 0.5  and a synchronous reactance of 9.0 . The generator
is supplying rated load at rated voltage.
(i) Calculate the generated voltage per phase at unity power factor, at 0.8
power factor lagging and at 0.8 power factor leading.
(ii) Calculate voltage regulation for each of the loads specified for part (i).
(iii) Compute torque angle  in all the cases.

77
Basic Electrical – II Solution
By the Example,
13.2 K
Rated terminal voltage/ph Va   7.621 kV
3
1500 K
Full load current I a   65.608 A
3  13.2 K

Ra  0.5  X s  9.0 
Let the generated voltage/ph = Ea.
(i) UPF Condition
Ea  Va  ( j X s  Ra ) I a
= 7.62 K + (0.5 + j 9.0)  65.608
= 7676.54  4.410
Hence magnitude of generated voltage = 7675.54 V/ph
0.8 pf Lag
Ea  Va  ( j X s  Ra ) I a
cos  = 0.8
Sin  = 0.6
 7.62 K  (0.5  j 9)  65.608  (0.8  j 0.6)

= 8014.32  3.238
Hence, magnitude of generated voltage = 8014.32 V/ph
0.8 pf Load
Ea  Va  ( j X s  Ra ) I a
 7.62 K  (0.5  j 9.0)  65.608  (0.8  j 0.6)

= 7309.54  3.86
Hence generated voltage = 7309.54 V/ph
(b) UPF Condition
| Ea |  |Va |
% voltage regulation   100 %
|Va |

7676.5  7621
  100  0.728 %
7621
0.8 pf Lag

| Ea |  |Va |
% voltage regulation   100 %
|Va |

8014  7621
  100  5.157 %
7621
0.8 pf Load

| Ea |  |Va |
% voltage regulation   100 %
|Va |

78
 7309.5  7621
  100   4.087 % AC Machines
7621
(c) UPF Condition
Torque angle  = 4.41o
0.8 pf Lag
Torque angle  = 3.238o
0.8 pf Load
Torque angle  = 3.86o.

6.3 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

A synchronous motor is quite similar to an alternator in constructions. The stator
winding and the dc field winding of the motor can be considered identical to those of the
alternator. The pole-face winding (damper winding) of the synchronous motor must be
more carefully designed. This winding performs two functions :
(i) It is used for starting the motor, and
(ii) For preventing hunting.
When balanced 3-phase voltages are supplied to the stator and dc voltage is applied to
the field winding, torque can be developed only at one speed – the synchronous speed.
The synchronous speed Ns = 120 f/P. At any other speed the average torque is zero.
Synchronous motors are specifically used in heavy industries, usually have power
capacities ranging between 100 KW and 15 MW, with speeds from 1500 rpm to at
50 Hz. The synchronous motors are normally of salient pole constructions.
6.3.1 Synchronous Motor Equivalent Circuit
A synchronous motor connected to a large electric supply is for all practical purposes on
an infinite bus. Figure 6.11 shows the equivalent circuit on per phase of synchronous
motor.
Rs jXs

Ia

Ea Va

Figure 6.11 : The Equivalent Circuit of the Synchronous Motor appears

to the Right of the Terminals a – b

Where, Ea  is a counter emf internally generated in the armature winding. It

depends on the magnitude of the field current.
Va  is a source voltage applied to the synchronous motor armature
winding.
Rs  is the armature resistance.

X a  is the synchronous reactance.

I a  is the armature current drawn by the motor from the supply.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the synchronous motor equivalent circuit leads us to
Va  Ea  Rs I a  j I a  X s . . . (6.7)

79
Basic Electrical – II 6.3.2 Synchronous Motor Phasor Diagram
Figure 6.12 shows the phaosr diagram of the synchronous motor operating at leading
power factor (i.e. I a the supply voltage Va ).

Ia

 Va
-
- IaRs

-jIaXs

Ea

(a) Leading Pf Operation Ea

-jI aXs -I aRs



 Va

Ea
Ia

(b) Lagging pf Operations

Figure 6.12 : Phasor Diagrams of the Synchronous Motor

The phase angle between Va and Ea is designated by  and is referred to as torque

angle. Following salient features of the synchronous motor operation need be highlighted
here.

(i) Ea lags Va by the torque angle  and draws power from the source.

(ii) For leading power factor operation, |Ea |  |Va | . This operating condition is
referred to as over excited operations.

(iii) For lagging power factor operation, |Ea |  |Va | and this is referred as a
condition of under excitation.

(iv) When the magnitude Ea is equal to the magnitude of Va , the condition is

referred as 100% excitation.
Torque Equation
A simplified expression for electrical power Pe absorbed by the motor neglecting
Rs is
Va Ea
Pe  3 sin  . . . (6.8)
Xs
The torque developed is
Pe  60   3 Va Ea 
Te      sin   N.m . . . (6.9)
 2 π Ns   2 π Ns   Xs 
 
 60 
If the mechanical shaft torque (i.e. load torque) on a synchronous motor is
suddenly increased and since the driving torque cannot change instantaneously, a
net braking torque is produced, slowing down the motor (i.e. increase in ). After

80
 a transient period during which the speed fluctuates around the synchronous
AC Machines
speed, the torque angle  settles to a new value such that motor develops torque
equal to load torque and motor runs at synchronous speed.
6.3.3 Methods of Starting a Synchronous Motor
As already noted, synchronous motors develops steady torque only at synchronous
speed. The synchronous motors do not developed starting torque. When supply is given
to such a motor at stand still, it will not start. Hence special methods are required for
starting a synchronous motor. The following methods are commonly used :
(i) The synchronous motor is driven by a small dc motor (pony motor). The
speed is brought up to synchronous speed. The filed excited. When all the
conditions of synchronization are satisfied, the motor is synchronized. The
dc motor is disconnected from the supply.
(ii) The synchronous motor is provided with a short circuited cage winding
(like the squirrel cage of an inductions motor) embedded in the rotor poles
(Figure 6.13). When a 3-phase supply is given to the stator, the motor runs
up to nearly synchronous speed (2-3% less than synchronous speed) as an
induction motor. During the starting period the field winding is kept short
circuited. The dc supply is now given to the field winding, a synchronous
torque comes into operations pulling the motor up to the synchronous speed.
When running at synchronous speed no emf or currents are induced in the
cage winding.

Figure 6.13 : Rotor of a Six Pole 1200 rpm Synchronous Motor Showing Field Coils, Pole-face Damper
Winding and Construction (General Electric Company)
[Ref. : Figure 6.3, Page 325, Electric Machinery, by Fitzgerald and Kingsley]

Synchronous Condenser
The current in transmission lines is usually of lagging power factors due to the
presence of predominantly lagging pf loads. The same transmitted real power at a
given supply voltage takes larger line current at lower pfs. So, in order to
minimize I2R losses in transmission systems, it is economical to improve the
power factor and bring it as close to unity as possible. When a synchronous motor
is overexcited , it operates at leading pf and thus supplies the reactive power to the
system, improving the pf when synchronous motor is operated at no load in
overexcited condition the current drawn by it leads the supply voltage by 90o like
that of a capacitor. Since the synchronous motor is designed to operate at
synchronous speed, it is called synchronous condenser. The advantage of
synchronous over plain capacitive compensation is that the VAR compensation by
the former is controllable independent of supply voltage.
Example 6.6

81
Basic Electrical – II A 3-phase 415 V synchronous motor has a synchronous reactance of 1.0  per
phase and negligible armature resistance. The motor draws 50 kVA at 0.8 power
factor leading. Calculate (a) the stator current Ia and (b) the excitation voltage Ea.
Solution
(a) By the problem terminal voltage (L – L) of the motor = 415 V = Va
synchronous reactance Xs = 1.0 /ph.
50  1000
Hence the stator current (Ia) =  69.56 A / ph
3  415
The pf angle  = cos– 1 0.8 lead = 36.87o load
Hence I a  69.56  36.87o A/ph
(b) Ea  Va  j I a  X s
415
  j  69.56  36.87  1.0
3
415
  j  69.56 (0.8  j 0.6)
3
 286.787   11.19o V/ph
Example 6.7
A 3-phase 5000 kVA, 5 kV, 50 Hz, 150 rpm star-connected synchronous motor
has a synchronous reactance of 1.5  and negligible armature resistance. Find the
induced emf and torque angle  when the motor is drawing full load armature
current on rated voltage at (a) upf, (b) 0.8 pf lag and (c) 0.8 pf lead.
Solution
5  103
Rated terminal voltage Va   2887 V / ph
3
5000
Rated armature current I a   577.35 A
35
Let the induced emf be Ea per ph.
(a) UPF Condition
Ea  Va  j I a  X s
 2887  j  1.5  577.35

 3014   16.7o
Torque angle  = 16.7o. Hence induced voltage Ea  3014 V/ph

(b) 0.8 pf Lag

Ea  Va  j I a  X s

 2887  j  1.5  577.35 (0.8  j 0.6)

 2466.7   16.31o

Hence, induced voltage Ea = 2466.7 V/ph

Torque angle  = 16.31o.
(c) 0.8 pf Lead

Ea  Va  j I a  X s

82
  2887  j  1.5  577.35 (0.8  j 0.6)
AC Machines

 3476.3   11.5o

Hence induced voltage Ea = 3476.3 V/ph

Torque angle  = 11.5o.
Example 6.8
A 3-phase 5 kV, 50 Hz, star-connected power system is supplying a factory with
10,000 kVA at 0.8 pf lag. (a) What leading current is required per phase if the pf
is to be brought up to unity? (b) If the synchronous motor with the ratings
5000 kVA, 5 KV, 50 Hz, 150 rpm (star-connected) having Ra = 0 and Xs = 1.5  is
to be used to achieve this on no-load, what should be its induced emf Ea? (Assume
that the no-load losses are zero). (c) What is the resulting total line current?
Solution
5000
Phase voltage   2887 V
3
10000  1000
Full load current drawn by the factor   1154.7 A
3  5000

(a) Since the pf is 0.8 lag, cos  = 0.8, sin  = 0.6.

Active in phase component of load current = 1154.7  923.8 A
If the pf is to be made equal to unity, we must add a leading current, leading
by 90o, equal to 692.8 A.
(b) The synchronous condenser is therefore required to supply a current of
692.8 A leading Va by 90o. For motor with Rs = 0, Ea  Va  j I a X s . For
us, I a  j 692.8 A and X s  1.5  . Taking Va as reference,
Va  2887  j 0 . Therefore,

Ea  2887  j ( j 692.8)  1.5  2887  692.8  1.5  (2887  1039.2)  3926.2 V

(c) After compensation, the line current has no reactive component and is
therefore equal to the active component of current drawn by the factory,
namely 923.8 A.

6.4 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The induction motor was invented by Mikolas Tesla in 1988. It differs from other types
of motors in that the current is conducted to one of the motor elements (field or
armature). The current in one of these elements results from an induced voltage and for
that reason it is called an induction motor.

8.4.1 Constructional Features

The induction motors may be either single-phase or three-phase motors. Discussion of
single-phase induction motors will be reserved for the next section. The following
discussion will be limited to 3-phase induction motors.
Construction
An induction motor consists of a stator and rotor. Depending on the construction
of the rotor these are classified as :
(i) Squirrel-cage induction motor

83
Basic Electrical – II
(ii) Wound-rotor induction motor
The principle of operation of these two types of motors is same.
Stator
The stator of the induction motor is identical in structure to the stators of
alternators. The core of the stator is made up of laminations usually 0.014 to
0.025 inch thick. These can be insulated by a varnish coating but more frequently
by oxide coating produced by heat treatment. The core is held in the yoke by
flanges.
The stator windings are identical to that of an alternator armature windings. The
double layer winding is most frequently used on 3-phase motors because of the
greater ease of manufacture, assembly, and repair because all the coils are
identical. Figure 8.14 shows a partly wound stator. The stator is wound for
producing desired number of poles.

Figure 6.14 : Partly Wound Induction Motor Stator

|(Ref. : Figure 179, Page 250 – Pustein and Lloyd)

Rotor Core
Sheet steel laminations are used to built-up the rotor core. In general the same
material is used as in the stator. Fan blades are ordinarily used on the rotor core to
force circulating air through the machine.
Rotor Winding
The squirrel cage rotor : copper, brass or aluminum bars are used as the rotor
conductors, which are shorted on the ends by end rings. The bars are welded,
brazed, or bolted to the rings. Although in some cases (small size motors) the
manufacturers built up the rotor core and cast aluminimum alloy bars into the slots
with the end rings as integral parts. It is not necessary that these bars be insulated
from the laminated rotor core.

(a) Cast Aluminium Rotor of “Tri-clad” Sleeve Bearing Squirrel-cage Induction Motor
(The General Electric Company)
[Ref. : Figure 175(a), Page 252, Pustein and Lloyd]

84
 AC Machines

(b) Cutaway View of a Squirrel-cage Induction Motor

(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
[Ref. : Figure 4.14, Page 158, Electric Machinery, by AE. Fitzgerald, Kingsley and Stephen D. Umans]
Figure 6.15

Wound Rotor
The same type of windings can be used for rotors as are used for the stators. The
number of poles must be the same (i.e. stator and rotor are wound to produce the
same number of poles). The terminals of the rotor windings are connected to the
slip rings Figure 6.16 shows cutaway view of the 3-phase induction motor with a
wound rotor and slip rings connected to the 3-phase rotor winding.

Figure 6.16 : Cutaway View of Three-phase Induction Motor with a Wound Rotor and Slip Rings
Connected to the Three-phase Rotor Winding
[Ref. : Figure 6.1, Page 322, Electric Machinery, by Fitzgerald, Kingsley and Jr. Stephen D. Umnas]

6.4.2 Revolving or Rotating Magnetic Field

The main purpose of the stator of the 3-phase induction motor is to produce a revolving
magnetic field. The applications of three-phase currents through a balanced 3-phase
winding of the induction motor gives rise to a rotating magnetic field. The rotating
magnetic field has two characteristics :
(i) it is of constant amplitude
(ii) it is of constant speed.
In order to understand a concept of development of revolving magnetic field, let us a turn
our attentions to Figures 6.17 and 6.18.
ia = Imax sin wt, ib = Imax sin (wt – 120o) and ic = Imax sin (wt – 240o) which are assumed
flowing the phases a, b and c respectively. These currents are time-displaced by
120o electrical degrees.

85
Basic Electrical – II ia ib ic

t1 t2 t3 t4 t5

Figure 6.17 : Balanced Three-phase Alternating Currents

Figure 6.18 shows the stator structure and the three-phase windings of the induction
motor. Note that each phase (normally disturbed over 60 electrical degrees) for
convenience is represented by a single coil. The coil a – a represents the entire phase a
winding having its flux axis directed along the vertical. This means that whenever phase
a carries current, it produces a flux field directed along the vertical axis – up or down.
Phase a flux axis

m
c c’ b b 3 m c’ b
2 m 2
b
2
a a’ r 3  a a’
2 m

60o 60o

b’ c b’ c
Phase c Phase b
flux axis flux axis c 3 m
a m 2
r 3 m
2
(a) (b)
r 3 
2 m
a m
m c’ m
b b c
2 2

a a’

b’ c

(c)

Figure 6.18 : Representing the Rotating Magnetic Field at Three different Instances of Time :
(a) Time t1; (b) Time t3; and (c) Time t5

Similarly, the flux axis of phase b is 120 electrical degrees displaced from phase a, and
that of phase c is 120 electrical degrees displaced from phase b. the unprimed letters
refer to the beginning terminal of each phase.
Let us consider the determination of the magnitude and direction of the resultant flux
field corresponding to time instant t1 in Figure 6.18. At this instant the current in phase a
is at its maximum value while the currents in phases b and c are at one-half their
maximum negative values. In Figure 6.18 it is arbitrarily assumed that when current in a
given phase is positive, it flows into the paper with respect to the unprimed conductors.
Thus since at time t1 ia is positive a cross is used for conductor a. See Figure 6.18(a). Of
course a dot is used for a because it refers to the return connection. Then by the
right-hand rule it follows that phase a produces a flux contribution is the maximum value
because the current is a maximum. Hence a = m where m is the maximum flux per pole
of phase a.
In order to determine the direction and magnitude of the field contribution of phase b at
time t1, we note first that the current in phase b is negative with respect to that in phase a.
86
hence the conductor that stands for the beginning of phase b must be assigned a dot
AC Machines
while b is assigned a cross. Hence the instantaneous flux contribution of phase b is
directed downward along its flux axis and the magnitude of phase b flux is one-half the
maximum because the current is at one-half its maximum value. Similar reasoning leads
to the result shown in Figure 6.18(a) for phase c. A glance at the space picture
corresponding to time t1, as illustrated in Figure 6.18(a) should make it apparent that the
resultant flux per pole is directed downward and has a magnitude 3/2 times the
maximum flux per pole of any one phase).
Next let us investigate how the situation of Figure 6.18(a) changes as time passes
through 90 electrical degrees from t1 to t3 in Figure 6.17. Here phase a current is zero,
3
yielding no flux contribution. The current is phase b is positive and equal , its
2
maximum value. Phase c has the same current magnitude but is negative. Together
phases b and c combine to produce a resultant flux having the same magnitude as at time
t1. See Figure 6.18(b). It is important to note, to that an elapse of 90 electrical degrees in
time results in a rotation the magnetic flux field of 90 electrical degrees.
A further elapse of time equivalent to an additional 90 electrical degrees leads to the
situation depicted in Figure 6.18. Note that again the axis of the flux field is revolved by
an additional 90 electrical degrees.
On the basis of the foregoing discussion it should apparent that the application of three-
phase currents through a balanced three-phase winding gives rise to a rotating magnetic
field. The resultant flux traverses through 2 electrical radians of variation in time for
the phase currents. For a two-pole machine, where electrical and mechanical degrees are
identical, each cycle of variation of current produces one complete revolution of the flux
field. Therefore, this is a fixed relationship which is dependent upon the frequency of the
currents and the number of poles for which the three-phase winding is designed. In the
case where the winding is designed for four poles it requires two cycles of variation of
the current to produce one revolution of the flux field. It follows that for a p-pole
 p   Ns 
machine the relationship is f      . Ns denotes revolutions per min.
 2   60 

6.4.3 Production of Torque

The principle by which torque is produced is presented here using a simple form of rotor
which consists of one short circuited turn (Figure 6.16). Assume that the stator windings
are supplied 3-phase balanced voltages, producing a rotating magnetic field in counter
clockwise direction a speed of magnetic so produced is synchronous speed Ns measured
in rpm.

a ea
Shaft
a

b
b

eb

Figure 6.19 : The Single Turn Rotor

[Ref. : Figure 170, Page 247 by Pustein and Lloyd]

If the rotor coil is placed in the stator and rotated counterclockwise at synchronous
speed, there will be no motion of the stator flux with respect to the rotor, and no voltage
will be induced in the conductors a and b. Consequently, no current will be preserve in
this rotor coil and no torque will be developed at synchronous speed.

87
Basic Electrical – II
If the rotor coil is held stationary, the rotating field will produce a voltage in it of a
frequency corresponding to stator supply frequency. The magnitude of this rotor voltage
l2 (which is the sun of ea and eb) is directly proportional to the time rat of change of flux
in the rotor coil. At synchronous speed this time rate of change of flux is zero and for
any other speed it will be proportional to the difference between synchronous speed Ns
of the flux and the speed of the rotor N. the revolving magnetic field cuts the rotor
conductors with a speed (Ns – N). This is the speed with which the rotor falls or slips
behind the stator field and is referred to as slip speed. The ratio of the slip speed to the
synchronous speed of the stator field is termed as slip and is designated by the letter s.
Ns  N
Thus, s  slip  . . . (6.11)
Ns
When speed N of the rotor is less than synchronous speed, it is termed as
sub-synchronous speed.
When conditions are such that the conductors a and b are carrying current and they are
located in the magnetic field of density B, there will be produced in these conducted a
force which causes torque on the rotor element. By Lenz’s law, this torque must act in
such a way to oppose the cause, namely the relative motion between the revolving
magnetic field and the rotor. For positive slip, the torque will act in such a direction to
reduce the slip speed and will therefore tend to speed up the rotor, constituting the
driving or motoring torque. It may be concluded that the developed torque on the rotor is
in the direction of rotation of the rotating magnetic field and the rotor rotates in the
direction of the rotating magnetic field.
For the rotor to run at a constant speed N, the angular acceleration of the rotor must be
zero, implying that the motoring electromagnetic torque acting on the rotor must be
balanced by a load torque.
If a 3-phase supply in given to an induction motor whose rotor is at rest, S = 1 to begin
with. A motoring torque is produced and if this exceeds the load torque, the rotor will
accelerate until such a speed is reached at which the mett torque on the rotor becomes
zero (i.e. motoring electromagnetic torque developed = load torque) f2 the frequency of
the rotor induced emf and current = s f1, where f1 is the frequency of applied voltage to
the stator windings which indicates that the rotor voltage to the stator windings. Which
indicates, that the rotor frequency f2 is obtained by merely multiplying the stator line
frequency by fractional slip s. For this f2 is also called slip frequency.
Example 6.8
An 8 pole, 50 Hz induction motor seems at 720 rpm when on full load compute.
(i) Synchronous speed
(ii) Speed of the rotor
(iii) Frequency of the rotor currents
Solution
120 f 120  50
(i) Synchronous speed =   750 rpm
p 8
Ns  N 750  720 30
(ii) Slip =    0.04
Ns 750 750
(iii) Frequency of the rotor currents = sf = 0.04  50 = 2 Hz
Example 6.9
A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor seems slightly less than 1500 rpm. Determine
number of poles if slip is 5% frequency of the rotor currents
Solution
The above data clearly imply that the synchronous speed = 1500 rpm.
120 f 120  50
(a) Number of poles  4
Ns 1500
88
 (b) Motor speed = (1 – 0.05) 1500
AC Machines
= 0.95  1500 = 1425 rpm.
(c) frequency of rotor currents = s f1
= 0.05  50
= 2.5 Hz.
SAQ 1
An 8 pole 50 Hz induction motor runs at 720 rpm when on full-load. What is
(i) the slip of the rotor,
(ii) the speed of the stator field with reference to a stator,
(iii) speed of the stator field with reference of rotor,
(iv) frequency of rotor currents,
(v) speed of rotor field with reference to rotor conductor’s, and
(vi) speed of rotor field with reference to stator connectors?
The Equivalent Circular
It is desirable to have an equivalent circuit of the three-phase induction motor in
order to facilitate the computation of performance. The equivalent circuit assumes
a form identical to the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer. The derivation of
the equivalent circuit proceeds in a similar fashion with modifications introduced
to account for the fact that the secondary winding (the rotor) in this instance
revolves and there by develops mechanical power.
The Figure 6.26 shows the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase induction motor. All the
parameters of the equivalent circuit are expressed on a per phase basis. This
applies whether the stator winding is -or -connected. If the stator winding is
-connected, the values refer to the equivalent Y-connection.
I1 R1 jX1 I’2 R’2 jX2
a

I0

V1 E1 R 
Iw Im
jX ( )
R’2 1-S
S

Portion of the equivalent circuit b Rotor equivalent

that refers to the stator winding circuit referred to
stator side

Figure 6.20 : Exact Equivalent Circuit of the 3-phase Induction Motor

R1 = stator phase winding resistance

X1 = Stator phase winding leakage reactance
R = resistance to account for core losses.
X = magnetizing reactance.
IO = no load current
Iw = component of the no load current to account for core losses
Im = component of he no load to account for the magnetization of the core.
R2, X2 are the per phase rotor resistance and standstill reactance referred to stator
side respectively.

89
Basic Electrical – II V1 and I1 are the stator voltage and current respectively.

E1 = induced voltage / phase in the stator.

I 2 is the component of the stator current to balance the rotor current.

There is no difference in the form of the equivalent circuit that has reference to the
stator (primary) winding and that of the transformer. The difference lies in the
magnitudes of the parameters. These differences are as follows :
(i) The magnetizing current Im is considering larger in the case of the induction
motor because the magnetic circuit necessarily includes an air gap. Whereas
in the transformer this current is about 2-5% of the rated current, for the
induction motor it is approximately 25-40% of the rated current depending
upon the size of the motor.
(ii) The primary leakage reactance X1 for the induction motor is larger because
of the air gap as well as because the stator and rotor windings are
distributed along the periphery of the air gap rather than concentrated on a
core as in the transformer.
The circuit on the left side of the terminals a b is the stator referred rotor
equivalent circuit. This portion of the circuit is derived below.
(a) The Actual Rotor Circuit per phase for any specified load condition, the
rotor current per phase Figure 6.21 may be expressed as
s E2
I2  . . . (6.12)
R2  js  2

Where, E2 = Rotor emf per phase at stand still (i.e. S = 1)

X2 = Rotor leakage reactance per phase at standstill (i.e. s = 1)
R2

I2

SE2 SX2

Figure 6.21 : Equivalent Circuit of the Rotor

I 2 is the slip frequency current produced by the slip frequency induced emf
s E2 acting in a rotor circuit having an impedance per phase of R2 + js  2 .
In other words, this is the current that would be “seen” by an observer
riding on the rotor winding. The amount of real power involved in this rotor
circuit represents the rotor copper losses per phase. Hence the total rotor
copper loss Pcu2 for a 3-phase induction motor may be expressed as

Pcu 2  3 I 22 R2 . . . (6.13)
(b) The Equivalent Rotor Circuit
By dividing the numerator and denominator of Eq. (8.12) by slip s, we get
E2
I2  . . . (6.14)
 R2 
 s  j X2 
 
The corresponding circuit representations is shown in Figure 6.19.

90
 jX2
AC Machines
I2

R2
E2
S

Figure 6.22 : Modified Equivalent Circuit of the Rotor

Note that the magnitude of the current I2 remain unaltered by this

operations. However, there is significant difference in Eq. (6.12) and
Eq. (6.14). In Eq. (6.14), the current I 2 is considered to the produced by
line frequency voltage E2 acting on a rotor circuit having an impedance per
R2
phase of  j  2.
s
Hence, I 2 in Eq. (6.14) is line frequency current, where as I 2 in Eq. (6.12)
in a slip frequency current. It is important that this distinction be
understood.
The fact that I 2 in Eq. (6.14) is line frequency current, means that the point
of reference has changed from the rotor to the stator. In accordance with
circuit representation of Figure 6.22, the observer changes his point of
reference from the rotor to the stator. This shift is significant because now
upon looking in to the rotor, the observer sees both the rotor copper losses
and the mechanical power developed.
We can write the real power associated with the equivalent circuit
(Figure 6.22).
R2
= I 22 . . . (6.15)
S
The total power for the 3-phases is
R2
Pg  3I 2 2 . . . (6.16)
S
Where, Pg is the total power transferred across the air gap.
The variable resistance of Figure 6.19, may be replaced by the actual rotor
winding resistance R2 and a variable resistance Rm, which represents
mechanical shaft load. That is
R2
Rm  1  s  . . . (6.17)
S
The equivalent circuit (Figure 6.19) is now redrawn as shown in
Figure 6.20.
R2 X2

I2

E2 ( )
R 2 1-S
S

91
 Figure 6.23 : Modified Equivalent Circuit of the Rotor
Basic Electrical – II
The parameters of the equivalent circuit (Figure 6.23) are now referred to
stator aside. The Figure 6.24 shows the equivalent circuit of the rotor
referred to the stator.
2 2
R ’2 = a R2 X’2 = a X 2
a
I 2= I2
a

E2’ = aE 2= E 1 ( )
R’2 1-S
S

Figure 6.24 : Equivalent Circuit of the Rotor Referred to Stator

Kw1 N1
Where, a = effective turns ratio =
Kw2 N 2
Kw1 = stator winding factor
Kw2 = rotor winding factor
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
Considerable simplification of computations with little loss of accuracy can be
achieved by moving the magnetizing branch to the machine terminals as illustrated
in Figure 6.22. This modification is essentially based on the assumption
V1 = E1 = E2. All performance computation can be easily carried out using
approximate equivalent circuit with insignificant error in results.

I’2 R1 R’2 X1 X’2

I0

V1 R X ( )
R’2 1-S
S

Figure 6.25 : Approximate Equivalent Circuit of the Induction Motor

Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters

The knowledge of equivalent circuit parameters is essential for computing the
performance of a 3-phase induction. This information may be available either from
design data or from appropriate tests, in the case where design data re not known,
these parameters may be obtained by conducting following tests
The no-load Test
The no load test is conducted by connecting the induction motor to a supply of
rated voltage and frequency and measuring voltage, current and power input. The
no load power input represents core losses, friction windage, and small stator
copper losses. Because of the small slip, the rotor copper loss at no load can be
neglected. Figure 6.26 shows the equivalent circuit at no load.

92
 R1 jX1
AC Machines

V1 R jX

Figure 6.26 : Equivalent Circuit Under No-load

Let the rated input phase voltage be V1 and the corresponding input current and
input power be I0 and P0 respectively. The input power PO represents the motor
losses as no-load.
P0 = stator winding copper losses + core loss + friction and windage loss

= I 0 R1  Pc  Pf
2
. . . (6.18)

The stator resistance R1 is determined by first measuring DC resistance of the

stator winding. The effective ac resistance of the stator winding is 1.15 to
1.35 times the DC resistance.
Friction and windage losses are obtained by conducting a no-load test by applying
variable voltage. The Pf is obtained by extending the course of voltage versus
no-load loss to the zero voltage axis.
It may be assumed that

V1  E1 .
The equivalent circuit parameters R and X are now computed as follows :

Compute PC  PO  Pt  I O R1
2
. . . (6.19)

PC
cos  O = . . . (6.20)
V1 I O
I   I 0 cos 0 
 . . . (6.21)
I   I 0 sin 0 

V1 V
RQ = and X Q  1 . . . (6.22)
I I

Blocked Rotor Test

This test is analogous to the short circuit test of the transformer. It requires that the
rotor be blocked to prevent rotation. If the motor under test is wound rotor
induction motor, the rotor windings must be circuited.
Re Xe

Ib

R e= R1 + R2’
Vb
Xe= X1 + X2’

Figure 6.27 : Equivalent Circuit with Blocked Rotor

Figure 6.24, shows the induction motor equivalent circuit for the blocked rotor
conditions. It may be noted that Rm = 0, since slip = 1. The input impedance of this
circuit is quite low. Hence, in order to limit the rotor current in this test to
reasonable values are reduced voltage must be applied usually about 10 – 25% of

93
Basic Electrical – II
the rated value. The stator current during the blocked rotor test the limited to
approximately rated current.
Operation at such a reduced voltage renders the core loss as well as magnetizing
current negligibly small. Accordingly the equivalent circuit (Figure ) applied
under blocked rotor test condition.
Let Pb = total wattmeter reading in watts.
Ib = line current of Y-connection
Vb = line voltage of Y-connection
From the measurements, it follows that equivalent resistance

Re  R1  R2 
Pb
. . . (6.23)
3I b 2

The equivalent phase impedance

Vb
Ze  . . . (6.24)
3 Ib

The equivalent leakage reactance Xe = X1 + X2

= Ze 2  Re2 . . . (6.25)

Note that as long as computations are carried out with the approximate equivalent
circuit, it is sufficient to deal directly with Xe, without further breakdown into X1
and X2.
R1 and R2 can be separated easily because R1 is obtained by measuring DC
resistance of the stator winding and then obtaining effective ac resistance by
multiplying with a factor varying from 1.15 – 1.35.
Computation of Performance
When a 3-phase induction motor is running at no-load, the slip is very close to
zero. Hence the mechanical load resistor Rm has a very high value which in turn
causes a small rotor current to flow. The torque developed is just sufficient to
meet rotational losses consisting of friction and windage.
If a mechanical torque is applied to the motor shaft, the slip increases such that the
developed torque is sufficient to meet the requirement of the load torque. In fact
for each value of load, there is a unique value of slip.
Figure 8.28, shows the power-flow diagram. The use of power flow diagram in
conjunction with the approximate equivalent circuit makes the computation of the
induction motor performance a straight forward matter.
Electrical Power Input

(a) Stator Core Loss = Pc Power Transferred across the air

(b) Stator Copper Loss = 3 I12 R2 gap = 3 I12 R2/s

Rotor Copper Losses = 3 I12 R2 = s Pg Mechanical Power Developed

= Pg – Pcu 2 = (1 – s) Pg

94
 AC Machines
Rotational Losses Prot Mechanical Power Output P0 = Pm – Prot

Figure 6.28 : Power Flow Diagram

Example 6.10
A 4 pole, 50 Hp, 440 V, 50 Hz, Y-connected 3-phase induction motor has the
following parameters per phase.
R1 = 0.10 , X1 = 0.35 
R2 = 0.12 , X2 = 0.40 
The stator core loss = 1200 , rotational losses = 950 
The motor draws a line current of 18  at a power factor of 0.89 lagging. For
slip = 0.025, compute.
(i) the input line current and power factor
(ii) the developed electromagnetic torque in N-m
(iii) the power output
(iv) the efficiency
Solution
440
The phase voltage V1   254 V .
3
The approximate equivalent circuit is given below
I1 I’2 R 1=0.1 X1 =0.3 R ’2 =0.12 X2 =0.40

o
I 0=18 -85

V1 = 254 0 V
o
( )
R m= R’2 1-S
S

Figure for Example 6.10

250
(a) I 2 
 R  
 R1  2   j ( X 1  X 2)
 s 
254
=
4.9  j 0.70

= 51.3   8.7o  50.9   j 7.8 Amps

No load current I 0  18   85o

= 1.6 – j 17.95
The input line current
I1  I 0  I 2
= (1.6 – j 17.95) + (50.9 – j 7.8)
= 52.5  j 25.75  58.2   26.2o Amp
Input power factor = cos 26.2o = 0.895 lagging

95
Basic Electrical – II Pm
(b) The developed torque Tm 
ωm
(1  s ) Pg Pg
= 
(1  s ) s s
The synchronous speed
120  50
Ns =  1500 rpm
4
Ns 1500
or s  2  2   50 rad / sec
60 60
I 2 R2
Airgap power Pg  3
5
3 (51.3) 2  0.12
=  37896 
0.025
37896
Developed torque Tm   241.2 Nm
50 
(c) Power output = Pm – Prot
= (1 – s) Pg – Prot
= 36948 – 950 = 35999 
35.999
=  48.25 HP
0.746
(d) Total losses
= Core loss + Stator copper loss + Rotor copper loss + Rotational loss
= 1200 + 3 (58.2)2  0.1 + 3  (51.3)2  0.12
= 4113 
Pinput  Total losses
Efficiency =
Pinput

Pinput = 3 (440 ) (58 .2) (0.895 )

= 339697
39697  4113
% age efficiency =  100
39697
= 89.6
Example 6.11
A 220 V, 3 pH, 50 Hz induction motor is wound for 6 poles, with the stator
winding connected in star. The equivalent circuit parameters in ohms referred to a
stator phase are :
R1 = 0.30 , R2 = 0.15 , X1 = 0.60, X2 = 0.25 .
R = 110.0  and X = 13.5 .
(a) Compute the output torque, power, speed, stator current pf and efficiency
when the slip is 2.5%. (Use the approximate equivalent circuit)
(b) What is the value of the maximum torque developed and at what slip does it
occur?
Solution

96
 R’2
I1 R1 jX1 I’2 jX’2 Smax AC Machines

0.5 j1.2 j1.2 0.35

Smax

V1 j25

Figure for Example 6.11

220
(a) Voltage per ph. =  127 V
3
Angular speed of rotor for a slip of s = .025 is
4 f 0.975  4  50
r = (1 – s)   102.1 rad / s
p 6

120 f 120  50
Speed in rpm = (1 – s)  0.975   975 rpm
p 6
Taking the stator supply voltage as reference
V1 127  j 0
I2  
 R   0.15 
 R1  2   j ( x1  x2 )  0.3    j (0.6  0.25)
 s   0.025 
127 127  (6.3  j 0.85)
   (19.8  j 2.67) A
(6.3  j 0.85) (6.3) 2  (8.5) 2

V V 127 127
IQ  1  j 1   j  1.15  j 9.41A
R x 110 13.5

Therefore, I1  I 2  I   20.95  j 12.08  24.18   

20.95
Where cos  =  0.866
24.18
 P 
Again, T     3I 2 R2 ' / s 
2

 4f 

=
6
4  50

 3  19 .80   2.67   6
2 2

108  399.17
=  68.61 Nm
628.32
(1  s)
Output power = 3I 22 R2 '  3  399.17  6  0.975
s
= 7005 w
Input power = 3  127  20.95  7982 w

7005
Efficiency =  0.88
7982
R2 0.15
(b) S max    0.166
R2  ( x1  x2 )
2 2
0.3  0.852
2

97
Basic Electrical – II 3p V12
Tmax 
4f 2{R  R12  ( x1  x2 ) 2 }
1

18 127 2
= 
400 0.3  0.9014

= 192.3 Nm
6.4.5 Torque-Speed Characteristics
The Variation of torque with speed (or slip) is an important characteristic of the 3-phase
induction motor.
The power flow diagram clearly shows that the mechanical power development is
Pm  1  s Pg

I 2 2 R2
= 3(1 – s) . . . (6.26)
s
The speed of the motor N = (1 – s) Ns
Where, Ns is the synchronous speed.
Speed in mechanical radians/sec is m = (1 – s) s
Where s is the synchronous speed is mechanical radians/sec.
The developed torque
Pm (1  s ) Pg Pg 3I 2 R2
Tm     . . . (6.27)
m (1  s ) s s  Ns 
2  
 60 

V12
Where, I 2 2  2
 R 
 R1  2   ( x1  x2 )
2
 s 

Substituting the value I 2 2 in the Eq (6.26), we get the power developed

3V12 R2  60 
   . . . (6.28)
 R2 
2   2  Ns 
 R1    ( x1  x2 ) 
2
 s  

Figure 6.29 shows a typical torque-speed curve of a 3-phase induction motor

A
Torque

0 0.5 p 1 p
Speed in p
S=1 S=0.5 S=0
Slip

Figure 6.29 : Torque-speed Characteristic of a 3-phase Induction Motor

The starting torque is the torque developed when s = 1, i.e. the speed N = 0, Fig., clearly
shows that OA represents the starting torque. Figure, indicates that the starting torque is

98
some what in excess of the rated torque, which is fairly typical of a 3-phase induction
motors. AC Machines

The expression for the starting torque is obtained by substituting s = 1 in the Eq. (6.28),
i.e.

3V12 R2  60 
Tstarting    . . . (6.29)
 R2 
2   2 Ns 
 R1    ( X 1  X 2 ) 
2
 s  

Starting Current
At unity slip, the input impedance is very low so that a large starting current flows
(ref to Eq. (6.14)). If a 3-phase motor is started by applying the rated voltage
directly, the starting current is generally 5-6 times the rated current. In order to
limit the starting current, motors which ratings exceed 3Hp are usually stated at
reduced voltage by means starters. Of course, starting with a reduced voltage also
means a reduction in the starting torque. In fact if 50% of the rated voltage is used
upon starting, then clearly by Eq. ( ) it follows that the starting torque is only
one quarter of its full voltage value.
Maximum Torque
Eq. (6.26) clearly shows that the developed torque is directly proportional to the
power transferred across the air gap Pg.
It follows that the torque is maximum when there is maximum transfer of power to
R
the equivalent circuit resistor 2 . Applying maximum power transfer theorem to
s
the approximate equivalent circuit leads to the result that
R2
 R12  ( X1  X 2 ) 2 . . . (6.30)
sm
Where Sm is the lip for which the maximum power is transferred across the airgap.
Accordingly the slip Sm at which the maximum torque is developed is
R2
Sm  . . . (6.31)
R12  ( x1  x2 ) 2

By substituting the value of S = Sm as given by Eq. (8.31) we get maximum developed

torque

3V12  60 
Tm (max)    . . . (6.32)
2 [ R1  R12  ( X 1  X 2 ) 2 ]  2 Ns 

Following important points may be noted :

(i) the slip at which the maximum torque is developed, may be increased by
using larger rotor resistance. The rotor resistance of the wound rotor
induction motors can be increased by connecting an external resistance in
the rotor circuit through slip rings.
 R   0.15 
 R1  2   j ( X1  X 2 )  0.3    j (0.6  0.25)
 s   0.025 
(ii) the maximum torque is independent of the rotor winding resistance.
The maximum developed torque is also known as breakdown torque. Figure 6.30 shows
the typical torque-slip characteristics for different value of the rotor resistance.

99
 T
Basic Electrical – II
Tmax

III II I

Full Load
Torque

R 2 increasing
0
0 0.5 p.u 1 p.u Nr

s=1 s = 0.5 s=0 s

Figure 6.30 : Effect of Variation of Rotor Resistance on Torque-sped Characteristics

6.5 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

The single-phase ac electrical power supply is most readily available to consumes in
homes and offices. For use on such single-phase ac supply, the single-phase induction
motor is in wide use. The power rating of the single-motors is a fraction of the Kw or
horse power and hence these motors are also referred to as fractional horse power
motors. These motors find extensive applications in fans, blowers, pumps, compressors,
refrigerators, air conditioning equipment, office equipment etc.
The series commutator motor can operate as a dc and or ac series motor. In this form it is
usually referred to as the universal motor. Such motors can be worked at high sped
providing high power for a given motor size and are therefore much used where height
weight is an important consideration. Universal motors operate at speeds varying from
1500 – 1500 rpm. These are widely used in portable tools, vacuum cleaners, and kitchen
appliances like mixies.
6.5.1 Double Revolving Field Theory
In its simple form the single-phase motor usually consist of a distributed stator winding
and a squirrel cage rotor (Figure 6.27). The ac supply voltage is applied to the stator
winding. Which in turn creates a field distribution. Since. There is a single-coil carrying
an alternating current the air gap flux is characterized by being fixed in space and
pulsating in magnitude. The flux is a maximum when the current is instantaneously a
maximum and is zero when the current is zero.

Distributed
Stator Winding
Squirrel
Cage Rotor

Air Trap

Figure 6.31 : Schematic Diagram of a Single-phase Induction Motor

Such an Arrangement given Single Phase Motor no Starting Torque
A stator phase current I = Imax coswt sets up a pulsating magnetic flux distribution
in the air gap given by
B  Bmax cos  cos t . . . (6.34)

100
where  is increased from the axis of stator phase winding (Figure 6.27(b)). Using
AC Machines
trigonometric identity the Eq. (6.34) may be rewritten as
Bmax
B  [cos (  t )  cos (  t )] . . . (6.35)
2
Eq. (6.35) this represent that the pulsating magnetic field can be resolved into the
components.

(i) forward rating field f  max cos (  t ) .
2
max
(ii) Backward field cos (t  )
2
A single phase ac winding, therefore, results in the revolving fields of equal
amplitude moving in opposite direction at the synchronous speed corresponds to
the frequency of the AC supply and the member of ------ fir which the stator is
wound. Each of these revolving ----- develop torque on the rotor as in the cae of a
3-phase induction motor.
Let us designate the revolving field moving in the same directions as the rotor, the
forward field, the other being termed as backward field. For rotor speed = N rpm
and synchronous speed = Ns, the slip of the rotor w.r.t. the forward field is
Ns  N
sb  . . . (6.36)
Ns
The Sb and Sf are related as :
Sb = 2 – sf . . . (6.37)
Figure (6.28) shows the torque speed characteristics of a single-phase induction
motor. It shows the torque-speed characteristics
(i) due to forward revolving magnetic field.
(ii) backward revolving magnetic field and.
(iii) the resultant obtained by adding the torque – speed characteristics due to the
forward revolving field and the backward revolving field. It may be noted
that the motor develops zero torque when the rotor is stationary.
T

{
Full Load
Torque

-Ns
Ns Nr

Figure 6.32 : Torque-speed Curve of Single-phase Induction Motor

The problem therefore is to modify the simple configuration in such a way that it
develops nonzero standing torque.
The answer to this problem lies is so modifying the motor that it closely
approaches the conditions prevailing in the two-phase induction motor. A
two-phase induction motor comprises of two stator windings whose axes are
space-displaced by 90 electrical degrees. The currents flowing through these coils
must be time displaced by 90 electrical degrees and of equal magnitude. Following
single-phase induction motors of different configuration have been developed.

101
Basic Electrical – II Resistance-start Split Phase Induction Motor
Figure 6.33, shows the schematic diagram of a resistance start split-phase
induction motor. The stator is provided with two windings
(i) main winding and
(ii) auxiliary winding usually the main winding is made to occupy two-thirds of
the stator states and the auxiliary winding is placed in the remaining
one-third. The axes of these windings in quardrature. In this way the
space-displacement condition of a two-phase motor is met exactly. The
main winding is designed such that its reactance is high and resistance is
low. One the contrary he auxiliary winding is designed such that its
resistance is a high and reactance is low. Figure (8.30) shows that the phase
displacement existing between the auxiliary winding current I A and the
main winding current I M at standstill. Normally the I A and I M phases are
displaced by 45o. Thus a revolving field results and so the motor achieves
normal speed. Because of the high resistance of the auxiliary winding, this
motor is called the resistance start split phase induction motor.
The auxiliary winding used n these motors has a short time power rating and
therefore must be removed from the line once the operating speed is reached. To
do this a cut-our switch is placed in the auxiliary winding circuit which, by
centrifugal action, removes the auxiliary winding from the line when the motor
speed exceeds 75% of the synchronous speed.
IA Auxiliary Winding

IM

Main Cutout
Vt Winding Switch

Figure 6.33 : Schematic Diagram of the Resistance Start Split-phase Motor

Vt
o
45

IA

Im

Figure 6.34 : Phase-diagram Showing the Line-phase Displacement

between the Auxiliary and Main Winding Currents

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

In this motor a capacitor is placed in the auxiliary circuit (Figure 6.31). The
capacitor is so selected that the time phase displacement between I A and I M is
90o (Figure 6.38). This results in a much larger starting torque than is achievable
with resistance-split phase starting. This motor is widely used for general-purpose
applications.
Auxiliary Winding

Main
V Winding
S

Figure 6.35 : Capacitor Start

102
 IA
AC Machines

Vt

Im

Figure 6.36 : Phasor Diagram

The Capacitor-start Capacitor Run Induction Motor

Figure 6.33 shows the schematic circuit diagram of capacitor-start Capacitor Run
induction motor. Two capacitors are placed in the auxiliary circuit of this motor.
Both the capacitors are in the circuit at the time of starting. However, one of the
capacitors is removed from the circuit by the centrifugal cut-out switch when
motor attains about 75% of the rated speed. By keeping one capacitor in during
normal operations, improved performance is obtained because the motor then
behaves more like the balanced two-phase induction motor. The performance of
this motor is improved. The (i.e. noise is less, efficiency is higher and higher
power factor). A second capacitor is needed at starting because the reactive
component of the input impedance of the auxiliary circuit is considerably different
at stand still than at full speed.
Auxiliary Winding

Main
V Winding
S

Figure 6.37 : Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

The Permanent-split Capacitor Motor

In this motor a single capacitor is placed both for starting and for running. To take
the advantage of improved running performance, the value of capacitor used is
that needed at full speed. Consequently, the starting torque developed is less as
compared to the one with two capacitors. The schematic wiring diagram appears
in Figure 6.38.
Auxiliary Winding

Main
V Winding

Figure 6.38 : Capacitor Run

The Shaded-Pole Motor
Figure 6.39 shows the schematic representation of the constructional features of a
shaded pole induction motor. The motor has salient poles with a portion of each
pole surrounded by the shading ring, which is a short-circuited turn of copper. The
shading ring may be considered as a short circuited secondary winding of a
transformer whose primary is the stator winding.
The induced currents in the shading ring cause the flux from the un-shaded portion
of the pole to lead the flux from the shaded portion (i.e. flux m leads the flux s).

103
Basic Electrical – II
Clearly, we have produced two alternating fluxes separated in space and displaced
in time phase. The resultant flux undergoes a sweeping motions across the pole. It
appears moving from the un-shaded to the shaded (or ring) portion of the pole.
The sweeping action of the flux occurs periodically, therefore, producing a
starting as well as running torque. The starting torque is normally about 50% of
the rated torque. The maximum or breakdown torque is also relatively low.
im
Main
Winding

Shading
Ring

M S

Cage Rotor

Figure 6.39 : Constructional Features of a 2-pole Shaded Pole Induction Motor

The construction of the shaded pole motor is extremely rugged. There is a little that can
go wrong with this motor aside from overhealing. Note that it contains no cutout switch
which could be a source of trouble, nor does it has a auxiliary waiting which could burn
up – especially if the cutout switch becomes faulty.
1
The shaded-pole motor is extensively used in applications that require hp or less. The
20
cost of this motor is low as compared to other types of single-phase induction motors.
Example 6.12
A 3-phase, 25 hp, 440 V, 50 Hz, 4-pole induction motor has the following
parameters of the equivalent circuit referred to the stator in ohms/phase.
R1  0.50 R2  0.35

X 1  1.20 X 2  1.20

The motor is operated at rated voltage and rated frequency. Determine slip at
maximum torque maximum torque
Solution
(i) The approximate per-phase equivalent circuit is shown below.
.15 .15
6
I1 I2 0.3 j.85 S 0.25

I
Ia Ir

127  0’ V 110 j13.5

Figure for Example 6.12

The rated terminal voltage per phase is
440
V1   254.0 V (line to neutral).
3
Therefore, the slip Smax at maximum torque is given by

104
 R2 0.35
S max    0.143 AC Machines
R12  ( x1  x2 ) 2 (0.5) 2  (1.2  1.2) 2

(b) The rotor current I 2 max and smax is computed

V1
I 2 max 
2
 R1  R 
   ( x1  x2 ) 2
 max 
s

254.0
  66.84
2
 0.5  0.35 
  (1.2  1.2)
2

 0 .143 
therefore, the maximum torque Te, max is calculated as
 R 
3I 2 2max  2 
Te max   smax 
s

2 f 100
Here,  s  2    2  157.1rad / s.
p 4

 0.35 
3  (66.8) 2   
Hence, Te max   0.143 
 208.56 Nm
157.1
The Universal Motor
If the supply to a dc series motor is reversed in polarity, the direction of armature
as well as field current reverses. Hence the direction of field flux also reverses.
Since torque  field flux ()  armature current (Ia), the torque remained
unidirectional. Hence the torque direction is independent of the instantaneous
armature current direction in dc series motor. Now, if ac supply is given to a dc
series motor, on principle it should work with a unidirectional torque output.
However, since  and Ia both are varying sinusoidally at supply frequency, Torque
(T) will also be pulsating in nature but with double frequency. Due to high
frequency of pulsation of the torque and inertia of the rotor with connected load, it
will run nearly at constant speed (for constant load torque) as determined by the
average value of torque developed.
Design Aspect
A machine designed exclusively for use as a dc series motor can not function
successfully on a 50 Hz ac supply because :
(i) the stator of the dc series motor is not laminated. So it can’t with stand the
eddy current losses due to alternating magnetic field.
(ii) In addition to IR drop, there will be additional IX Drop in the stator winding
when ac supply is given.
This reduces the effective voltage appearing across armature.
Hence, in Universal motors,
(i) The stator is also laminated.
(ii) Since   (no of turns in field wds)2. The fed wds turns are reduced in
number.
Use
Electrical drills, vacuum cleaners, mixers, grinders etc employ this type of motor.

105
Basic Electrical – II Since AC Series motor can be used successfully for ac as well as dc supply, it is
called universal motor.

6.6 SUMMARY
In Section 6.2, you have learnt that construction of salient pole and round rotor
synchronous generators. Equations for synchronous speed and generated emf have been
explained. You have also learnt how to compute voltage regulations of synchronous
generator using synchronous impedance method. Methods of synchronization of the
alternator have been explained.
In Section 6.3, the principle of operation and characteristics of the synchronous motors
have been discussed.
In Section 6.4, you have learnt the mechanism of production of revolving magnetic field
by 3-phase current in 3-phase windings. The constructional features of squirrel cage and
slip ring induction motors have been explained. The equivalent circuit of the 3-phase
induction motor and experimental determination of the equivalent circuit parameters by
performing no load and blocked rotor tests have been explained. The torque-speed
characteristic and effect of variation of rotor resistance on torque speed characteristic of
3-phase induction motors have been briefly described.
In Section 6.5 deals with double revolving field theory, construction and principle of
operation of different types of single-phase induction motors. You have also learnt in
this section about the construction and operation of an universal motor.

6.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
120 f 120  50
The synchronous speed Ns =   750 rpm
p 8
Ns  N 750  720 30
therefore slip =    0.04
Ns 750 750
This speed is Ns. viz 750rpm.
This is the slip speed SNs = 0.04  750 = 30rpm.
Frequency of rotor current is sf = .04  50 = 2Hz.
This speed corresponds to the synchronous speed for slip-frequency currents, viz.
120 sf 240
  30 rpm .
p 8
As explained in the text, this is equal to the rotor speed (720rpm) plus the speed of
rotor field w.r.t. rotor 930rpm) i.e. the synchronous speed Ns. 750rpm.

106