Kalinga University

Faculty of Pharmacy
Programme : B. Pharmacy Semester : 2nd

Course: Human Anatomy & Physiology – II

Course code: BP 201 T

UNIT 1

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Introduction
The nervous system controls/coordinates the activities of cells, tissues, &
organs. The endocrine system also plays a role in control/coordination. The nervous
system is more dominant. Its mechanisms are faster, more widespread, and more
specific. It sends information via both electrical and chemical signals. The endocrine
system relies solely on blood borne chemical messengers (hormones).

The nervous system has 3 basic functions:

1. Sensory input – it uses sensory receptors to monitor internal and external
environments.
2. Integration – it processes sensory information and determines the proper
course of action.
3. Motor output – the nervous system enacts a response by an organ in
response by an organ/tissue/cell (i.e., an effector) in response to a change in
the internal or external environment.

2. Organization of Nervous System

The nervous system has 2 main divisions:
1. Central nervous system – the brain and the spinal cord. The primary
function of the CNS is the integration and processing of information.
2. Peripheral nervous system – the nervous tissue outside of the CNS (i.e.,
outside of the dorsal body cavity). Spinal nerves carry information between
the tissues and the spinal cord while cranial nerves carry information
between the tissues and the brain.
The PNS is subdivided into the:
1. Sensory afferent division – cells carrying information from sensory
receptors to the CNS.
 2. Motor efferent division – cells carrying commands from the CNS to the
effector organs.
The motor efferent division of the PNS is further subdivided into the:
1. Somatic nervous system – cells sending signals from the CNS to skeletal
muscles.
2. Autonomic nervous system – cells sending signals from the CNS to smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
The ANS is further subdivided into a
1. Sympathetic division (the “fight or flight” division) and a
2. Parasympathetic division (the “rest and digest” division).

3. Cells of Nervous System and Their Functions

The two types of cells found in the nervous system are called neurons or nerve
cells and neuroglia, which are specialized connective tissue cells. Neurons
conduct impulses, whereas neuroglia supports neurons.

3.1 Neuron
Neurons, also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to transmit messages
(nerve impulses) from one part of the body to another.
 Structural units of the nervous system
 Composed of a body, axon, and dendrites
 Long-lived, amitotic, and have a high metabolic rate

3.1.1 Parts of a Neuron

a) Cell Body or Soma
o The cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron.
o Contains a nucleus, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, mitochondria, and other cellular components.
o Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus
o Major biosynthetic center
o Focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal processes
o There are no centrioles (hence its amitotic nature)
o Well developed Nissl bodies (rough ER)
o Axon hillock – cone-shaped area from which axons arise
o Cell bodies form the grey matter of the nervous system and are found at
the periphery of the brain and in the centre of the spinal cord.
o Groups of cell bodies are called nuclei in the central nervous system and
ganglia in the peripheral nervous system.
o The soma is the primary site of integration within the neuron.
b) Axon
o Each nerve cell has only one axon.
 o Armlike extensions from the soma.
o Carrying nerve impulses away from the cell body.
o They are usually longer than the dendrites, sometimes as long as 100 cm.
Structure of an axon
 The membrane of the axon is called axolemma.
 Large axons and those of peripheral nerves are surrounded by a
myelin sheath.
 This consists of a series of Schwann cells arranged along the length
of the axon.
 Between the layers of plasma membrane there is a small amount of
fatty substance called myelin.
 The outermost layer of Schwann cell plasma membrane is
sometimes called neurilemma.
 There are tiny areas of exposed axolemma between adjacent
Schwann cells, called nodes of Ranvier, which assist the rapid
transmission of nerve impulses.
 Generate and transmit action potentials.
 Secrete neurotransmitters from the axonal terminals.
c) Dendrites
o Armlike extensions from the soma
o Short, tapering, and diffusely branched processes.
o They are the receptive, or input, regions of the neuron.
o Electrical signals are conveyed as graded potentials (not action
potentials).
d) Nissl bodies
o The rough Endoplasmic Reticulum present in soma.
e) Neurofibrils
o Intermediate filaments that are important in maintaining cell shape.
f) Axon hillock
o Conelike region of the cell body from where axon arises.
g) Axon terminals
o Branched terminal ends of the axon.
h) Neurotransmitters
o Axon terminals contain hundreds of tiny vesicles, or membranous sacs,
that contain chemicals called neurotransmitters.( As we said, axons
transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body. When these impulses
reach the axon terminals, they stimulate the release of neurotransmitters
into the extracellular space.)
i) Synaptic cleft
o Each axon terminal is separated from the next neuron by a tiny gap called
the Synaptic cleft.
j) Synapse
o Functional junction of neurons.
k) Myelin Sheaths
o Most long nerve fibers are covered with a whitish, fatty material called
myelin, which has a waxy appearance.
o Myelin protects and insulates the fibers and increases the transmission
rate of nerve impulses.
o Axons outside the CNS are myelinated by Schwann cells.
l) Neurilemma
o Neurilemma (also known as neurolemma, sheath of Schwann, or
Schwann's sheath) is the outermost nucleated cytoplasmic layer of
Schwann cells (also called neurilemmocytes) that surrounds the axon of
the neuron.
o It forms the outermost layer of the nerve fiber in the peripheral nervous
system.
m) Nodes of Ranvier
o The myelin sheath is formed by many individual Schwann cells, it has
gaps, or indentations, called Nodes of Ranvier, at regular intervals.

Figure 1- Neuron
Figure 2- Relationship of Schwann cells to axons in the peripheral nervous
system

 The cell body carries out most of the metabolic functions of a neuron, so if it is
damaged, the cell dies and is not replaced.
 Small collections of cell bodies called ganglia are found in a few sites outside
the CNS (i.e. in the PNS).
 Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) running through the CNS are
called tracts.
 Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) running through the PNS are called
nerves.
 The white matter consists of dense collections of myelinated fibers (tracts).

3.2. Classification of Neurons

Neurons may be classified either according to how they function or according to
their structure.
1) Functional Classification
2) Structural Classification

1) Functional Classification
Based on the direction the nerve impulse is traveling relative to the CNS, they are of
three types.
a) Sensory neurons
b) Motor neurons
 c) Association neurons (interneurons)
a) Sensory Or Afferent Neurons
Neurons carrying impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS are sensory, or
afferent, neurons.
b) Motor neurons
Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or muscles and
glands are motor, or efferent, neurons.
c) Interneurons or association neurons
They connect the motor and sensory neurons in neural pathways. 99% of
neurons are interneurons.

2) Structural Classification
Structural classification is based on the number of processes extending from the
cell body.
a) Multipolar neuron
b) Bipolar neurons
c) Unipolar neurons

a) Multipolar neuron
Number of processes extending from the cell body are several, the neuron is
a multipolar neuron (Because all motor and association neurons are
multipolar, this is the most common structural type).
b) Bipolar neurons
Neurons with two processes—an axon and a dendrite—are called bipolar
neurons (Bipolar neurons are rare in adults, found only in some special sense
organs (eye, nose)).
c) Unipolar neurons
Unipolar neurons have a single process emerging from the cell body.
 Figure 3- Classification of neurons on the basis of structure

3.3 Neuroglia
Neuroglia does not specialize in transmitting impulses. Instead, they are special
types of connective tissue cells. Their name is appropriate because it is derived
from Greek word glia meaning "glue."
The primary cell of nervous tissue is the neuron. It is responsible for sensing
information, integrating and processing, and issuing motor commands. Neurons are
supported by cells known as glial cells.
There are 4 glial cell types in the CNS:
1. Astrocytes
2. Ependymal cells
3. Microglia
4. Oligodendrocytes
There are 2 glial cell types in the PNS:
1. Neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells)
2. Satellite cells
Cell Type Description Function
Astrocytes Highly branched Provide structural support; regulate
neuronal signaling; contribute to blood-
brain barrier; help with neural tissue repair
Ependymal Epithelial-like Line ventricles of brain and central canal of
cells the spinal cord, circulate cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF); some form choroid plexuses,
which produce CSF
Microglia Small, mobile Protect CNS from infection; become
 cells phagocytic in response to inflammation
Oligodendrocy Cells with Cell processes form myelin sheaths around
tes processes that axons or enclose unmyelinated axons in
can surround the CNS
several axons
Schwann cells Single cells Form myelin sheaths around axons or
surrounding enclose unmyelinated axons in the PNS
axons
Satellite cells Surround the cell Help maintain the PNS ISF.
bodies of neurons

Figure 4- Types of Neuroglial Cells

4. Electrophysiology
The surface of a cell membrane (including a nonstimulated or resting neuron) is
usually electrically charged, or polarized, with respect to the inside. This
polarization arises from an unequal distribution of positive and negative ions
between sides of the membrane, and it is particularly important in the conduction of
muscle and nerve impulses. A characteristic change in neuron membrane
polarization and return to the resting state, called an action potential, forms a
nerve impulse that is propagated along an axon.

4.1 Distribution of Ions

Because of the active transport of sodium and potassium ions, cells throughout the
body have a greater concentration of sodium ions (Na +) outside and a greater
concentration of potassium ions (K +) inside. The cytoplasm of these cells has many
large, negatively charged particles, including phosphate ions (PO4 –3), sulfate ions
(SO4–2), and proteins, that cannot diffuse across the cell membranes.
Potassium ions pass through cell membranes much more easily than sodium ions.
This makes potassium ions a major contributor to membrane polarization. Calcium
ions are less able to cross the resting cell membrane than either sodium ions or
potassium ions.
4.2 Resting Potential
Sodium and potassium ions follow the laws of diffusion and show a net movement
from high concentration to low concentration as permeabilities permit. Because a
resting cell membrane is more permeable to potassium ions than to sodium ions,
potassium ions diffuse out of the cell more rapidly than sodium ions can diffuse in.
Every millisecond, more positive charges leave the cell by diffusion than enter it. As
a result, the outside of the cell membrane gains a slight surplus of positive charges,
and the inside is left with a slight surplus of impermeant negative charges.
The difference in electrical charge between two regions is called a potential
difference. In a resting nerve cell, the potential difference between the region
inside the membrane and the region outside the membrane is called a resting
potential (-70mV). As long as a nerve cell membrane is undisturbed, the
membrane remains in this polarized state. At the same time, the cell continues to
expend energy to drive the Na +/K+ “pumps” that actively transport sodium and
potassium ions in opposite directions. The pump maintains the concentration
gradients responsible for diffusion of these ions in the first place.

Figure 5- The resting potential. (a) Conditions that lead to the resting
potential. (b) In the resting neuron, the inside of the membrane is
negative relative to the outside. (c) The Na+ /K+ pump maintains the
concentration gradients for Na+ and K+ ions.

4.3 Potential Changes

Nerve cells are excitable; that is, they can respond to changes in their surroundings.
Some nerve cells, for example, are specialized to detect changes in temperature,
light, or pressure from outside the body. Many neurons respond to
neurotransmitters from other neurons. Such changes (or stimuli) usually affect the
resting potential in a particular region of a nerve cell membrane. If the membrane’s
resting potential decreases (as the inside of the membrane becomes less negative
when compared to the outside), the membrane is said to be depolarized.
Local potential changes are graded. This means that the magnitude of change in
the resting potential is directly proportional to the intensity of the stimulus. That is,
if the membrane is being depolarized, the greater the stimulus, the greater the
depolarization. If neurons are depolarized sufficiently, the membrane potential
reaches a level called the threshold potential, which is approximately –55
millivolts. If threshold is reached, an action potential results, which is the basis for
the nerve impulse.

Figure 6- Action potentials. (a) A subthreshold depolarization will not

result in an action potential. (b) Stimulation from multiple presynaptic
neurons may cause the postsynaptic neuron to reach threshold, opening
voltage-gated channels at the trigger zone.

5. Action Potential

At the threshold potential, permeability suddenly changes at the trigger zone of the
neuron being stimulated. Channels highly selective for sodium ions open and allow
sodium to diffuse freely inward. This movement is aided by the negative electrical
condition on the inside of the membrane, which attracts the positively charged
sodium ions.
As sodium ions diffuse inward, the membrane loses its negative electrical charge
and becomes depolarized. At almost the same time, however, membrane channels
open that allow potassium ions to pass through, and as these positive ions diffuse
outward, the inside of the membrane becomes negatively charged once more. The
membrane potential may briefly become overly negative (hyperpolarization), but
the membrane quickly returns to the resting potential (repolarization), and it
remains in this state until stimulated again.
This rapid sequence of depolarization and repolarization, which takes about one-
thousandth of a second, is the action potential. Because only a small fraction of
the sodium and potassium ions move through the membrane during an action
potential, many action potentials can occur, and resting potentials be reestablished,
before the original concentrations of these ions change significantly. Also, active
transport within the membrane maintains the original concentrations of sodium and
potassium ions on either side.

Figure 7- Action potential. (a) At rest, the membrane potential is negative.

(b) When the membrane reaches threshold, sodium channels open, some
sodium (Na+ ) diffuses in, and the membrane is depolarized. (c) Soon
afterward, potassium channels open, potassium (K+ ) diffuses out, and the
membrane is repolarized. (For simplicity, negative ions are not shown.)

6. Nerve Impulse
When an action potential occurs in one region of a nerve cell membrane, it causes a
bioelectric current to flow to adjacent portions of the membrane. This local current
stimulates the adjacent membrane to its threshold level and triggers another action
potential. This, in turn, stimulates the next adjacent region. A wave of action
potentials moves down the axon to the end. This propagation of action potentials
along a nerve axon constitutes the nerve impulse.
 Events Leading to the Conduction of a Nerve Impulse
1. Neuron membrane maintains resting potential.
2. Threshold stimulus is received.
3. Sodium channels in the trigger zone of the neuron open.
4. Sodium ions diffuse inward, depolarizing the membrane.
5. Potassium channels in the membrane open.
6. Potassium ions diffuse outward, repolarizing the membrane.
7. The resulting action potential causes a local bioelectric current that
stimulates adjacent portions of the membrane.
8. A wave of action potentials travels the length of the axon as a nerve
impulse.

Figure 8- A nerve impulse. (a) An action potential in one region stimulates

the adjacent region, and (b) and (c) a wave of action potentials (a nerve
impulse) moves along the axon.

6.1 Impulse Conduction

An unmyelinated axon conducts an impulse over its entire surface. A
myelinated axon functions differently because myelin insulates and prevents
almost all ion flow through the membrane it encloses. The myelin sheath would
prevent the conduction of a nerve impulse altogether if the sheath was continuous.
However, nodes of Ranvier between Schwann cells interrupt the sheath. Action
potentials occur at these nodes, where the exposed axon membrane has sodium
and potassium channels. A nerve impulse traveling along a myelinated axon
appears to jump from node to node. This type of impulse conduction, termed
saltatory, is many times faster than conduction on an unmyelinated axon.
The speed of nerve impulse conduction is proportional to the diameter of the axon—
the greater the diameter, the faster the impulse. For example, an impulse on a
relatively thick, myelinated axon, such as that of a motor neuron associated with a
skeletal muscle, might travel 120 meters per second. An impulse on a thin,
unmyelinated axon, such as that of a sensory neuron associated with the skin,
might move only 0.5 meter per second.

6.2 All-or-None Response

Nerve impulse conduction is an all-or-none response. That is, if a neuron responds
at all, it responds completely. Thus, a nerve impulse is conducted whenever a
stimulus of threshold intensity or above is applied to an axon, and all impulses
carried on that axon are of the same strength. A greater intensity of stimulation
does not produce a stronger impulse, but rather, more impulses per second.
For a very short time following a nerve impulse, a threshold stimulus will not trigger
another impulse on an axon. This brief period, called the refractory period, limits
the frequency of impulses in a neuron. It also ensures that the impulse proceeds
in only one direction—down the axon. Although a frequency of 700 impulses
per second is possible, 100 impulses per second is more common.

7. Structure of Neurotransmitter Receptors

Neurotransmitters released from a presynaptic neuron bind to neurotransmitter
receptors in the plasma membrane of a postsynaptic cell.
Neurotransmitter receptors are classified as
i. Ionotropic receptors
ii. Metabotropic receptors

i. Ionotropic Receptors
 An ionotropic receptor is a type of neurotransmitter receptor that contains a
neurotransmitter binding site and an ion channel.
 An ionotropic receptor is a type of ligand-gated channel. In the absence of
neurotransmitter (the ligand), the ion channel component of the ionotropic
receptor is closed.
 When the correct neurotransmitter binds to the ionotropic receptor, the ion
channel opens, and an EPSP (Excitatory post synaptic potential) or IPSP
(Inhibitory post synaptic potential) occurs in the postsynaptic cell.

 Figure 9- Ionotropic Receptors

ii. Metabotropic Receptors

 A metabotropic receptor is a type of neurotransmitter receptor that contains a
neurotransmitter binding site but lacks an ion channel as part of its
structure.
 A metabotropic receptor is coupled to a separate ion channel by a type of
membrane protein called a G protein.
 When a neurotransmitter binds to a metabotropic receptor, the G protein either
directly opens (or closes) the ion channel or it may act indirectly by activating
another molecule, a “second messenger,” in the cytosol, which in turn opens
(or closes) the ion channel.
 A metabotropic receptor differs from an ionotropic receptor in that the
neurotransmitter binding site and the ion channel are components of different
proteins.

Figure 10- Metabotropic Receptors

10. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is
housed within the braincase; the spinal cord is in the vertebral column.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nerves and ganglia outside
the brain and spinal cord. The PNS collects information from numerous sources both
inside and on the surface of the body and relays it by way of sensory neurons to the
CNS, where one of three results is possible: The information is ignored, triggers a
reflex, or is evaluated more extensively. Motor neurons in the PNS relay information
from the CNS to muscles and glands in various parts of the body, regulating activity
in those structures. The nerves of the PNS can be divided into two groups: 12 pairs
of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

10.3 Cerebrospinal fluid

 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid.
 Protects the brain and spinal cord from chemical and physical injuries.
 Contains oxygen, glucose, from the blood to neurons and neuroglia (also
contains proteins, lactic acid, urea, cations (Na+, K+, Ca 2+, Mg2+), and anions
(Cl– and HCO3-).
 CSF continuously circulates through cavities in the brain and spinal cord and
around the brain and spinal cord in the subarachnoid space (the space between
the arachnoid mater and pia mater).
 The total volume of CSF is 80 to 150 mL in an adult.
 It also contains some white blood cells.

10.3.1 Functions of CSF

The CSF has three basic functions:
i. Mechanical protection - CSF serves as a shock-absorbing medium that
protects the delicate tissues of the brain and spinal cord.
ii. Homeostatic function - The pH of the CSF affects pulmonary ventilation
and cerebral blood flow, which is important in maintaining homeostatic
controls for brain tissue.
iii. Circulation - CSF is a medium for minor exchange of nutrients and waste
products between the blood and adjacent nervous tissue.

10.3.2 Formation of CSF in the Ventricles

 The majority of CSF production is from the choroid plexuses (Choroid
Plexus networks of blood capillaries in the walls of the ventricles).
 Ependymal cells joined by tight junctions cover the capillaries of the choroid
plexuses.
 Blood in the choroid plexus filtered (selected substances mostly water), are
secreted by the ependymal cells to produce the cerebrospinal fluid.
 This secretory capacity is bidirectional and accounts for continuous
production of CSF and transport of metabolites from the nervous tissue back
to the blood.
 Because of the tight junctions between ependymal cells, materials
entering CSF from choroid capillaries cannot leak between these cells;
instead, they must pass through the ependymal cells.
 Figure 15- Choroid Plexus
10.3.3 Circulation of CSF
 The CSF formed in the choroid plexuses of each lateral ventricle flows into
the third ventricle through two narrow, oval openings, the interventricular
foramina.
 More CSF is added by the choroid plexus in the roof of the third
ventricle. The fluid then flows through the aqueduct of the midbrain
(cerebral aqueduct), which passes through the midbrain, into the fourth
ventricle.
 The choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle contributes more fluid.
 CSF enters the subarachnoid space through three openings in the roof of
the fourth ventricle: a single median aperture and paired lateral apertures,
one on each side.
 CSF then circulates in the central canal of the spinal cord and in the
subarachnoid space around the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
 CSF is gradually reabsorbed into the blood through arachnoid villi.
 Normally, CSF is reabsorbed as rapidly as it is formed by the choroid
plexuses, at a rate of about 20 mL/hr (480 mL/day).
(Because the rates of formation and reabsorption are the same, the pressure
of CSF normally is constant. For the same reason, the volume of CSF remains
constant.)
 Figure 16- Summary of the formation, circulation, and absorption of
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

10.4 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN

The 4 principal parts of the brain are the cerebrum, the diencephalon the
brainstem, and the cerebellum.

10.4.1 Cerebrum (Telencephalon)

 This is the largest part of the brain.
 It is divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres.
 The cerebrum consists of an outer cerebral cortex, an internal region of
cerebral white matter and grey matter.
Grey matter, which has a pinkish-grey color in the living brain, contains the cell
bodies, dendrites and axon terminals of neurons.
White matter is made of axons connecting different parts of grey matter to
each other.
Cerebral Hemispheres
 The paired cerebral hemispheres, collectively called the cerebrum.
 The entire surface of the cerebral hemispheres exhibits elevated ridges of
tissue called gyri separated by shallow grooves called sulci.
 Deeper grooves called fissures (which separate large regions of the
brain).
 The cerebral hemispheres are separated by a single deep fissure, the
 longitudinal fissure.
 The cerebral hemispheres are connected internally by the corpus
callosum (a broad band of white matter containing axons that extend
between the hemispheres).
 Each cerebral hemisphere has a thin surface layer of grey matter known
as the cerebral cortex.
 Other fissures or sulci divide each cerebral hemisphere into a number of
lobes.

Figure 17- Cerebral Hemispheres

Cerebral Cortex
 The cerebral cortex is a region of gray matter that forms the outer
rim of the cerebrum (accounts for roughly 40% of the mass of the
brain).
 Speech, memory, logical and emotional response, as well as
consciousness, interpretation of sensation, and voluntary movement, are
all functions of neurons of the cerebral cortex.
 Each hemisphere acts contralaterally (controls the opposite side of the
body).
 Hemispheres are not equal in function.

Lobes of the Cerebrum

 Each cerebral hemisphere can be further subdivided into several lobes.
The lobes are named after the bones that cover them: frontal, parietal,
temporal, and occipital lobes.
 The central sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
 The lateral cerebral sulcus (fissure) separates the frontal lobe from the
temporal lobe.
 The parieto-occipital sulcus separates the parietal lobe from the
occipital lobe.
 Figure 18- The lobes and sulci of the cerebrum
Interior of the cerebrum
 Within the cerebrum the lobes are connected by masses of nerve fibres or
tracts.
 The tracts linking the different parts of the brain and spinal cord are as follows.
Association (arcuate) fibres connect different parts of a cerebral hemisphere
by extending from one gyrus to another, some of which are adjacent and
some distant.
Commissural fibres connect corresponding areas of the two cerebral
hemispheres; the largest and most important commissure is the corpus
callosum.
Projection fibres connect the cerebral cortex with grey matter of lower parts
of the brain and with the spinal cord.

Functions of the cerebrum

i. Mental activities involved in memory, intelligence, sense of responsibility,
thinking, reasoning, moral sense and learning are attributed to the higher
centres.
ii. Sensory perception, including the perception of pain, temperature, touch,
sight, hearing, taste and smell.
iii. Initiation and control of skeletal (voluntary) muscle contraction.

Functional areas of the cerebrum

Specific types of sensory, motor, and integrative signals are processed in certain
regions of the cerebral cortex. Generally, sensory areas receive sensory
information and are involved in perception, the conscious awareness of a sensation;
motor areas control the execution of voluntary movements; and association
areas deal with more complex integrative functions such as memory, emotions,
reasoning, will, judgment, personality traits, and intelligence.
 Figure 19- Functional areas of the cerebrum

Table 2- Functional areas of the cerebrum

Area Location & Function
The postcentral  This is the area behind the central sulcus.
area  Here sensations of pain, temperature, pressure and
touch, knowledge of muscular movement and the
Sensory areas of the cerebrum

position of joints are perceived.

The parietal area  This lies behind the postcentral area.
 Its functions are believed to be associated with
obtaining and retaining accurate knowledge of
objects.
The sensory speech  This is situated in the lower part of the parietal lobe
area and extends into the temporal lobe.
 It is here that the spoken word is perceived.
The auditory  This lies immediately below the lateral sulcus within
(hearing) area the temporal lobe.
 The cells receive and interpret impulses transmitted
from the inner ear
The olfactory  This lies deep within the temporal lobe.
(smell) area  Impulses from the nose via the olfactory nerves (1st
cranial nerves) are received and interpreted.
The taste area  Lie just above the lateral sulcus.
 Nerve endings in taste buds in the tongue and in
 the lining of the cheeks, palate and pharynx are
perceived as taste.
The visual area  This lies behind the parieto-occipital sulcus.
 This area which receives and interprets the
impulses as visual impressions.

The precentral  This lies in the frontal lobe immediately anterior to

(motor) area the central sulcus.
 The cell bodies are pyramid shaped (Betz's cells)
and they initiate the contraction of skeletal muscles.
 Motor area of the right hemisphere of the cerebrum
Motor areas of the cerebrum

controls voluntary muscle movement on the left

side of the body and vice versa (because of
deccusation).
The premotor area  This lies in the frontal lobe immediately anterior to
the motor area.
 The cells are thought to exert a controlling influence
over the motor area, ensuring an orderly series of
movements.
 In the lower part of this area just above the lateral
sulcus there is a group of nerve cells known as the
motor speech (Broca's) area which controls the
movements necessary for speech
The frontal area  This extends anteriorly from the premotor area to
include the remainder of the frontal lobe.
 Responsible for the behaviour, character and
emotional state of the individual.

Basal nuclei  These are areas of grey matter, lying deep within
the cerebral hemispheres, with connections to the
Other
areas

cerebral cortex and thalamus.

 Involved in initiating muscle tone in slow and
coordinated activities.

10.4.2 Diencephalon
 The diencephalon, or interbrain, sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the
cerebral hemispheres.
 The major structures of the diencephalon are the thalamus, hypothalamus,
and epithalamus.
 Thalamus
- The thalamus consists of two masses of nerve cells and fibres situated
within the cerebral hemispheres just below the corpus callosum, one on
 each side of the third ventricle.
- Sensory input from the skin, viscera and special sense organs is
transmitted to the thalamus before redistribution to the cerebrum.
 Hypothalamus
- It is situated below and in front of the thalamus, immediately above the
pituitary gland.
- The hypothalamus is linked to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland by
nerve fibres and to the anterior lobe by a complex system of blood
vessels.
- Controls the output of hormones from both lobes of the pituitary gland.
- Plays a role in the regulation of body temperature, water balance, and
metabolism.
- The hypothalamus is also the center for many drives and emotions, and as
such it is an important part of the so-called limbic system.
 Epithalamus
- Forms the roof of the third ventricle.
- Important parts of the epithalamus are the pineal gland (part of the
endocrine system which secretes melatonin) and the choroid plexus of the
third ventricle (form the cerebrospinal fluid).

Figure 20- Diencephalon

10.4.3 Brainstem
 The brain stem is about the size of a thumb in diameter and approximately 3
inches (approximately 7.5 cm) long.
 Its structures are the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
Midbrain or Mesencephalon
- The midbrain is the area of the brain situated around the cerebral
aqueduct between the cerebrum above and the pons below.
- It consists of groups of cell bodies and nerve fibres (tracts) which connect
the cerebrum with lower parts of the brain and with the spinal cord.
- The cell bodies act as relay stations for the ascending and descending
nerve fibres.
Pons
 - The pons is situated in front of the cerebellum, below the midbrain and
above the medulla oblongata.
- It consists mainly of nerve fibres which form a bridge between the two
hemispheres of the cerebellum.
- The cell bodies (grey matter) lie deeply and the nerve fibres are on the
surface (opposite to that of cerebrum).
- Act as relay stations and some of these are associated with the cranial
nerves.
- Involved in the control of breathing.
Medulla oblongata
- Most inferior part of the brain stem.
- Lies just within the cranium above the foramen magnum.
- Medulla is the area where the important pyramidal tracts cross over to the
opposite side (Decussation (crossing) of the pyramids).
- It contains centers that control heart rate, blood pressure, breathing,
swallowing, and vomiting, among others.

Figure 21- Brainstem

10.4.4 Reticular formation

 The reticular formation is a collection of neurones in the core of the
brain stem.
 Surrounded by neural pathways which conduct ascending and descending
nerve impulses between the brain and the spinal cord.
 It has a vast number of synaptic links with other parts of the brain and is
therefore constantly receiving 'information' being transmitted in ascending
and descending tracts.
Functions
- Coordination of skeletal muscle activity
 - Coordination of activity controlled by the autonomic nervous system,
e.g. cardiovascular, respiratory and gastrointestinal activity.
- A special group of reticular formation neurons, the reticular
activating system (RAS), plays a role in consciousness and the
awake/sleep cycle.

10.4.5 Cerebellum
 The cerebellum sits inferior to the occipital lobes and dorsal to the pons and
the medulla.
 It consists of 2 cerebellar hemispheres linked by a structure known as the
vermis.
 The cerebellum also has an outer cortex made up of gray matter and an
inner region of white matter.
 Functions
o Smooths and coordinates contractions of skeletal muscles.
o Regulates posture and balance.
o May have role in cognition and language processing.
o Damage to the cerebellum results in clumsy uncoordinated muscular
movement, staggering gait and inability to carry out smooth, steady,
precise movements.

Figure 22- Cerebellum

Cerebellum coordinates activities associated with the maintenance of the balance

and equilibrium of the body.
 The limbic system is a set of several brain structures involved in emotion,
behavior, memory, and olfaction. Limbic structures include the cingulate gyrus,
the hippocampus, the amygdala, the parahippocampal gyrus, the
mammillary bodies, and the fornix.
The cingulate gyrus is located in the medial cerebral cortex just above the
corpus callosum and plays roles in emotion (creation and interpreting) and
memory.
The hippocampus is located under the cerebral cortex in the medial temporal
lobe and plays roles in converting short-term memories into long-term memories
and spatial memories.
The amygdala is deep within the medial temporal lobe and plays roles in
memory, decision-making, and emotional responses.
The parahippocampal gyrus surrounds the hippocampus and plays a role in

10.5 Gross Anatomy of Spinal Cord

 The spinal cord is the elongated, almost cylindrical part of the central
nervous system, which is suspended in the vertebral canal surrounded by the
meninges and cerebrospinal fluid.
 It is continuous above with the medulla oblongata and extends from the upper
border of the atlas to the lower border of the first or second lumbar
vertebra (it ends just below the ribs).
 It is approximately 42-45 cm long, and is about the thickness of the little finger
in an adult.
 When the spinal cord is viewed externally, two enlargements can be seen.
o The superior enlargement (cervical enlargement), extends from the
fourth cervical vertebra (C4) to the first thoracic vertebra (T1).
o Nerves to and from the upper limbs arise from the cervical
enlargement.
o The inferior enlargement (lumbar enlargement), extends from the ninth
(C9) to the twelfth thoracic vertebra (C12).
o Nerves to and from the lower limbs arise from the lumbar
enlargement.
 In humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the cord and exit from the
vertebral column to serve the body area close by.
 The spinal nerves leaving its inferior end must travel through the vertebral canal
for some distance before exiting. This collection of spinal nerves at the inferior
end of the vertebral canal is called the cauda equine (The vertebral column
grows faster than the spinal cord, the spinal cord does not reach the end of the
vertebral column).
 The end of the spinal cord is a tapered structure called the conus medullaris
which is anchored to the coccyx by an extension of the pia mater called the
filum terminale.
 Figure 23- Anatomy of the spinal cord (posterior view)

10.6 Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

10.6.1 Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and Spinal Roots

 The gray matter of the spinal cord looks like a butterfly or the letter H in
cross section (it consists of dendrites and cell bodies of neurons, unmyelinated
axons, and neuroglia).
 In the center of the gray commissure is a small space called the central canal,
it is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
 Gray commissure, connects the gray matter of the right and left sides of the
spinal cord.
 White commissure, connects the white matter of the right and left sides of the
spinal cord.
 The gray matter on each side of the spinal cord is subdivided into regions called
horns i.e. dorsal (posterior horns), ventral (anterior horns) & lateral
gray horns.
o The posterior (dorsal) gray horns contain cell bodies and axons of
interneurons as well as axons of incoming sensory neurons.
 o The anterior (ventral) gray horns contain somatic motor nuclei, which
are clusters of cell bodies of somatic motor neurons (that provide nerve
impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles).
o The lateral gray horns contain autonomic motor nuclei, which are
clusters of cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons (regulate the activity of
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands).
 The cell bodies of the sensory neurons, whose fibers enter the cord by the
dorsal root, are found in an enlarged area called the dorsal root ganglion.
 The ventral horns of the gray matter contain cell bodies of motor neurons of
the somatic (voluntary) nervous system, which send their axons out the ventral
root of the cord.
 The dorsal and ventral roots fuse to form the spinal nerves.
10.6.2 White Matter of the Spinal Cord
 White matter of the spinal cord is composed of myelinated fiber tracts.
 Two grooves penetrate the white matter of the spinal cord and divide it into
right and left sides.
o The anterior median fissure is a wide groove on the anterior (ventral)
side.
o The posterior median sulcus is a narrow furrow on the posterior
(dorsal) side.
 White matter on each side of the cord is divided into three regions—the dorsal,
lateral, and ventral columns.
 Tracts conducting sensory impulses to the brain are sensory or afferent
tracts.
 Those carrying impulses from the brain to skeletal muscles are motor or
efferent tracts.
 All tracts in the dorsal columns are ascending tracts that carry sensory
input to the brain. The lateral and ventral columns contain both ascending
and descending (motor) tracts.
Tracts are bundles of axons in the CNS.
Nerves are bundles of axons in the PNS.
 Meninges of the Spinal Cord
 From superficial to deep they are the
(1) Dura mater,
(2) Arachnoid mater
(3) Pia mater.
 The spinal meninges surround the spinal cord (Figure 13.1a) and are continuous with
the cranial meninges, which encircle the brain.
 Dura mater
o Outermost layer, thick, strong, composed of dense irregular connective tissue.
o Starts from foramen magnum and ends at the second sacral vertebra.
 Arachnoid mater
o Middle layer, thin, avascular, composed of loosely arranged collagen and
elastic fibers.
o Starts from foramen magnum and ends at the second sacral vertebra.
o Between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater is a thin subdural space,
which contains interstitial fluid.
 Pia mater
o Innermost, thin transparent connective tissue layer, composed of squamous to
cuboidal cells within interlacing bundles of collagen fibers and some fine
elastic fibers.
o Within the pia mater are many blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients

Figure 24- Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

10.7 Functions of Afferent & Efferent Nerve Tracts

(Functions of the Spinal Cord OR Spinal Cord Physiology)
 Sensory or Afferent Tracts- Tracts conducting sensory impulses to the brain.
 Motor or Efferent Tracts- Those carrying impulses from the brain to skeletal
muscles.
 The spinal cord has two major functions—conducting nerve impulses and
serving as a center for spinal reflexes.
 Naming The Tracts
 If the tract name begins with “spino” (as in spinocerebellar), the tract is a
sensory tract delivering information from the spinal cord to the cerebellum
(in this case).
 If the tract name ends with “spinal” (as in vestibulospinal), the tract is a
motor tract that delivers information from the vestibular apparatus (in this
case) to the spinal cord.

Table 3- Afferent & Efferent Nerve Tracts

Sr. Tract
Functions
No. (Sensory or Motor)
Sensory or Afferent Tracts
1 Spinothalamic tract Sensing pain, warmth, coolness, itching,
tickling, deep pressure, and crude touch.
2 Gracile fasciculus Discriminative touch, light pressure, vibration,
3 Cuneate fasciculus and conscious proprioception (the awareness of
the positions and movements of muscles,
tendons, and joints).
Motor or Efferent Tracts
4 Lateral corticospinal
5 Anterior corticospinal
6 Corticobulbar tracts Voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

7 Rubrospinal
8 Tectospinal
9 Vestibulospinal Automatic movements and help coordinate
10 Lateral reticulospinal body movements with visual stimuli.
11 Medial reticulospinal
tracts
 Figure 25– Ascending Tracts Figure 26- Descending Tracts

11. Reflex Activity Or Reflexes

a) Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli.
b) Reflexes are automatic, subconscious response to changes within or outside the
body .
o Reflexes maintain homeostasis (Autonomic reflexes) – heart rate,
breathing rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
o Reflexes also carry out the automatic action of swallowing , sneezing ,
coughing and vomiting .
o Reflexes maintain balance & posture
 Eg. Spinal reflexes – control trunk and limb muscles.
o Brain reflexes – involve reflex center in brain stem.
 Eg. Reflexes for eye movement
Reflex Arc
c) The reflex arc governs the operation of reflexes .Nerve impulses follow nerve
pathways as they travel through the nervous system . the simplest of these path
ways , including a few neurons , constitutes a reflex arc pass through the spinal
 cord are called spinal reflexes .
d) Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs and involve both CNS
and PNS structures.
e) All reflex arcs have a minimum of five elements
i. Sensory receptor (which reacts to a stimulus),
ii. Sensory neuron
iii. Integration center (synapse or interneurons between the sensory and
motor neurons)
iv. Motor neuron
v. Effector organ (the muscle or gland eventually stimulated),

Figure 27- Five Basic Elements of Reflex Arc

i. Receptor – Detects the stimulus

Description : The receptor end of a particular dendrite or a specialized
receptor cell in a sensory organ .
Function : Sensitive to a specific type of internal or external change.
ii. Sensory Neuron – Conveys the sensory into or to brain or spinal cord.
Description : Dendrite, cell body, and axon of a sensory neuron.
Function : transmit nerve impulses from the receptor into the brain or
spinal cord .
iii. Interneuron : Relay neurons.
Description : Dendrite, cell body, and axon of a neuron within the brain
or spinal cord.
Function : Serves as processing center, conducts nerve impulses from
the sensory neuron to a motor neuron.
iv. Motor neuron : conduct motor output to the periphery.
Description : Dendrite, cell body , and axon of a motor neuron.
Function : transmits nerve impulse from the brain or spinal cord out to
an effecter.
v. Effector : the muscle or gland eventually stimulated
Description : a muscle or gland.
Function : Response to stimulation by the motor neuron and produces
the reflex or behavioral action .

f) The types of reflexes that occur in the body are classed as either somatic and
autonomic reflexes.
 o Somatic reflexes include all reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles.
o Autonomic reflexes
 The effector tissues of autonomic reflexes are smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle and glandular tissue.
 Both the brain and spinal cord can act as integrating centers for
autonomic reflexes.
 Autonomic reflexes result in gastric juice secretion, mouth watering
upon seeing/smelling/thinking about food, regulating blood
pressure, adjusting heart rate to level of exercise, etc.
11.1 Types of Somatic Reflexes
a) The Stretch Reflex
b) The Tendon Reflex
c) The Flexor (withdrawal) Reflex
d) The Crossed Extensor Reflex

a) The Stretch Reflex

o A stretch reflex causes contraction of a skeletal muscle (the effector) in
response to stretching of the muscle.
o The stretch reflex in its simplest form involves only 2 neurons, and is
therefore sometimes called a 2-neuron reflex or monosynaptic reflex
arc.
o The two neurons are a sensory and a motor neuron.
o The sensory neuron is stimulated by stretch (extension) of a muscle.
Stretch of a muscle artificially when its tendon is stretched, as in the knee
jerk reflex.
o Muscles contain receptors called muscle spindles.
o These receptors respond to the muscles's stretch.
o They send stimuli back to the spinal cord through a sensory neuron which
connects directly to a motor neuron serving the same muscle.
o This causes the muscle to contract, reversing the stretch.
o Eg. Patellar reflex (knee jerk).
o A stretch reflex operates as follows
 Figure 28- Stertch Reflex
b) The Tendon Reflex
o Tendon receptors respond to the contraction of a muscle.
o Their function, like that of stretch reflexes, is the coordination of muscles
and body movements.
o The deep tendon reflex involves sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor
neurons.
o The response reverses the original stimulus therefore causing relaxation
 of the muscle stimulated.
o Like the stretch reflex, the tendon reflex is ipsilateral.
o A tendon reflex operates as follows

Figure 29- Tendon Reflex

c) The Flexor (Withdrawal) Reflex

Another reflex involving a polysynaptic reflex arc results when, for instance, you
step on a tack. In response to such a painful stimulus, you immediately withdraw
your leg. This reflex, called the flexor or withdrawal reflex.

d) The Crossed Extensor Reflex

Something else may happen when you step on a tack: You may start to lose your
balance as your body weight shifts to the other foot. Besides initiating the flexor
reflex that causes you to withdraw the limb, the pain impulses from stepping on the
tack also initiate a crossed extensor reflex to help you maintain your balance.