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EXCEL 2022
THREE BOOKS-IN-ONE :
A TO Z MASTERY GUIDE ON EXCEL BASIC OPERATIONS,
EXCEL FORMULAS, FUNCTIONS, PIVOT TABLES &
DASHBOARDS

JOE WEBINAR

Copyright © 2022 Joe Webinar All Rights Reserved

This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any form,
stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any
means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise
—without prior written permission of the publisher, except as
provided by United States of America copyright law and fair use.
Disclaimer and Terms of Use
The author and publisher of this book and the accompanying
materials have used their best efforts in preparing this book. The
author and publisher make no representation or warranties with
respect to the accuracy, applicability, fitness, or completeness of the
contents of this book. The information contained in this book is
strictly for informational purposes. Therefore, if you wish to apply
the ideas contained in this book, you are taking full responsibility for
your actions.
Printed in the United States of America
ii

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………….XXVII
CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………….. 1
INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT EXCEL ……………………………………. 1

GETTING FAMILIAR WITH THE FUNCTIONS OF EXCEL …………………..1

RECENT UPGRADES IN MICROSOFT EXCEL 2022 ………………………….2
GETTING FAMILIAR WITH WORKSHEETS AND WORKBOOKS………..4
NAVIGATING AROUND A WORKSHEET AND THE EXCEL RIBBON ….4
Navigating a Worksheet Using a Keyboard…………………………………….4
Navigating a Worksheet Using a Mouse…………………………………………5
MAKING USE OF THE RIBBON PANE ……………………………………………….6
Contents of the Ribbon Pane …………………………………………………………7
The Contextual Menu …………………………………………………………………….8
COMMAND TYPES PRESENT ON THE RIBBON MENU…………………….8
IMPLEMENTING SHORTCUT MENUS IN EXCEL …………………………… 14
CONFIGURING THE QUICK ACCESS TOOLBAR…………………………… 15
USING DIALOGUE BOXES IN EXCEL…………………………………………….. 18
Navigating through Dialog Boxes ……………………………………………….. 19
Implementing Tabbed Dialogue Boxes……………………………………….. 19
WORKING WITH TASK PANES………………………………………………………. 20
BUILDING YOUR WORKBOOKS IN MICROSOFT EXCEL………………. 20
USING YOUR WORKSHEET ………………………………………………………….. 20
Entering Months of the Year in your Worksheet Using Autofill ……. 20
Inputting Sales Data……………………………………………………………………. 21
Editing Number Formats …………………………………………………………….. 22
Customizing Data Entry in a Worksheet ……………………………………… 23
Performing Addition Operations on the Sales Data…………………….. 24
Creating a Chart for the Sale Data ……………………………………………… 25
Publishing or Printing the Worksheet………………………………………….. 26
Saving your Workbook……………………………………………………………….. 27
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………..
28

CHAPTER TWO……………………………………………………………………….. 29
iii
INPUTTING AND CUSTOMIZING DATA ENTRIES IN WORKSHEETS IN
MICROSOFT EXCEL ……………………………………………………………. 29

GETTING FAMILIAR WITH DATA TYPES IN EXCEL……………………….. 29

INSERTING TEXTS AND VALUES IN WORKSHEETS …………………….. 30
INSERTING TIME AND DATES IN WORKSHEETS………………………….. 31
Inserting Dates and Time That Can Update Itself ……………………….. 31
EDITING THE CONTENTS OF A CELL …………………………………………… 32
Erasing and Overwriting Data Written in a Cell …………………………… 32
Fine Tuning Cell Data …………………………………………………………………. 32
NECESSARY PROCEDURES TO KNOW WHEN ENTERING DATA IN CELLS
…………………………………………………………………………………………… 32
Changing Cells Automatically After Entering Data………………………. 32
Highlighting Numerous Cells Before Entering Data…………………….. 33
USING KEYBOARD KEYS CTRL + ENTER FOR INSERTING DATA IN MULTIPLE
CELLS AT ONCE………………………………………………………….. 33
SWITCHING BETWEEN MODES OF CELL IN EXCEL …………………….. 34
AUTOMATIC WAY TO INSERT DECIMAL POINTS IN DATA ………….. 34
IMPLEMENTING AUTOCOMPLETE WHEN ENTERING DATA………… 35
CUSTOMIZING THE APPEARANCE OF TEXTS ON NEW LINES IN A CELL
………………………………………………………………………………………………
35
IMPLEMENTING AUTOCORRECT …………………………………………………. 36
INSERTING FRACTIONS IN EXCEL CELLS……………………………………. 36
IMPLEMENTING FORMS WHEN ENTERING DATA………………………… 37
FORMATTING NUMBERS IN EXCEL ……………………………………………… 39
The Automatic Number Formatting Option…………………………………. 39
Using the Ribbon Menu to Format Numbers ………………………………. 40
Shortcuts on Keyboard to Format Numbers……………………………….. 41
Including Your Custom Numbers in Excel ………………………………….. 41
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………..
42

CHAPTER THREE…………………………………………………………………….. 43
CARRYING OUT SIMPLE OPERATIONS IN YOUR WORKSHEET ….. 43

BASICS OF EXCEL WINDOWS ……………………………………………………… 43

Changing Size and Moving the Excel Window ……………………………. 43
Switching Among Multiple Excel Windows …………………………………. 44
Closing Excel Windows ………………………………………………………………. 44
ACTIVATING EXCEL WORKSHEETS …………………………………………….. 44
INCLUDING ADDITIONAL WORKSHEETS IN YOUR WORKBOOK…. 45
DELETING EXCESS OR UNWANTED WORKSHEETS……………………. 46
CHANGING THE NAME OF WORKSHEETS IN EXCEL …………………… 47
REARRANGING SHEET ARRANGEMENT IN A WORKBOOK …………. 47
SHOWING AND HIDING WORKSHEETS………………………………………… 47
ADJUSTING THE EXCEL WINDOW RESOLUTION OR VIEW …………. 48
Increasing the View Size of Your Workbook……………………………….. 48
Making Worksheets Visible in Several Windows…………………………. 49
Checking Worksheets in a Side-by-Side View ……………………………. 50
Dividing Worksheets Windows into Sections………………………………. 50
Freezing Actions in Excel Worksheets………………………………………… 51
Using the Watch Window……………………………………………………………. 51
USING ROWS AND COLUMNS……………………………………………………… 53
Inputting Columns and Rows in Worksheet ………………………………… 53
Erasing Columns and Rows in Worksheet ………………………………….. 54
Adjusting the Size of Columns and Rows in Worksheet ……………… 55
Showing and Hiding Columns and Rows in Worksheet ………………. 55
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………..
56

CHAPTER FOUR ……………………………………………………………………… 57

USING RANGES AND TABLES IN EXCEL …………………………………… 57
CELLS AND RANGES SELECTION………………………………………………… 57
Highlighting Full Rows and Columns ………………………………………….. 57
Highlighting Cells Having Ranges That Are Non-contiguous or Nonadjacent
……………………………………………………………………………………… 58
Highlighting Ranges in Multiple Worksheets……………………………….. 59
Highlighting Particular or Special Cells ………………………………………. 59
Highlighting Cells by Search Action……………………………………………. 60
MOVING AND COPYING ACTIONS FOR CELL RANGES ………………. 60
Using the Ribbon Menu for Copying…………………………………………… 60
USING SHORTCUT KEYS FOR COPYING………………………………………………… 61

EMPLOYING SHORTCUT MENU COMMANDS FOR COPYING DATA …………….. 61 v

Copying Data to Adjacent Cells ………………………………………………….. 63

Data Copying Actions from Cell Ranges to Another Sheet …………. 63
Using the Clipboard for Pasting Action……………………………………….. 63
Pasting Data with Unique Techniques ………………………………………… 64
PASTING DATA WITH THE PASTE DIALOGUE BOX ……………………… 65
Executing Mathematical Operations without Formulas ……………….. 65
How to Skip or Ignore Copied Blank Cells and Spaces ………………. 66
APPLYING NAME ATTRIBUTES IN RANGE OPERATIONS…………….. 66
HOW TO ASSIGN NAMES TO RANGES ………………………………………… 67
Using the Name Box…………………………………………………………………… 67
Employing the Dialogue Box for Assigning New Range Names ….. 67
Using the Dialogue Box for Selection …………………………………………. 67
WORKING WITH NAMES IN RANGES ……………………………………………. 68
GIVING COMMENTS IN CELLS……………………………………………………… 68
Formatting Cell Comments…………………………………………………………. 69
Configuring the Shape of the Comment Box………………………………. 70
Reading Cell Comments …………………………………………………………….. 70
Hiding and Un-hiding Cell Comments ………………………………………… 70
Editing Cell Comments……………………………………………………………….. 71
Erasing Cell Comments………………………………………………………………. 71
USING TABLES IN YOUR WORKSHEET………………………………………… 71
Getting Familiar with the Layout of the Excel Table Header Rows in Excel
Table…………………………………………………………………………………. 71
The Table Body ………………………………………………………………………….. 71
The Row for Summing Operations ……………………………………………… 72
Changing the Size of Tables ………………………………………………………. 72
CREATING EXCEL TABLES …………………………………………………………… 73
ADDING DATA TO YOUR CREATED TABLE ………………………………….. 73
FILTERING AND SORTING OPERATIONS IN EXCEL TABLES……….. 74
Sorting Operations in Tables………………………………………………………. 74
Filtering Operations in Tables …………………………………………………….. 74
Performing Filtering Operations Using Table Slicers ………………….. 75
Configuring the Appearance of Your Table ………………………………… 75
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………..
76

CHAPTER FIVE ……………………………………………………………………….. 77

FORMATTING YOUR WORKSHEETS ………………………………………… 77

Formatting Worksheets Using Tools from the Home Tab……………. 77

Formatting Worksheets Using the Mini Toolbar ………………………….. 77
Formatting Worksheets Using the Dialogue Box for Formatting Cells
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 78
CARRYING OUT FORMATTING OPERATIONS IN YOUR WORKSHEET
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………. 79
Changing Fonts in Your Worksheet ……………………………………………. 79
Formatting Text Alignments ……………………………………………………….. 79
Alignment in Horizontal Direction ……………………………………………….. 79
Alignment in Vertical Direction……………………………………………………. 80
Text Wrap Formatting…………………………………………………………………. 80
Worksheet Merge Formatting …………………………………………………….. 80
ALIGNING TEXTS TO ANGLES ……………………………………………………………… 80
ADDING COLORS AND SHADES TO YOUR WORKSHEET……………. 81
INSERTING BORDERS AND LINES IN YOUR WORKSHEET…………… 81
IMPLEMENTING CONDITIONAL FORMATTING IN WORKSHEETS .. 83
Defining the Conditional Formatting to be Applied ……………………… 83
Implementing the Conditional Formatting Rule for Graphics ………. 83
The Scales for Color…………………………………………………………………… 84
The Sets of Icon …………………………………………………………………………. 85
DEFINING FORMULA FORMATTING RULES…………………………………. 86
Relative and Absolute Cell References……………………………………….. 86
EXAMPLES OF FORMULAS IN CONDITIONAL FORMATTING………. 86
Formula to Select Weekends ……………………………………………………… 86
Selecting Rows Depending on Values………………………………………… 89
Using Shading for Alternate-rows ………………………………………………. 89
Inserting Shading for Checkerboards…………………………………………. 90
Formatting a Set of Rows to be Shaded……………………………………… 91
MANAGEMENT OF RULES FOR CONDITIONAL FORMATTING ……. 92
Pasting and Copying of Cells with Rules for Conditional Formatting
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 93
Erasing Conditional Formatting Rules…………………………………………. 94

vii
Identifying Cells Having Rules for Conditional Formatting…………… 94
APPLYING DEFINED STYLES FOR FORMATTING ………………………… 95
Applying the Styles …………………………………………………………………….. 95
Configuring Custom Cell Styles………………………………………………….. 95
Changing a Style’s Configuration ……………………………………………….. 96
Combining Styles from Various Workbooks ……………………………….. 97
Using Templates for Managing Cell Styles …………………………………. 98
WORKING WITH THEMES FOR YOUR WORKBOOK……………………… 98
Employing Themes in your Worksheets ……………………………………… 98
Creating Your Customized Theme Colors ………………………………….. 99
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
100
CHAPTER SIX ……………………………………………………………………….. 101
FILES AND TEMPLATES IN EXCEL………………………………………….. 101
OPENING NEW WORKBOOKS…………………………………………………….. 101
Filtering Name of Files………………………………………………………………. 101
Selecting Which Files are Displayed…………………………………………. 103
IMPLEMENTING AUTO-RECOVERY ……………………………………………. 104
Recovering Current Workbook Versions…………………………………… 104
Recovering Unsaved Workbook Instances ……………………………….. 105
Customizing the Auto Recovery Feature…………………………………… 105
USING PASSWORDS TO SECURE YOUR WORKBOOKS ……………. 107
ORGANIZING WORKBOOK FILES ……………………………………………….. 107
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION WHEN USING WORKBOOKS ………… 108
Additional Options to Protect Your Workbook…………………………… 108
Looking Up Glitches or Errors…………………………………………………… 108
Options for Managing Your Workbook ……………………………………… 109
Workbook Appearance in Browsers …………………………………………. 110
The Mode for Compatibility Section………………………………………….. 111
IMPLEMENTING EXCEL TEMPLATES IN YOUR WORKBOOK……… 112
Walking Through Templates in Excel………………………………………… 112
Accessing Excel Templates………………………………………………………. 112
Editing Excel Templates……………………………………………………………. 113
MAKING USE OF EXCEL BUILT-IN TEMPLATES …………………………. 113
viii

Changing Default Structure of Your Workbook with Excel Templates

…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 113
Reverting Workbooks to Default Structure ……………………………….. 113
CUSTOMIZING YOUR WORKBOOK TEMPLATES……………………….. 113
Designing Your Excel Template………………………………………………… 113
Storing Your Created Templates………………………………………………. 115
Implementing Your Created Template in a Workbook ………………. 115
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
116

CHAPTER SEVEN ………………………………………………………………….. 117

PRINTING OPERATIONS IN YOUR WORKBOOK………………………. 117
CARRYING OUT SIMPLE PRINTING OPERATIONS……………………… 117
ADJUSTING HOW YOUR WORKBOOK IS VIEWED ……………………… 117
Default View ……………………………………………………………………………… 117
View Options from Page Layout Menu ……………………………………… 118
The Preview for Page Breaks……………………………………………………. 118
EDITING SETTINGS FOR PAGE SETUP……………………………………….. 119
Selecting a Printer ……………………………………………………………………. 119
Indicating Print Content ……………………………………………………………. 119
Changing Print Orientation for Pages ……………………………………….. 120
Indicating Size of Paper ……………………………………………………………. 121
Printing Numerous Copies of a File…………………………………………… 121
Editing Page Margins………………………………………………………………… 122
Printing Excel Titles ………………………………………………………………….. 122
Scaling Printing Output …………………………………………………………….. 123
Printing Gridlines………………………………………………………………………. 124
Printing Headings of Row and Columns ……………………………………. 124
USING HEADERS AND FOOTERS IN YOUR EXCEL FILE …………….. 126
Inserting Excel Defined Headers and Footers …………………………… 126
What Headers and Footers Contain ………………………………………….. 127
Additional Options in Headers and Footers ………………………………. 127
ADDITIONAL OPTIONS FOR PRINTING YOUR WORKBOOK ………. 130
Using Similar Page Setup Configurations in Multiple Worksheets130
Marking Off Cells during Printing ……………………………………………… 130
Marking Off Pictures during Printing…………………………………………. 130
Designing Customized Views for Your Worksheets ………………….. 132
Saving Your Workbook as a PDF File ……………………………………….. 132
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
133

CHAPTER EIGHT …………………………………………………………………… 134

REDESIGNING THE USER INTERFACE IN EXCEL……………………… 134

REDESIGNING THE RIBBON MENU …………………………………………….. 134

CONFIGURATIONS NOT SUPPORTED IN THE RIBBON MENU …… 134
POSSIBLE CUSTOMIZATIONS IN THE RIBBON MENU……………….. 135
Adding Tabs……………………………………………………………………………… 135
Rearranging the Ribbon Tabs …………………………………………………… 136
Resetting the Ribbon to Default ………………………………………………… 137
Importing and Exporting Custom Ribbon Menu ………………………… 137
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
137
CHAPTER NINE……………………………………………………………………… 138
INTRODUCTION TO CHARTS IN EXCEL ………………………………….. 138
Format for Excel Charts ……………………………………………………………. 138
Embedded Charts …………………………………………………………………….. 138
Charts Sheets …………………………………………………………………………… 139
Creating Charts in Excel …………………………………………………………… 141
Interchanging Rows and Columns in Charts……………………………… 141
Changing Type of Charts………………………………………………………….. 142
Inserting Chart Layouts …………………………………………………………….. 142
Changing Chart Styles ……………………………………………………………… 142
Including and Removing Chart Elements ………………………………….. 143
Formatting Elements in a Chart ………………………………………………… 143
EDITING AND CONFIGURING CHARTS ………………………………………. 144
Resizing and Changing Chart Positions ……………………………………. 144
Copying Charts…………………………………………………………………………. 144
Deleting Charts…………………………………………………………………………. 144
Copying Formatting Rules Applied to a Chart …………………………… 145
Renaming Excel Charts…………………………………………………………….. 145
Printing Excel Charts ………………………………………………………………… 145

x TYPES OF CHARTS IN EXCEL …………………………………………………….. 146

Column Charts………………………………………………………………………….. 146
Bar Charts ………………………………………………………………………………… 147
Line Charts……………………………………………………………………………….. 148
Pie Charts…………………………………………………………………………………. 149
Area Charts………………………………………………………………………………. 151
Radar Charts…………………………………………………………………………….. 152
Surface Charts………………………………………………………………………….. 153
Stock Charts …………………………………………………………………………….. 154
OTHER TYPES OF CHARTS IN EXCEL ………………………………………… 155
Histogram…………………………………………………………………………………. 155
Pareto Charts……………………………………………………………………………. 156
Waterfall Charts………………………………………………………………………… 156
Box and Whisker Charts …………………………………………………………… 158
Sunburst Charts ……………………………………………………………………….. 159
Treemap Charts ……………………………………………………………………….. 160
Funnel Charts …………………………………………………………………………… 160
Map Charts……………………………………………………………………………….. 161
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
162
CHAPTER TEN ………………………………………………………………………. 163
CREATING EXCEL CHARTS WITH ADVANCED TECHNIQUES …… 163
CHOOSING CHART ELEMENTS………………………………………………….. 163
Controls of the Chart Elements…………………………………………………. 163
EDITING ELEMENTS IN A CHART………………………………………………… 164
Using the Format Menu…………………………………………………………….. 164
Using Customization Buttons of the Chart ………………………………… 164
Using the Ribbon Menu…………………………………………………………….. 165
Using the Mini Toolbar ……………………………………………………………… 165
CONFIGURING THE AREA OF A CHART……………………………………… 165
CONFIGURING THE PLOT AREA OF A CHART……………………………. 166
EXCEL CHART TITLES …………………………………………………………………
166
EXCEL CHART LEGENDS ……………………………………………………………. 168
GRIDLINES IN EXCEL CHARTS……………………………………………………. 169
FORMATTING EXCEL CHART AXIS …………………………………………….. 169

Editing the Value and Category Axis…………………………………………. 169

CHART DATA SERIES…………………………………………………………………..
172
Hiding or Removing a Data Series in Charts …………………………….. 172
Inserting Data Series in Charts …………………………………………………. 173
SWITCHING SERIES DATA………………………………………………………….. 173
Switching Data Range by Moving the Range Outline………………… 173
SHOWING LABELS OF DATA IN CHARTS …………………………………… 174
MANAGING LOST DATA IN EXCEL CHARTS ………………………………. 175
ADDING ERROR BARS AND TRENDLINES IN EXCEL CHARTS …… 176
DESIGNING COMBINATION CHARTS …………………………………………. 178
SHOWING TABLES OF DATA ……………………………………………………… 180
DESIGNING TEMPLATES FOR EXCEL CHARTS………………………….. 181
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
182

CHAPTER ELEVEN…………………………………………………………………. 183

USING SPARKLINES IN EXCEL……………………………………………….. 183

TYPES OF SPARKLINE…………………………………………………………………
183
HOW TO CREATE SPARKLINES………………………………………………….. 184
CONFIGURING EXCEL SPARKLINES ………………………………………….. 185
Adjusting Size of Sparklines……………………………………………………… 185
Managing Missing Data in Sparklines ……………………………………….. 185
Switching Sparkline Style …………………………………………………………. 186
Switching Sparkline Type …………………………………………………………. 186
Customizing Color and Weight of Sparklines ……………………………. 187
Adding Markers to Sparklines…………………………………………………… 187
Configuring the Sparkline Axis …………………………………………………. 188
Faking a Line of Reference in Sparklines………………………………….. 188
Grouping and Un-grouping Sparklines……………………………………… 189
Removing Sparklines………………………………………………………………… 189
INDICATING DATE AXIS IN SPARKLINES ……………………………………. 190
SETTING SPARKLINES TO AUTO-UPDATE ………………………………… 190
SETTING RANGES THAT ARE DYNAMIC IN SPARKLINES ………….. 190
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
191

CHAPTER TWELVE………………………………………………………………… 192

xii
DATA ANALYSIS USING CUSTOMIZED SHAPES AND NUMBER FORMATS
…………………………………………………………………………….. 192
NUMBER FORMATTING IN EXCEL………………………………………………. 192
Using Keyboard Shortcut Keys…………………………………………………. 192
ADDITIONAL FORMATTING IN CUSTOM NUMBERS ………………….. 194
Configuring Numbers in Millions and Thousands ……………………… 194
Removing and Hiding Zeros ……………………………………………………… 194
Applying Colors to Custom Numbers ……………………………………….. 195
Formatting Excel Date and Time ………………………………………………. 196
INSERTING SYMBOLS IN DATA ………………………………………………….. 196
INSERTING ICONS AND SHAPES FOR DATA GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
……………………………………………………………………… 197
Inserting Shapes in Your Data ………………………………………………….. 197
Adding Graphics for SVG Icons………………………………………………… 198
Editing Excel Icons and Shapes………………………………………………… 198
IMPROVING REPORTS IN EXCEL USING SHAPES ……………………… 199
Designing Shapes with Containers …………………………………………… 199
Layering and Grouping Shapes for Space Management ………….. 200
Selecting the shape ………………………………………………………………….. 200
Designing Custom Infographics Using Shapes …………………………. 200
DESIGNING DYNAMIC CUSTOM LABELS IN EXCEL…………………… 206
DESIGNING PICTURE LINKS ……………………………………………………….. 207
INSERTING WORDART AND SMARTART ……………………………………. 208
Basics of SmartArt ……………………………………………………………………. 208
Basics of WordArt …………………………………………………………………….. 209
USING ADDITIONAL TYPES OF GRAPHICS IN YOUR WORKSHEET
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….. 211
Excel Graphic Files …………………………………………………………………… 211
Adding Screenshots …………………………………………………………………. 211
SHOWING THE BACKGROUND IMAGE OF YOUR WORKSHEET … 212
IMPLEMENTING THE EDITOR DIALOGUE BOX FOR EQUATIONS 212
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
213
CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………………………..
215
BOOK 2: ……………………………………………………………………………….. 216
xiii
EXCEL …………………………………………………………………………………..
216
FORMULAS & FUNCTIONS…………………………………………………….. 216
INTRODUCTION TO EXCEL FUNCTIONS AND FORMULAS ………. 217
CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………. 221
THE EXCEL FORMULA BAR……………………………………………………. 221

I NCREASING THE SIZE OF THE FORMULA BAR………………………………………. 221

GETTING FAMILIAR WITH EXCEL FUNCTIONS AND FORMULAS . 223
Basics of Formulas in Excel………………………………………………………. 223

PRECEDENCE OF OPERATORS IN EXCEL FORMULAS …………………………….. 225

ADDING FUNCTIONS TO FORMULAS ………………………………………… 226

Sample Formulas that Implements Functions …………………………… 226
COMMON EXCEL FUNCTIONS……………………………………………………………. 226
STRING OR TEXT FUNCTIONS……………………………………………………………. 227
ARGUMENTS IN FUNCTIONS………………………………………………………………. 229
HOW TO INSERT FORMULAS IN WORKSHEETS ………………………… 229
INSERTING FORMULAS BY POINTING…………………………………………………… 229
INSERTING NAME OF RANGES IN FORMULAS……………………………………….. 230
ADDING FUNCTIONS TO FORMULAS …………………………………………………… 231

POINTERS FOR INSERTING EXCEL FUNCTIONS……………………………………… 232

CHANGING FORMULAS IN EXCEL ……………………………………………… 232

REFERENCING CELLS IN FORMULAS ………………………………………… 233
Relative Cell Referencing………………………………………………………….. 233
Absolute Cell Referencing ………………………………………………………… 233
Mixed Cell Referencing …………………………………………………………….. 233
Switching between Reference Types ……………………………………….. 233
REFERENCING CELLS IN OTHER WORKSHEETS…………………………………….. 233
REFERENCING CELLS IN OTHER WORKBOOKS……………………………………… 234

[NAME_OF_WORKBOOK]NAME_OF_WORKSHEET!CELL_ADDRESS…………. 234

IMPLEMENTING FORMULAS IN EXCEL TABLES ………………………… 234

Summarizing Table Data…………………………………………………………… 234
IMPLEMENTING FORMULAS IN TABLES………………………………………………… 234
RECTIFYING ERRORS IN FORMULAS …………………………………………. 236
Rectifying Circular References …………………………………………………. 236

CALCULATIONS NOT OCCURRING IN A FORMULA…………………………………. 236

IMPLEMENTING COMPLEX TECHNIQUES FOR NAMING …………… 237

Implementing Constant Names…………………………………………………. 237
IMPLEMENTING FORMULA NAMES………………………………………………………. 238
IMPLEMENTING INTERSECTION IN RANGES…………………………………………… 238
ADDING NAMES TO REFERENCES………………………………………………………. 238
USING FORMULAS ………………………………………………………………………
239
Preventing Hard-coding of Values…………………………………………….. 239

MAKING USE OF THE FORMULA BAR AS A CALCULATOR……………………….. 239

D UPLICATING EXCEL FORMULAS……………………………………………………….. 239

CHANGING FORMULAS TO THEIR RESULTS …………………………………………. 239
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
239

CHAPTER TWO……………………………………………………………………… 241

APPLYING FORMULAS IN REGULAR MATHEMATICAL
OPERATIONS………………………………………………………………………… 241

PERCENTAGE CALCULATIONS………………………………………………….. 241

GOAL PERCENTAGE CALCULATIONS………………………………………………….. 241
GOAL PERCENT = RESULT / GOAL…………………………………………………….. 241
GOAL PERCENT = 9000 / 10000………………………………………………………. 241
VARIANCE PERCENTAGE CALCULATIONS ……………………………………………. 241

VARIANCE PERCENT = (RECENT DATA REFERENCE DATA) / REFERENCE DATA

………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….. 242
FINDING VARIANCE PERCENT USING NEGATIVE DATA…………………………… 242
DISTRIBUTION PERCENT CALCULATIONS…………………………………………….. 242 RUNNING TOTAL
CALCULATIONS………………………………………………………. 242
INCLUDING INCREASE OR DECREASE IN PERCENTAGE TO EXCEL VALUES… 243

R ECTIFYING ERRORS OF DIVISION BY ZERO…………………………………………. 243

ROUNDING NUMBERS…………………………………………………………………
244
ROUNDING TO CLOSEST PENNY………………………………………………………… 245
ROUNDING TO CLOSEST WHOLE NUMBERS………………………………………… 245
CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF VALUES IN A CELL RANGE……. 245
IMPLEMENTING THE FUNCTIONS FOR CONVERSION IN EXCEL . 246
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
246
xv
CHAPTER THREE…………………………………………………………………… 247
MANIPULATING EXCEL TEXTS WITH FORMULAS …………………… 247

FUNCTIONS FOR TEXTS IN EXCEL …………………………………………….. 247

FUNCTION TO COMBINE STRINGS OF TEXT…………………………………………. 247
SWITCHING TEXTS TO SENTENCE CASES……………………………………………. 247
DELETING EXCESS SPACES IN STRINGS OF TEXT…………………………………. 248
DISCOVERING PARTS OF A STRING OF TEXTS ……………………………………… 249

E XTRACTING TEXTS BEFORE AND AFTER PARTICULAR CHARACTERS………. 251

SEARCHING FOR SPECIFIC TEXT CHARACTERS IN A STRING…………………… 252
SEARCHING FOR SECOND OCCURRENCE OF SPECIFIC TEXT CHARACTERS IN A

STRING…………………………………………………………………………………………..
252 REPLACING CONTENT OF TEXTS……………………………………………………….. 252
CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF TIMES A CHARACTER APPEARS IN A TEXT . 253
STARTING LINES OF FORMULAS ON NEW LINES…………………………………… 253
ERASING UNWANTED CHARACTERS FROM FIELDS FOR TEXT …………………. 254
FORMATTING NUMBERS BY ADDING ZEROS ………………………………………… 254
FORMATTING NUMERIC VALUES IN STRINGS OF TEXT…………………………… 255
APPLYING THE DOLLAR FUNCTION ………………………………………………….. 255 SUMMARY
……………………………………………………………………………………… 256
CHAPTER FOUR ……………………………………………………………………. 257
APPLYING FORMULAS FOR DATES AND TIME ……………………….. 257

S ERIAL NUMBERS FOR DATES…………………………………………………………… 257

INSERTING DATES IN YOUR WORKSHEET…………………………………………….. 257
SERIAL NUMBERS FOR TIME……………………………………………………………… 257
INSERTING TIME IN YOUR WORKSHEET……………………………………………….. 257
CONFIGURING EXCEL TIME AND DATES………………………………………………. 257
EXCEL DATE ISSUES………………………………………………………………………… 258
The Leap Year Loophole ………………………………………………………….. 258
THE DATES BEFORE 1900………………………………………………………………… 258
IRREGULAR ENTRIES FOR EXCEL DATES……………………………………………… 258
IMPLEMENTING THE FUNCTIONS FOR TIME AND DATE IN EXCEL
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….. 261
Dealing with Age ………………………………………………………………………. 261

D EALING WITH DAYS NUMBER BETWEEN DATES…………………………………… 261

THE NETWORKDAYS.INTL FUNCTION……………………………………………. 262
GENERATING DATE PARTS……………………………………………………………….. 263

D ERIVING NUMBER OF MONTHS AND YEARS BETWEEN RANGES OF DATE… 263

CHANGING DATES TO THE FORMAT FOR JULIAN DATES………………………… 264
CALCULATING THE PERCENTAGE OF YEAR REMAINING AND PERCENTAGE USED

………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….. 264 DERIVING THE LAST DAY OF A SPECIFIC MONTH………………………………….. 264

D EALING WITH QUARTERS FOR A CALENDAR FOR DATES………………………. 265

DEALING WITH FISCAL QUARTERS FOR A CALENDAR FOR DATES……………. 265
DEALING WITH FISCAL MONTHS FOR A CALENDAR FOR DATES………………. 266
DEALING WITH THE NTH DATE OF THE WEEKDAY OF A MONTH ………………. 267
DEALING WITH THE LAST DATE OF THE WEEKDAY OF A MONTH……………… 267

DEALING WITH ELAPSED TIME …………………………………………………………… 268

ROUNDING VALUES OF TIME …………………………………………………………….. 268
CHANGING DECIMAL MINUTES, HOURS, OR SECONDS TO REGULAR TIME.. 269 ADDING SECONDS, MINUTES, AND
HOURS TO TIME……………………………… 269

S UMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
270
CHAPTER FIVE ……………………………………………………………………… 271

IMPLEMENTING FORMULAS WHEN DEALING WITH CONDITIONAL

ANALYSIS …………………………………………………………………………….. 271
WHAT IS CONDITIONAL ANALYSIS?……………………………………………………. 271
ASCERTAINING FOR SINGLE CONDITIONS SATISFACTION………………………. 271 ASCERTAINING FOR MULTIPLE
CONDITIONS SATISFACTION…………………… 271

C ONFIRMING CONDITIONAL DATA……………………………………………………… 272

CARRYING OUT CONDITIONAL MATHEMATICAL CALCULATIONS
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….. 279
Adding Up Values Satisfying a Single Specified Condition ……….. 279

ADDING UP VALUES SATISFYING MULTIPLE SPECIFIED CONDITIONS………. 279

T HE SUMIFS FUNCTION………………………………………………………………….. 280

AGGREGATING NUMBER OF VALUES MEETING SPECIFIED SINGLE AND
MULTIPLE CONDITIONS …………………………………………………….. 280

CHECKING FOR CHARACTERS THAT ARE NON-STANDARD……………………… 280

xvii AGGREGATING THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF VALUES MEETING SPECIFIED

SINGLE AND MULTIPLE CONDITIONS……………………… 281 SUMMARY
……………………………………………………………………………………… 282

CHAPTER SIX ……………………………………………………………………….. 283

IMPLEMENTING FORMULAS FOR LOOKUPS AND MATCHING…. 283

AN INTRODUCTION TO FORMULAS IN EXCEL LOOKUP……………. 283

IMPLEMENTING THE FUNCTIONS IN EXCEL LOOKUP ………………. 284
HANDLING ERRORS RESULTING FROM EXCEL LOOKUP………….. 285
SEARCHING FOR THE CLOSEST RESULT FROM A GROUP OF VALUES
………………………………………………………………………………………. 286
USING SUMPRODUCT FUNCTION TO GIVE TEXT RESULTS……… 289
LOOKING UP A CONCLUDING COLUMN’S VALUE………………………………….. 289
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
291

CHAPTER SEVEN ………………………………………………………………….. 292

HANDLING FINANCIAL ANALYSIS WITH EXCEL FORMULAS …… 292
EXECUTING TRADITIONAL FINANCIAL CALCULATIONS…………………………… 292

M ARKUP = (PRICE OF GOODS COST) ÷ COST…………………………………… 294

GENERATING EBITDA AND EBIT…………………………………………………. 294
GENERATING THE COST OF SOLD GOODS ………………………………. 295
GENERATING ASSETS RETURN …………………………………………………. 295
GENERATING EQUITY RETURNS………………………………………………… 295
GENERATING BREAK EVEN …………………………………………………………
296
VARIATIONS OF BREAK-EVEN CALCULATION ………………………….. 296

BREAK-EVEN FOR SALES = FIXED EXPENSES ÷ CONTRIBUTION RATIO……. 296

USING GOAL SEEK FOR BREAK-EVEN……………………………………….. 296
PROFIT OR GAIN = REVENUE VARIABLE EXPENSES - FIXED EXPENSES
…… 297
GENERATING CUSTOMER CHURN …………………………………………….. 297
GENERATING ANNUAL RATE OF CHURN …………………………………… 298
GENERATING THE AVERAGE VALUE OF A CUSTOMER LIFETIME298
GENERATING TURNOVER OF EMPLOYEES ……………………………….. 298
IMPLEMENTING FUNCTIONS FOR FINANCIAL OPERATIONS IN EXCEL
…………………………………………………………………………………………. 298

xviii DESIGNING A CALCULATOR FOR LOAN REPAYMENT………………. 299

Generating a Schedule for Loan Amortization ………………………….. 299
COMPUTING DEPRECIATION……………………………………………………… 305
Computing Accelerated Depreciation……………………………………….. 305
COMPUTING CURRENT VALUES………………………………………………… 306
Computing the Current Value of Future Payments……………………. 306
COMPUTING NET CURRENT VALUE…………………………………………… 306
Computing Negative and Positive Flow of Cash ……………………….. 306
COMPUTING INTERNAL RETURN RATE……………………………………… 306
Computing Non-periodic Future Flow of Cash ………………………….. 306
CARRYING OUT FINANCIAL FORECAST…………………………………….. 307
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
309

CHAPTER EIGHT …………………………………………………………………… 310

HANDLING WEIGHTED AVERAGES ………………………………………… 310
ADDING MOVING AVERAGES TO YOUR DATA………………………………………. 310

NAVIGATE TO THE DATA MENU AND SELECT THE OPTION FOR ANALYSING DATA
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….. 310 CREATING DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS USING FORMULAS ……….. 311
COMPUTING THE KTH SMALLEST AND LARGEST VALUE………………………… 314
DIVIDING DATA INTO PERCENTILES…………………………………………………….. 315
RECOGNIZING INTERQUARTILE RANGES IN STATISTICAL OUTLIERS…………. 315
GENERATING A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION…………………………….. 318
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
319 CHAPTER NINE………………………………………………………………………
320 IMPLEMENTING FORMULAS IN TABLES AND CONDITIONAL
FORMATTING ……………………………………………………………………….. 320

SELECTING CELLS SATISFYING INDICATED CRITERIA …………….. 320

HIGHLIGHTING DATA EXISTING IN LIST 1 BUT ABSENT IN LIST 2 321
HIGHLIGHTING SIMILAR VALUES IN LIST 1 AND LIST 2 …………….. 322
HIGHLIGHTING VALUES DEPENDING ON THE DATE …………………. 323
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
325
CHAPTER TEN ………………………………………………………………………. 326
GETTING FAMILIAR WITH THE USE OF ARRAY FORMULAS…….. 326
ARRAY FORMULAS ……………………………………………………………………..
326
CREATING ARRAY CONSTANTS ………………………………………………… 328
ARRAY DIMENSIONS …………………………………………………………………..
329
ASSIGNING NAMES OF ARRAY CONSTANTS ……………………………. 331
DEALING WITH FORMULAS FOR ARRAYS …………………………………. 332
Entering Formulas for Arrays ……………………………………………………. 332
HIGHLIGHTING RANGES OF FORMULAS FOR ARRAYS ……………………………. 332
MAKING CHANGES TO FORMULAS FOR ARRAYS…………………………………… 332
ADDING OR REMOVING FROM A MULTI-CELL ARRAY……………………………… 333

T :…………………………………………………. 333
O REMOVE CELLS FROM THE ARRAY

DELETING FORMULAS FOR ARRAYS……………………………………………………. 334

IMPLEMENTING FORMULAS FOR MULTICELL ARRAYS ……………. 334
Generating Arrays from Range Values ……………………………………… 334

GENERATING ARRAY CONSTANTS FROM RANGE VALUES………………………. 335

I MPLEMENTING FUNCTIONS WITH ARRAYS…………………………………………… 335

CREATING AN ARRAY OF SERIAL INTEGER…………………………………………… 335
IMPLEMENTING FORMULAS FOR SINGLE-CELL ARRAYS…………. 336
Determining Number of Characters in a Range ………………………… 336

GETTING THE SUMMATION OF THE THREE LOWEST VALUES IN AN ARRAY… 336 CALCULATING NUMBER OF CELLS
CONTAINING TEXT IN A RANGE………….. 337
REMOVING INTERMEDIATE FORMULAS………………………………………………… 337
IMPLEMENTING ARRAYS IN PLACE OF CELL REFERENCES………………………. 339

S UMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
339
CHAPTER ELEVEN…………………………………………………………………. 340
CREATING ERROR-FREE FORMULAS …………………………………….. 340

LOCATING AND RECTIFYING ERRORS IN YOUR FORMULAS ……. 340

INCOMPLETE PARENTHESES……………………………………………………………… 340
CELLS CONTAINING HASH MARKS…………………………………………………….. 340
CLEARING BLANK CELLS THAT HOLD VALUES …………………………………….. 341
CHARACTERS HAVING EXCESS SPACES……………………………………………… 343

HIGHLIGHTING CELL CONTAINING EXCESS SPACES IN ITS CHARACTERS…. 344

SOLVING FORMULAS GIVING AN ERROR……………………………………………… 344
xx ERRORS OF #DIV/0!…………………………………………………………………………
344
ERRORS OF #N/A……………………………………………………………………………. 345
ERRORS OF #NAME? ……………………………………………………………………… 346
ERRORS OF #NULL! ……………………………………………………………………….. 346
ERRORS OF #NUM! ………………………………………………………………………… 347
ERRORS OF #REF! ………………………………………………………………………….. 347
ERRORS OF #VALUE!……………………………………………………………………… 348

PROBLEMS WITH PRECEDENCE OF OPERATORS…………………………………… 349 SOLVING ISSUE OF

FORMULAS NOT PERFORMING CALCULATIONS…………. 350

T HE PRECISION OF DECIMAL ISSUES………………………………………………….. 352

SOLVING ERRORS OF PHANTOM LINKS………………………………………………. 354
IMPLEMENTING TOOLS FOR AUDITING IN EXCEL …………………….. 356
Highlighting Cells of Particular Features …………………………………… 356
VIEWING YOUR FORMULAS……………………………………………………………….. 359
IDENTIFYING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CELLS………………………. 360
Recognizing Precedents …………………………………………………………… 360
RECOGNIZING DEPENDENTS……………………………………………………………… 361
TRACKING ERROR VALUES………………………………………………………… 362
EVALUATING FORMULAS ………………………………………………………………….. 364

USING THE EXCEL BACKGROUND FEATURE FOR CHECKING ERRORS………. 366

FINDING AND REPLACING CELL VALUES ………………………………….. 368

FINDING INFORMATION…………………………………………………………………….. 368
FORMAT SEARCH……………………………………………………………………………. 368

PERFORMING SPELL CHECKS IN YOUR WORKSHEET…………………………….. 371

IMPLEMENTING AUTOCORRECT IN YOUR WORKSHEET ………….. 371

SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
374
CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………………………….
375
BOOK 3: EXCEL…………………………………………………………………….. 376
PIVOT TABLES & DASHBOARDS ……………………………………………. 376
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………. 377
CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………. 378
GETTING FAMILIAR WITH EXCEL PIVOT TABLES ……………………. 378
HOW TO CREATE PIVOT TABLES……………………………………………….. 378

PERFORMING BASIC OPERATIONS IN YOUR PIVOT TABLES……………………. 382

COMPONENTS OF PIVOT TABLES …………………………………………….. 384
SUMMARY
……………………………………………………………………………………… 386
CHAPTER TWO……………………………………………………………………… 387
DESIGNING SIMPLE PIVOT TABLES WITH CHARTS ………………… 387

FIELD SETTINGS FOR NUMBER SUMMARY……………………………….. 387

THE SUM SUMMARY FUNCTION ………………………………………………………… 388
THE COUNT SUMMARY FUNCTION…………………………………………………….. 390
THE AVERAGE SUMMARY FUNCTION………………………………………………….. 391
THE MAX SUMMARY OPTION ……………………………………………………………. 393
THE MIN SUMMARY FUNCTION………………………………………………………….. 394
THE PRODUCT SUMMARY FUNCTION …………………………………………………. 394
THE COUNT NUMBERS SUMMARY FUNCTION………………………………………. 395

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COUNT NUMBERS AND COUNT………………………….. 395

T HE STDDEV AND STDDEVP SUMMARY FUNCTION………………………………. 396

THE VAR AND VARP SUMMARY FUNCTION………………………………………….. 397
DRILLING DOWN DATA IN PIVOT TABLES………………………………….. 398
DRILLING UP DATA IN PIVOT TABLES………………………………………… 400
INCLUDING MORE ROWS OR CATEGORIES IN YOUR PIVOT TABLES
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….. 401
EXPANDING AND COLLAPSING A PIVOT TABLE HEADING……….. 402
ADDING BASIC CHARTS TO YOUR PIVOT TABLES……………………. 402
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
404

CHAPTER THREE…………………………………………………………………… 405

CONFIGURING PIVOT TABLES TO DISPLAY PERCENTAGES……. 405
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
418
CHAPTER FOUR ……………………………………………………………………. 419
CONFIGURING PIVOT TABLES TO DISPLAY AVERAGES …………. 419

CREATING MULTIPLE FIELDS IN THE FILTERS AREA…………………. 425

UPDATING PIVOT TABLES………………………………………………………….. 426

xxii CHANGING YOUR SOURCE DATA ………………………………………………

427
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
432

CHAPTER FIVE ……………………………………………………………………… 433

EXCEL PIVOT TABLE SLICERS AND COMPLEX FILTERING………. 433
CONNECTING SLICERS TO ANOTHER PIVOT TABLE……………………………….. 437 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
SLICERS AND FILTERS……………………………………. 439

CREATING PIVOT CHARTS THAT ARE DYNAMIC WITH SLICERS. 439

TIMELINE SLICERS ………………………………………………………………………
441
HIDING AND SHOWING TIMELINES OR SLICERS…………………………………….. 443

CHANGING THE CAPTION FOR TIMELINES OR SLICERS………………………….. 444

ADVANCED FILTERING OF PIVOT TABLES ………………………………… 444

ADVANCED FILTERING EXAMPLE………………………………………………………… 444
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
446

CHAPTER SIX ……………………………………………………………………….. 447

GETTING FAMILIAR WITH DASHBOARDS ………………………………. 447

C REATING DASHBOARDS IN EXCEL ……………………………………………………. 447

ACQUIRING DATA FOR EXCEL DASHBOARDS……………………………………….. 447
STRUCTURING YOUR DASHBOARDS…………………………………………………… 448

NOTABLE FUNCTIONS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN CREATING DASHBOARDS 448 INTERACTIVE AND DYNAMIC TOOLS FOR
DASHBOARDS………………………… 449

T IPS FOR CREATING DASHBOARDS……………………………………………………. 449

ADDING NUMEROUS PIVOT TABLES TO YOUR WORKSHEET…… 449
FORMATTING OPERATIONS ON DASHBOARDS ……………………….. 454
THE TOP OR BOTTOM RULES……………………………………………………………. 456
INSERTING CHARTS IN YOUR DASHBOARDS……………………………. 460
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
461

CHAPTER SEVEN ………………………………………………………………….. 462

INSERTING PERFORMANCE SYMBOLS AND SLICERS TO
DASHBOARDS………………………………………………………………………. 462
SLICERS
……………………………………………………………………………………… 462
CHANGING THE COLOR OF SLICERS…………………………………………………… 463

xxiii ADDING MULTIPLE COLUMNS TO SLICER PANE……………………………………. 464

REMOVING HEADINGS FOR SLICERS…………………………………………………… 465

CUSTOMIZING HOW ITEMS ARE ARRANGED IN THE SLICER PANE…………….. 466 REMOVING ITEMS WITH EMPTY
DATA FROM THE SLICER PANE……………….. 467

ADDING SYMBOLS FOR PERFORMANCE TO YOUR DASHBOARDS

………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….. 468
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
470

CHAPTER EIGHT …………………………………………………………………… 471

REFRESHING YOUR PIVOT TABLES AND DASHBOARD DATA …. 471
REFRESHING FROM THE QUICK MENU ………………………………………………… 471
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
474 CHAPTER NINE………………………………………………………………………
475 SECURING YOUR DASHBOARD DATA ……………………………………. 475
HIDING THE SOURCE DATA OF YOUR PIVOT TABLES…………………………….. 475

PROTECTING EXCEL DASHBOARDS AND WORKSHEETS ………… 476

SEPARATING SOURCES OF DATA ………………………………………………………. 477
CREATING STATIC PIVOT TABLES ……………………………………………………… 477
HIDING ITEMS IN EXCEL PIVOT TABLES…………………………………….. 478
SHOWING SELECTED ITEMS IN EXCEL PIVOT TABLES …………….. 479
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
480

CHAPTER TEN ………………………………………………………………………. 481

PUTTING PIVOT TABLE DATA IN GROUPS ……………………………… 481
AUTOMATIC GROUPING OF DATES IN EXCEL …………………………… 481

DISABLING THE AUTOMATIC GROUPING FOR DATE FEATURE IN EXCEL 2016

AND RECENT VERSIONS……………………………………………………………………. 481

UNDOING AUTOMATIC GROUPING FOR DATES IN ALL VERSIONS OF EXCEL
……………………………………………………………………………………. 482
USING KEYBOARD SHORTCUT KEYS ………………………………………………….. 482
USING THE UNGROUP OPTION ………………………………………………………….. 482
PUTTING DATE RECORDS IN GROUPS………………………………………. 482
PUTTING DATE RECORDS IN WEEK GROUPS……………………………………….. 484

CHANGING THE STARTING AND ENDING DATE OF EXCEL DATE GROUPS …. 485

PUTTING TEXT DATA INTO GROUPS …………………………………………. 487

PUTTING MULTI-SELECTED DATA IN A GROUP……………………………………… 489
ASSIGNING NAMES TO GROUPS………………………………………………………… 490
DISBANDING DATA IN A GROUP…………………………………………………………. 490
POSSIBLE ISSUES WITH DATA GROUPING ……………………………….. 490
THE COUNT SUMMARY FUNCTION FOR GROUPING DATA IN PIVOT
TABLES………………………………………………………………………………………
.. 492
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
493

CHAPTER ELEVEN…………………………………………………………………. 494

CREATING CALCULATED FIELDS IN YOUR PIVOT TABLES ……… 494

C ALCULATED FIELDS VS CALCULATED ITEMS………………………………………. 494

INSERTING SIMPLE CALCULATED ITEMS ……………………………………………… 494
INSERTING SIMPLE CALCULATED FIELDS…………………………………………….. 497
LISTING ALL FORMULAS IN A PIVOT TABLE ……………………………… 499
DELETING AND MODIFYING CALCULATED FIELDS AND ITEMS .. 500
EDITING HOW FORMULA ERROR MESSAGES ARE DISPLAYED… 502

CONFIGURING HOW ERRORS OF BLANK CELLS ARE DISPLAYED…………….. 504

H IDING BLANK CELLS IN PIVOT TABLES……………………………………………… 505

ADDING LOGIC FIELDS TO YOUR PIVOT TABLES ……………………… 506
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
507

CHAPTER TWELVE………………………………………………………………… 508

USING EXTERNAL FILES FOR CREATING PIVOT TABLES ………… 508
IMPORTING DATA FROM A SEPARATE EXCEL WORKBOOK……………………… 508
CREATING PIVOT TABLES FROM NUMEROUS DATA SOURCES OR
WORKBOOKS………………………………………………………………………………
518
POINTS TO NOTE WHEN CREATING PIVOT TABLES FROM MULTIPLE FILE
SOURCES……………………………………………………………………………………….
524 SUMMARY
……………………………………………………………………………………… 524
CHAPTER THIRTEEN……………………………………………………………… 526
RECTIFYING DUPLICATE VALUE ENTRIES IN EXCEL PIVOT TABLES
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
526

xxv RECTIFYING DUPLICATE DATA FROM THE DATA SOURCE………………………. 528

LOCATING AND RECTIFYING DUPLICATE DATA USING THE LEN FUNCTION. 530
LOCATING AND RECTIFYING DUPLICATE DATA USING THE TRIM FUNCTION532
RECTIFYING DUPLICATE DATA USING THE OPTION FOR REMOVING

DUPLICATES……………………………………………………………………………………
533
USING THE COUNTIF FUNCTION FOR LOCATING CELLS WITH DUPLICATE
DATA……………………………………………………………………………………………
.. 534 SUMMARY
……………………………………………………………………………………… 535
CHAPTER FOURTEEN ……………………………………………………………. 536
TROUBLESHOOTING AND RESOLVING COMMON ERRORS IN PIVOT
TABLES ……………………………………………………………………… 536
TROUBLESHOOTING FIELD NAME ERRORS ………………………………………….. 536
TROUBLESHOOTING OVERLAPPING ISSUES…………………………………………. 537

T ROUBLESHOOTING DUPLICATE TEXT ENTRIES IN PIVOT TABLES…………… 538

TROUBLESHOOTING REFRESHING ERRORS IN PIVOT TABLES…………………. 539
TROUBLESHOOTING REFRESH ACTIONS DISRUPTING THE PIVOTTABLE LAYOUT
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….. 540

T ROUBLESHOOTING PIVOT TABLES NOT DISPLAYING DATA…………………… 541

TROUBLESHOOTING THE SUM OF VALUES MALFUNCTION……………………… 542
AUTOMATICALLY REFRESHING EXCEL PIVOT TABLES AFTER A SET TIME…. 542

S UMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………
544
CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………….. 545
INDEX
………………………………………………………………………………………….. 546

INTRODUCTION
Microsoft Excel is a data analysis and representation application for
fabricating a large number of data, expenditure and income,
predictions, and many accounting-related activities. The application
can be used in areas such as accounting, finance, and calculation
operations. Excel comes with an interesting User Interface; graphics
and it is also widely popular.
Microsoft Excel 2022 also comes with interesting features and new
options that make data entry, analysis, representation, and
visualization easy and comprehensive. With charts, shapes, icons,
and various formatting options made available, Excel can be used to
customize your data to whichever format is desired and suitable for
your use.
xxvii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT EXCEL
GETTING FAMILIAR WITH THE FUNCTIONS OF EXCEL
Microsoft Excel particularly finds application in accounting, finance,
and calculation operations. The majority of companies tailor and
fabricate a large number of their expenditure and income,
predictions, and all accounting-related activities on Excel
worksheets.
Although Excel is said to be a management house for data, however,
the type of data most usually and frequently controlled in Excel is
financial data. Other numerous software applications exist that can
also perform basic and financial operations as Excel. An advantage
Microsoft Excel has over its rivalries is its interesting User Interface,
graphics, and yes, its popularity.
Additional functions and applications of Excel are:
• Data entry
• Management of data
• Accounting
• Financial analysis
• Design of charts and graphs
• Programming
• Designing time management schemes
• Designing task management schedules
• Financial documentation
Microsoft Excel can be used on any form of data that needs to be
processed and organized.
RECENT UPGRADES IN MICROSOFT EXCEL 2022 Joint
Spreadsheet Editing

Multiple employees can work on a worksheet or spreadsheet

simultaneously. This feature is known as Co-authoring. The
coauthoring process makes joint editing easy and quick.
The co-authoring feature also comes with the recognition of who
works with you and effects changes in a worksheet.
Easy Navigation
Excel introduces XLOOKUP which facilitates easy navigation
through rows, columns, and tables.
The LET Function
This function allows the assignment of names of results from
calculations. It helps to save values and defines formulas in
calculations.
Excel also introduces the feature of having a resulting array from the
input of a formula. This feature is called Dynamic Array.
Quick Search
Excel 2022 helps make searching and getting a quick result of a
particular data-position easier. With the XMATCH feature, including
this in formulas help users find exact positions of searched data.
Customized Viewing of Worksheets
Microsoft Excel now allows you to determine how worksheets are
viewed.
Enhanced Performance
Operation speed is now improved with the introduction of functions
such as SUMIF, COUNTIF, and AVERAGEIF. You can also now
unhide and hide multiple sheets at a go.
Workbook Summary

In cases of big data, Excel 2022 provides a tab called Workbook

Statistics which provides a summary of the entire data contained in
the workbook.
Excel files can also now be saved to OneDrive or SharePoint Online
as changes are being made to your data.
GETTING FAMILIAR WITH WORKSHEETS AND
WORKBOOKS
Worksheets in Excel are single pages of sheets or work areas
contained in a file known as workbooks. Workbooks however are
made up of a combination of multiple worksheets. Launching
Microsoft Excel opens a workbook that contains a minimum of three
worksheets.
Worksheets in Excel comprise of 1,048,576 rows, 16,384 columns
and 17,179,869,184 cells.
NAVIGATING AROUND A WORKSHEET AND THE EXCEL
RIBBON
Navigating a Worksheet Using a Keyboard
• Ctrl + W can be used to exit a workbook
• Ctrl + O is used to open an existing workbook
• Alt + H is for navigating to the Home tab
• Use Ctrl + S when saving a workbook
• Use Ctrl + C to copy data in cell(s)
• Ctrl + V can be used to paste copied data
• Use Ctrl + Z to undo actions
• Pressing the Delete key cleans up the data in a cell
• Use keys Alt + H to select a color to fill the desired cell
• Ctrl + X keys cut data snippets
• Alt + N keys are used to navigate to the tab for inserting additional
features
• Use Ctrl + B keys to write text or numbers on bold fonts
• Pressing keys Alt + A, then Alt + C edit input to be placed
centrally in cells
• Keys Alt + P are used to navigate to the layout option for pages
• Pressing keys Alt + A takes you to the Data pane
• Alt + W keys open the View pane
• Use keys Alt + H, then Alt + B to include borders in your cells
• Use key combination Alt + H + D + C when deleting columns
• Alt + M keys navigate to the Formula section
• Use Ctrl + 9 keys to hide a set of highlighted rows
• Use Ctrl + 0 keys to hide a set of highlighted columns
• Use Ctrl + Tab keys to navigate around current Excel workbooks.
• Use Ctrl + Page Down keys to navigate to subsequent worksheets
in a workbook.
• Use Ctrl + Page Up keys to navigate to preceding worksheets in a
workbook.
• The Ctrl + Arrow Keys can be used to control the cursor in all
possible directions
• The Ctrl + Home keys are for moving to the topmost cell on the
left of the worksheet.
• The Ctrl + End keys are for moving to the last cell used in the
worksheet.
• Keys Alt + Page Down helps navigate a full view in the right
direction of the worksheet.
• Keys Alt + Page Up helps navigate a full view in the left direction
of the worksheet.
Navigating a Worksheet Using a Mouse
The mouse can easily be used to highlight and move through cells as
desired. Every pane on the Ribbon can also be accessed with a
simple click of the mouse. The scrollbar can also be moved in all
directions either by clicking on the arrows present at the edges or by
simply dragging the scroll box itself.
MAKING USE OF THE RIBBON PANE
The ribbon pane in Microsoft Excel is an array of accessible menus
and icons that can be found on top of the Excel screen. It makes it
easier to locate, comprehend and make use of simple functions to
perform simple operations.
The Ribbon pane in Microsoft Excel is in four categories:
• The Ribbon Tabs: These are made up of numerous functions that
are further divided into groups known as the Ribbon groups.
• The Ribbon Group: This is made up of similarly related functions
that are implemented when carrying out bigger operations.
• The Dialog Launcher: This is a little arrow icon present at the
right-hand edge of the ribbon group. This arrow icon opens
additional related functions.
• The Command Button: This is the button to be clicked when
carrying out specific operations.

Contents of the Ribbon Pane

• File: The file tab makes it easy to access a menu that shows
necessary functions and options that can be used to manipulate files
and workbooks.
• Home: This tab house commands that are most commonly
implemented. Some of these commands include Copy, Paste, Sort,
Filter, Format, etc.
• Insert: Use the insert tab to include various images and objects in
your worksheet. These objects can be charts, equations, tables, links,
symbols, headers, footers, etc.
• Draw: The draw tab offers drawing tools that enable you to insert
self-drawn characters in your worksheet. The options in the draw tab
are however is dependent on the type of device being used.
• Page Layout: This menu helps you customize how your worksheet
looks when onscreen and in hardcopy. It also allows you to
configure settings such as themes, gridlines, margins, object
alignment, etc.
• Formulas: The formula tab makes it possible to input formulas,
specify names and decide how calculations are to be carried out.
• Data: This menu contains functions used for configuring
worksheet data and also for the inclusion of data from external
sources.
• Review: This menu makes it possible to cross-check spellings,
keep track of edits, include comments, and also safeguard
worksheets and files.
• View: This menu offers options for navigating around views in
worksheets, locking panes, and also helps determine how multiple
worksheets are displayed and arranged.
• Help: The help tab is a quick menu that provides you with easy
access to the Microsoft support page. It enables you to quickly
report errors and acquire needed tutorial videos.
• Developer: The developer tab first needs to be enabled by a user as
it is not visible by design in Microsoft Excel. This menu allows you
to implement the advanced programming language in Excel, which
is the VBA (Visual Basic for Applications) macros, the ActiveX,
Form configurations, and also XML functions.
• Add-ins: This menu is only visible when an older workbook is
opened, or an add-in that changes the view of the toolbars or menus
is loaded.
The Contextual Menu
The Contextual menu, also called the Tool Tabs, can only be made
visible and accessible when particular objects are selected. Example
of items that brings up the contextual menu includes tables, charts,
shapes, and picture. For instance, clicking on a chart automatically
brings up Design and Format options under a menu called Chart
Tools.

COMMAND TYPES PRESENT ON THE RIBBON MENU

• Commands that Executes in a Click
This command is a very common one in the Excel Ribbon. Clicking
on these commands initiates a corresponding action immediately
after they are clicked. For example, the Increase Font Size
command immediately initiates a font increase when clicked on.
• The Toggle Commands
The toggle commands in Excel Ribbon exist in dual states. The
command is developed such that a click on the Toggle command
changes the icon color to indicate that the command is currently
turned on. Another click on the command turns it off and removes
its effect. A good example is a Bold command.

• The Split Commands

The split commands are those buttons having a drop-down option in
the Excel Ribbon. Buttons with the split command feature are found
to possess a little down-arrow at their ends. A click on these buttons
themselves initiates default or previously selected commands, while
a click on the down-arrow displays additional options on the drop-
down menu. An example is the Underline command.
• The Drop-down Commands
These commands are those buttons having a drop-down arrow in the
Excel Ribbon. A click on the present down-arrow displays
additional options on the drop-down menu. An example is the
Conditional Formatting option.

• The Rich Menu Commands

These commands are also like the drop-down commands in Excel
Ribbon, but they give additional details concerning a menu or an
item. Further information helps to know better how these menus or
item operates. An example is the Freeze Panes option.
• The Gallery Drop-down Commands
In Excel Ribbon, these commands display more available functions
than the usual drop-down menus. Objects in a gallery drop-down
previews how the selection of one of the items would affect the
available data. Hovering your cursor over an option in the gallery
drop-down applies it on your open Worksheet without necessarily
selecting it. An example is the Cell Styles option.
• The Check Box Commands
The check box commands in Excel ribbons also exist in dual states
like the toggle commands. These commands are implemented for
configurations that are only available in either “ON” or “OFF”
options. An example is the Formula Bar option.
 IMPLEMENTING
SHORTCUT MENUS IN EXCEL

Shortcut panes display commands and settings that are mostly used
when working with a particular item in a worksheet. Note however
that these options depend on context, i.e. the object being
configured. The shortcut options that are displayed in these contexts
are also determined by the position of the cursor.
Shortcut options are not the total list of options or commands
available for items in Excel; therefore, some needed functions may
not be seen among the displayed options.
Shortcut menus can be accessed by right-clicking on your mouse
while the cursor is placed at specific positions. Keyboard keys Shift
+ F10 can also be used to bring the menu on display.
CONFIGURING THE QUICK ACCESS TOOLBAR

The Microsoft Excel Quick Access Toolbar is a configurable tab

housing a combination of settings that stand apart from the menus on
the ribbon. The position of the Quick Access Toolbar can be
changed; even buttons and commands can be added and removed.
To display or hide the Quick Access Toolbar:
• In the top left corner atop the ribbon, make a right-click to select to
either display or hide the toolbar.

To adjust the positioning of

the Quick Access Toolbar:
• Click on the option to configure the Quick Access Toolbar after
clicking on the related icon.
• From the subsequent menu, click on the tab to either display the
toolbar at the bottom or the top of the Ribbon.
To add commands to the Quick Access Toolbar:
• Select a desired command from the ribbon and make a right-click
on it to display an additional menu. Select the option to include the
command in the quick access toolbar.
• Also, if the desired command that you want to add to the quick
access toolbar is not available on the ribbon, select the option to
configure the Quick Access Toolbar after clicking on the related
icon.
• Click on the option to access more commands.
• Select the tab to choose commands not present on the ribbon from
the Choose commands from option
• Click on Add after locating the desired command.
To delete commands from the Quick Access Toolbar:
• Highlight the command to be deleted and make a rightclick on it.
Select the option to remove it from the toolbar from the pop-up
menu.
• To rearrange how commands are displayed on the Quick Access
Toolbar:
• Select the option to configure the Quick Access Toolbar after
clicking on the related icon.
• Highlight commands to be moved and choose either to move them
up or down.
To Revert the Quick Access Toolbar to default:
• Select the tab to reset to default and then click on the option to only
reset the toolbar.
USING DIALOGUE BOXES IN EXCEL There are two types of
dialogue boxes available in Excel, these are:
• Typical Dialogue Boxes: these dialogue boxes discontinue further
activities and actions on the worksheet unless the dialogue box is
dismissed.
• Modeless Dialogue Boxes: users can continue their activities on
worksheets when these dialogue boxes are open. An example of this
is the Find and Replace dialogue box.
Navigating through Dialog Boxes
Moving through dialogue boxes is as easy as it comes. Simply click
on necessary and desired commands to configure as you wish.
Implementing Tabbed Dialogue Boxes
Tabbed dialogue boxes are those which consist of multiple possible
setups grouped in tabs. Simultaneous editing of various aspects of an
item is made possible with tabbed dialogue boxes. Clicking on the
OK button after all configurations affects immediate changes.
WORKING WITH TASK PANES
Making use of some commands or inserting particular items in a
worksheet immediately launches a task pane for the specific
command. Working with pictures or images for example launches
the task pane to immediately format the picture. Clicking on the
close button on task panes after using them removes them from the
display.
BUILDING YOUR WORKBOOKS IN MICROSOFT EXCEL
Acquiring your first workbook in Microsoft Excel is a very easy
task; you only need to follow these steps:
• Double click on the Excel icon on your computer to launch the
application
• Click on the option to create a blank workbook or press Ctrl + N
keys
To use a workbook from a predefined template:
• Click on File
• Click on New
• Select a template from available options
USING YOUR WORKSHEET
Entering Months of the Year in your Worksheet Using Autofill
• Either on rows or columns, enter the first-month value:
January
• Place your cursor at the right-hand of the bottom of the cell
you entered the previous value.
• Drag down or sideways to the desired cell when the Autofill
icon becomes visible while pressing down the left button of
your mouse.

• Let go of the mouse button to see the Autofill result

• To enter months in intervals, enter the preceding two months in the
desired sequence to enable Excel to compute the interval
• Repeat drag process

Inputting Sales Data

• First, put your sales data in a comprehensive format and enter it in
your worksheet as shown below:

• This data shows weekly sales entries for four months along with
the total sales.
Editing Number Formats
• Navigate to the Home tab
• Click on Numbers and select the Number Format option. Pick
the desired number format.
Customizing Data Entry in a Worksheet
This process gives color and pops to your worksheet to make it
attractive to viewers. Simply highlight desired columns or rows and
colors and borders from the ribbon menu.
Performing Addition Operations on the Sales Data
Using the AutoSum command is the easiest and simplest procedure
to carry out summing operations in Excel. Simply highlight the rows
or columns containing the numbers to be summed up, and then click
on AutoSum present on the Home tab.

Simple formulas can also be used. All you have to do is to note the
ID for the row or column where the data to be summed up is
contained, e.g. cells B3 - B6. Then in the formula bar enter the
expression:
=SUM(B3:B6)
Place the cursor on the desired cell where you want the result to be
displayed.
Creating a Chart for the Sale Data
• Select all cells containing data on your worksheet
• Select the Insert option on the ribbon menu
• Click on Charts and select the option to input a clustered column
chart in your worksheet

Publishing or Printing the Worksheet

The fastest way to print your worksheet is to use the keyboard
shortcut keys of Ctrl + P keys. This action launches the Print
configuration tab. Here, you can decide what to print, either the
complete workbook or just the selected worksheet.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 These are the forces which have established the drift towards
democracy. When all sources of information are accessible to all
men alike, when the world’s thought and the world’s news are
scattered broadcast where the poorest may find them, the non-
democratic forms of government must find life a desperate venture.
Exclusive privilege needs privacy, but cannot have it. Kingship of the
elder patterns needs sanctity, but can find it nowhere obtainable in a
world of news items and satisfied curiosity. The many will no longer
receive submissively the thought of a ruling few, but insist upon
having opinions of their own. The reaches of public opinion have
been infinitely extended; the number of voices that must be heeded
in legislation and in executive policy has been infinitely multiplied.
Modern influences have inclined every man to clear his throat for a
word in the world’s debates. They have popularized everything they
have touched.
In the newspapers, it is true, there is very little concert between
the writers; little but piecemeal opinion is created by their comment
and argument; there is no common voice amidst their counsellings.
But the aggregate voice thunders with tremendous volume; and that
aggregate voice is ‘public opinion.’ Popular education and cheap
printing and travel vastly thicken the ranks of thinkers everywhere
that their influence is felt, and by rousing the multitude to take
knowledge of the affairs of government prepare the time when the
multitude will, so far as possible, take charge of the affairs of
government,—the time when, to repeat Carlyle’s phrase, democracy
will become palpably extant.
But, mighty as such forces are, democratic as they are, no one
can fail to perceive that they are inadequate to produce of
themselves such a government as ours. There is little in them of
constructive efficacy. They could not of themselves build any
government at all. They are critical, analytical, questioning, quizzing
forces; not architectural, not powers that devise and build. The
influences of popular education, of the press, of travel, of commerce,
of the innumerable agencies which nowadays send knowledge and
thought in quick pulsations through every part and member of
society, do not necessarily mould men for effective endeavor. They
may only confuse and paralyze the mind with their myriad stinging
lashes of excitement. They may only strengthen the impression that
“the world’s a stage,” and that no one need do more than sit and look
on through his ready glass, the newspaper. They overwhelm one
with impressions, but do they give stalwartness to his manhood? Do
they make his hand any steadier on the plough, or his purpose any
clearer with reference to the duties of the moment? They stream light
about him, it may be, but do they clear his vision? Is he better able to
see because they give him countless things to look at? Is he better
able to judge because they fill him with a delusive sense of knowing
everything? Activity of mind is not necessarily strength of mind. It
may manifest itself in mere dumb show; it may run into jigs as well
as into strenuous work at noble tasks. A man’s farm does not yield
its fruits the more abundantly in their season because he reads the
world’s news in the papers. A merchant’s shipments do not multiply
because he studies history. Banking is none the less hazardous to
the banker’s capital and taxing to his powers because the best
writing of the best essayists is to be bought cheap.

II.
Very different were the forces behind us. Nothing establishes the
republican state save trained capacity for self-government, practical
aptitude for public affairs, habitual soberness and temperateness of
united action. When we look back to the moderate sagacity and
steadfast, self-contained habit in self-government of the men to
whom we owe the establishment of our institutions in the United
States, we are at once made aware that there is no communion
between their democracy and the radical thought and restless spirit
called by that name in Europe. There is almost nothing in common
between popular outbreaks such as took place in France at her great
Revolution and the establishment of a government like our own. Our
memories of the year 1789 are as far as possible removed from the
memories which Europe retains of that pregnant year. We
manifested one hundred years ago what Europe lost, namely, self-
command, self-possession. Democracy in Europe, outside of
closeted Switzerland, has acted always in rebellion, as a destructive
force: it can scarcely be said to have had, even yet, any period of
organic development. It has built such temporary governments as it
has had opportunity to erect on the old foundations and out of the
discredited materials of centralized rule, elevating the people’s
representatives for a season to the throne, but securing almost as
little as ever of that every-day local self-government which lies so
near to the heart of liberty. Democracy in America, on the other
hand, and in the English colonies has had, almost from the first, a
truly organic growth. There was nothing revolutionary in its
movements; it had not to overthrow other polities; it had only to
organize itself. It had not to create, but only to expand, self-
government. It did not need to spread propaganda: it needed nothing
but to methodize its ways of living.
In brief, we were doing nothing essentially new a century ago.
Our strength and our facility alike inhered in our traditions; those
traditions made our character and shaped our institutions. Liberty is
not something that can be created by a document; neither is it
something which, when created, can be laid away in a document, a
completed work. It is an organic principle,—a principle of life,
renewing and being renewed. Democratic institutions are never
done; they are like living tissue, always a-making. It is a strenuous
thing, this of living the life of a free people; and our success in it
depends upon training, not upon clever invention.
Our democracy, plainly, was not a body of doctrine; it was a
stage of development. Our democratic state was not a piece of
developed theory, but a piece of developed habit. It was not created
by mere aspirations or by new faith; it was built up by slow custom.
Its process was experience, its basis old wont, its meaning national
organic oneness and effective life. It came, like manhood, as the fruit
of youth. An immature people could not have had it, and the maturity
to which it was vouchsafed was the maturity of freedom and self-
control. Such government as ours is a form of conduct, and its only
stable foundation is character. A particular form of government may
no more be adopted than a particular type of character maybe
adopted: both institutions and character must be developed by
conscious effort and through transmitted aptitudes.
Governments such as ours are founded upon discussion, and
government by discussion comes as late in political as scientific
thought in intellectual development. It is a habit of state life created
by long-established circumstance, and is possible for a nation only in
the adult age of its political life. The people who successfully
maintain such a government must have gone through a period of
political training which shall have prepared them by gradual steps of
acquired privilege for assuming the entire control of their affairs.
Long and slowly widening experience in local self-direction must
have prepared them for national self-direction. They must have
acquired adult self-reliance, self-knowledge, and self-control, adult
soberness and deliberateness of judgment, adult sagacity in self-
government, adult vigilance of thought and quickness of insight.
When practised, not by small communities, but by wide nations,
democracy, far from being a crude form of government, is possible
only amongst peoples of the highest and steadiest political habit. It is
the heritage of races purged alike of hasty barbaric passions and of
patient servility to rulers, and schooled in temperate common
counsel. It is an institution of political noonday, not of the half-light of
political dawn. It can never be made to sit easily or safely on first
generations, but strengthens through long heredity. It is poison to the
infant, but tonic to the man. Monarchies may be made, but
democracies must grow.
It is a deeply significant fact, therefore, again and again to be
called to mind, that only in the United States, in a few other
governments begotten of the English race, and in Switzerland, where
old Teutonic habit has had the same persistency as in England, have
examples yet been furnished of successful democracy of the modern
type. England herself is close upon democracy. Her backwardness in
entering upon its full practice is no less instructive as to the
conditions prerequisite to democracy than is the forwardness of her
offspring. She sent out to all her colonies which escaped the luckless
beginning of being made penal settlements, comparatively small,
homogeneous populations of pioneers, with strong instincts of self-
government, and with no social materials out of which to build
government otherwise than democratically. She herself, meanwhile,
retained masses of population never habituated to participation in
government, untaught in political principle either by the teachers of
the hustings or of the school house. She has had to approach
democracy, therefore, by slow and cautious extensions of the
franchise to those prepared for it; while her better colonies, born into
democracy, have had to receive all comers within their pale. She has
been paring down exclusive privileges and levelling classes; the
colonies have from the first been asylums of civil equality. They have
assimilated new while she has prepared old populations.
Erroneous as it is to represent government as only a
commonplace sort of business, little elevated in method above
merchandising, and to be regulated by counting-house principles,
the favor easily won for such views among our own people is very
significant. It means self-reliance in government. It gives voice to the
eminently modern democratic feeling that government is no hidden
cult, to be left to a few specially prepared individuals, but a common,
every-day concern of life, even if the biggest such concern. It is this
self-confidence, in many cases mistaken, no doubt, which is
gradually spreading among other peoples, less justified in it than are
our own.
One cannot help marvelling that facts so obvious as these
should have escaped the perception of some of the sagest thinkers
and most thorough historical scholars of our day. Yet so it is. Sir
Henry Maine, even, the great interpreter to Englishmen of the
historical forces operative in law and social institutions, has utterly
failed, in his plausible work on Popular Government, to distinguish
the democracy, or rather the popular government, of the English
race, which is bred by slow circumstance and founded upon habit,
from the democracy of other peoples, which is bred by discontent
and founded upon revolution. He has missed that most obvious
teaching of events, that successful democracy differs from
unsuccessful in being a product of history,—a product of forces not
suddenly become operative, but slowly working upon whole peoples
for generations together. The level of democracy is the level of
every-day habit, the level of common national experiences, and lies
far below the elevations of ecstasy to which the revolutionist climbs.

III.
While there can be no doubt about the derivation of our
government from habit rather than from doctrine, from English
experience rather than from European thought; while it is evident
that our institutions were originally but products of a long, unbroken,
unperverted constitutional history; and certain that we shall preserve
our institutions in their integrity and efficiency only so long as we
keep true in our practice to the traditions from which our first strength
was derived, there is, nevertheless, little doubt that the forces
peculiar to the new civilization of our day, and not only these, but
also the restless forces of European democratic thought and
anarchic turbulence brought to us in such alarming volume by
immigration, have deeply affected and may deeply modify the forms
and habits of our politics.
All vital governments—and by vital governments I mean those
which have life in their outlying members as well as life in their heads
—all systems in which self-government lives and retains its self-
possession, must be governments by neighbors, by peoples not only
homogeneous, but characterized within by the existence among their
members of a quick sympathy and an easy neighborly knowledge of
each other. Not foreseeing steam and electricity or the diffusion of
news and knowledge which we have witnessed, our fathers were
right in thinking it impossible for the government which they had
founded to spread without strain or break over the whole of the
continent. Were not California now as near neighbor to the Atlantic
States as Massachusetts then was to New York, national self-
government on our present scale would assuredly hardly be
possible, or conceivable even. Modern science, scarcely less than
our pliancy and steadiness in political habit, may be said to have
created the United States of to-day.
 Upon some aspects of this growth it is very pleasant to dwell,
and very profitable. It is significant of a strength which it is inspiring
to contemplate. The advantages of bigness accompanied by
abounding life are many and invaluable. It is impossible among us to
hatch in a corner any plot which will affect more than a corner. With
life everywhere throughout the continent, it is impossible to seize
illicit power over the whole people by seizing any central offices. To
hold Washington would be as useless to a usurper as to hold Duluth.
Self-government cannot be usurped.
A French writer has said that the autocratic ascendency of
Andrew Jackson illustrated anew the long-credited tendency of
democracies to give themselves over to one hero. The country is
older now than it was when Andrew Jackson delighted in his power,
and few can believe that it would again approve or applaud childish
arrogance and ignorant arbitrariness like his; but even in his case,
striking and ominous as it was, it must not be overlooked that he was
suffered only to strain the Constitution, not to break it. He held his
office by orderly election; he exercised its functions within the letter
of the law; he could silence not one word of hostile criticism; and, his
second term expired, he passed into private life as harmlessly as did
James Monroe. A nation that can quietly reabsorb a vast victorious
army is no more safely free and healthy than is a nation that could
reabsorb such a President as Andrew Jackson, sending him into
seclusion at the Hermitage to live without power, and die almost
forgotten.
A huge, stalwart body politic like ours, with quick life in every
individual town and county, is apt, too, to have the strength of variety
of judgment. Thoughts which in one quarter kindle enthusiasm may
in another meet coolness or arouse antagonism. Events which are
fuel to the passions of one section may be but as a passing wind to
another section. No single moment of indiscretion, surely, can easily
betray the whole country at once. There will be entire populations
still cool, self-possessed, unaffected. Generous emotions sometimes
sweep whole peoples, but, happily, evil passions, sinister views,
base purposes, do not and cannot. Sedition cannot surge through
the hearts of a wakeful nation as patriotism can. In such organisms
poisons diffuse themselves slowly; only healthful life has unbroken
course. The sweep of agitations set afoot for purposes unfamiliar or
uncongenial to the customary popular thought is broken by a
thousand obstacles. It may be easy to reawaken old enthusiasms,
but it must be infinitely hard to create new ones, and impossible to
surprise a whole people into unpremeditated action.
It is well to give full weight to these great advantages of our big
and strenuous and yet familiar way of conducting affairs; but it is
imperative at the same time to make very plain the influences which
are pointing toward changes in our politics—changes which threaten
loss of organic wholeness and soundness. The union of strength
with bigness depends upon the maintenance of character, and it is
just the character of the nation which is being most deeply affected
and modified by the enormous immigration which, year after year,
pours into the country from Europe. Our own temperate blood,
schooled to self-possession and to the measured conduct of self-
government, is receiving a constant infusion and yearly experiencing
a partial corruption of foreign blood. Our own equable habits have
been crossed with the feverish humors of the restless Old World. We
are unquestionably facing an ever-increasing difficulty of self-
command with ever-deteriorating materials, possibly with
degenerating fibre. We have so far succeeded in retaining

“Some sense of duty, something of a faith,

Some reverence for the laws ourselves have made,
Some patient force to change them when we will,
Some civic manhood firm against the crowd;”

But we must reckon our power to continue to do so with a people

made up of “minds cast in every mould of race,—minds inheriting
every bias of environment, warped by the diverse histories of a score
of different nations, warmed or chilled, closed or expanded, by
almost every climate on the globe.”
What was true of our early circumstances is not true of our
present. We are not now simply carrying out under normal conditions
the principles and habits of English constitutional history. Our tasks
of construction are not done. We have not simply to conduct, but
also to preserve and freshly adjust our government. Europe has sent
her habits to us, and she has sent also her political philosophy, a
philosophy which has never been purged by the cold bath of
practical politics. The communion which we did not have at first with
her heated and mistaken ambitions, with her radical, speculative
habit in politics, with her readiness to experiment in forms of
government, we may possibly have to enter into now that we are
receiving her populations. Not only printing and steam and electricity
have gotten hold of us to expand our English civilization, but also
those general, and yet to us alien, forces of democracy of which
mention has already been made; and these are apt to tell
disastrously upon our Saxon habits in government.

IV.
It is thus that we are brought to our fourth and last point. We
have noted (1) the general forces of democracy which have been
sapping old forms of government in all parts of the world; (2) the
error of supposing ourselves indebted to those forces for the creation
of our government, or in any way connected with them in our origins;
and (3) the effect they have nevertheless had upon us as parts of the
general influences of the age, as well as by reason of our vast
immigration from Europe. What, now, are the new problems which
have been prepared for our solution by reason of our growth and of
the effects of immigration? They may require as much political
capacity for their proper solution as any that confronted the
architects of our government.
These problems are chiefly problems of organization and
leadership. Were the nation homogeneous, were it composed simply
of later generations of the same stock by which our institutions were
planted, few adjustments of the old machinery of our politics would,
perhaps, be necessary to meet the exigencies of growth. But every
added element of variety, particularly every added element of foreign
variety, complicates even the simpler questions of politics. The
dangers attending that variety which is heterogeneity in so vast an
organism as ours are, of course, the dangers of disintegration—
nothing less; and it is unwise to think these dangers remote and
merely contingent because they are not as yet very menacing. We
are conscious of oneness as a nation, of vitality, of strength, of
progress; but are we often conscious of common thought in the
concrete things of national policy? Does not our legislation wear the
features of a vast conglomerate? Are we conscious of any national
leadership? Are we not, rather, dimly aware of being pulled in a
score of directions by a score of crossing influences, a multitude of
contending forces?
This vast and miscellaneous democracy of ours must be led; its
giant faculties must be schooled and directed. Leadership cannot
belong to the multitude; masses of men cannot be self-directed,
neither can groups of communities. We speak of the sovereignty of
the people, but that sovereignty, we know very well, is of a peculiar
sort; quite unlike the sovereignty of a king or of a small, easily
concerting group of confident men. It is judicial merely, not creative.
It passes judgment or gives sanction, but it cannot direct or suggest.
It furnishes standards, not policies. Questions of government are
infinitely complex questions, and no multitude can of themselves
form clear-cut, comprehensive, consistent conclusions touching
them. Yet without such conclusions, without single and prompt
purposes, government cannot be carried on. Neither legislation nor
administration can be done at the ballot box. The people can only
accept the governing act of representatives. But the size of the
modern democracy necessitates the exercise of persuasive power
by dominant minds in the shaping of popular judgments in a very
different way from that in which it was exercised in former times. “It is
said by eminent censors of the press,” said Mr. Bright on one
occasion in the House of Commons, “that this debate will yield about
thirty hours of talk, and will end in no result. I have observed that all
great questions in this country require thirty hours of talk many times
repeated before they are settled. There is much shower and much
sunshine between the sowing of the seed and the reaping of the
harvest, but the harvest is generally reaped after all.” So it must be in
all self-governing nations of to-day. They are not a single audience
within sound of an orator’s voice, but a thousand audiences. Their
actions do not spring from a single thrill of feeling, but from slow
conclusions following upon much talk. The talk must gradually
percolate through the whole mass. It cannot be sent straight through
them so that they are electrified as the pulse is stirred by the call of a
trumpet. A score of platforms in every neighborhood must ring with
the insistent voice of controversy; and for a few hundreds who hear
what is said by the public speakers, many thousands must read of
the matter in the newspapers, discuss it interjectionally at the
breakfast-table, desultorily in the street-cars, laconically on the
streets, dogmatically at dinner; all this with a certain advantage, of
course. Through so many stages of consideration passion cannot
possibly hold out. It gets chilled by over-exposure. It finds the
modern popular state organized for giving and hearing counsel in
such a way that those who give it must be careful that it is such
counsel as will wear well. Those who hear it handle and examine it
enough to test its wearing qualities to the utmost. All this, however,
when looked at from another point of view, but illustrates an infinite
difficulty of achieving energy and organization. There is a certain
peril almost of disintegration attending such phenomena.
Every one now knows familiarly enough how we accomplished
the wide aggregations of self-government characteristic of the
modern time, how we have articulated governments as vast and yet
as whole as continents like our own. The instrumentality has been
representation, of which the ancient world knew nothing, and lacking
which it always lacked national integration. Because of
representation and the railroads to carry representatives to distant
capitals, we have been able to rear colossal structures like the
government of the United States as easily as the ancients gave
political organization to a city; and our great building is as stout as
was their little one.
But not until recently have we been able to see the full effects of
thus sending men to legislate for us at capitals distant the breadth of
a continent. It makes the leaders of our politics, many of them, mere
names to our consciousness instead of real persons whom we have
seen and heard, and whom we know. We have to accept rumors
concerning them, we have to know them through the variously
colored accounts of others; we can seldom test our impressions of
their sincerity by standing with them face to face. Here certainly the
ancient pocket republics had much the advantage of us: in them
citizens and leaders were always neighbors; they stood constantly in
each other’s presence. Every Athenian knew Themistocles’s
manner, and gait, and address, and felt directly the just influence of
Aristides. No Athenian of a later period needed to be told of the
vanities and fopperies of Alcibiades, any more than the elder
generation needed to have described to them the personality of
Pericles.
Our separation from our leaders is the greater peril, because
democratic government more than any other needs organization in
order to escape disintegration; and it can have organization only by
full knowledge of its leaders and full confidence in them. Just
because it is a vast body to be persuaded, it must know its
persuaders; in order to be effective, it must always have choice of
men who are impersonated policies. Just because none but the
finest mental batteries, with pure metals and unadulterated acids,
can send a current through so huge and yet so rare a medium as
democratic opinion, it is the more necessary to look to the excellence
of these instrumentalities. There is no permanent place in
democratic leadership except for him who “hath clean hands and a
pure heart.” If other men come temporarily into power among us, it is
because we cut our leadership up into so many small parts, and do
not subject any one man to the purifying influences of centred
responsibility. Never before was consistent leadership so necessary;
never before was it necessary to concert measures over areas so
vast, to adjust laws to so many interests, to make a compact and
intelligible unit out of so many fractions, to maintain a central and
dominant force where there are so many forces.
It is a noteworthy fact that the admiration for our institutions
which has during the past few years so suddenly grown to large
proportions among publicists abroad is almost all of it directed to the
restraints we have effected upon the action of government. Sir Henry
Maine thought our federal Constitution an admirable reservoir, in
which the mighty waters of democracy are held at rest, kept back
from free destructive course. Lord Rosebery has wondering praise
for the security of our Senate against usurpation of its functions by
the House of Representatives. Mr. Goldwin Smith supposes the
saving act of organization for a democracy to be the drafting and
adoption of a written constitution. Thus it is always the static, never
the dynamic, forces of our government which are praised. The
greater part of our foreign admirers find our success to consist in the
achievement of stable safeguards against hasty or retrogressive
action; we are asked to believe that we have succeeded because we
have taken Sir Archibald Alison’s advice, and have resisted the
infection of revolution by staying quite still.
But, after all, progress is motion, government is action. The
waters of democracy are useless in their reservoirs unless they may
be used to drive the wheels of policy and administration. Though we
be the most law-abiding and law-directed nation in the world, law has
not yet attained to such efficacy among us as to frame, or adjust, or
administer itself. It may restrain, but it cannot lead us; and I believe
that unless we concentrate legislative leadership—leadership, that
is, in progressive policy—unless we give leave to our nationality and
practice to it by such concentration, we shall sooner or later suffer
something like national paralysis in the face of emergencies. We
have no one in Congress who stands for the nation. Each man
stands but for his part of the nation; and so management and
combination, which may be effected in the dark, are given the place
that should be held by centred and responsible leadership, which
would of necessity work in the focus of the national gaze.
What is the valuable element in monarchy which causes men
constantly to turn to it as to an ideal form of government, could it but
be kept pure and wise? It is its cohesion, its readiness and power to
act, its abounding loyalty to certain concrete things, to certain visible
persons, its concerted organization, its perfect model of progressive
order. Democracy abounds with vitality; but how shall it combine with
its other elements of life and strength this power of the governments
that know their own minds and their own aims? We have not yet
reached the age when government may be made impersonal.
The only way in which we can preserve our nationality in its
integrity and its old-time originative force in the face of growth and
imported change is by concentrating it; by putting leaders forward,
vested with abundant authority in the conception and execution of
policy. There is plenty of the old vitality in our national character to
tell, if we will but give it leave. Give it leave, and it will the more
impress and mould those who come to us from abroad. I believe that
we have not made enough of leadership.

“A people is but the attempt of many

To rise to the completer life of one;
And those who live as models for the mass
Are singly of more value than they all.”

We shall not again have a true national life until we compact it by

such legislative leadership as other nations have. But once thus
compacted and embodied, our nationality is safe. An acute English
historical scholar has said that “the Americans of the United States
are a nation because they once obeyed a king;” we shall remain a
nation only by obeying leaders.

“Keep but the model safe,

New men will rise to study it.”
 V
GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION

It is by no means wholly to our advantage that our constitutional

law is contained in definitive written documents. The fact that it is
thus formulated and rendered fixed and definite has seriously misled
us, it is to be feared, as to the true function and efficacy of
constitutional law. That law is not made more valid by being written,
but only more explicit; it is not rendered more sacred, but only more
definite and secure. Written constitutions are simply more or less
successful generalizations of political experience. Their tone of
authority does not at all alter the historical realities and imperative
practical conditions of government. They determine forms, utter
distinct purposes, set the powers of the State in definite hierarchy;
but they do not make the forms they originate workable, or the
purposes they utter feasible. All that must depend upon the men who
become governors and upon the people over whom they are set in
authority. Laws can have no other life than that which is given them
by the men who administer and the men who obey them.
Constitutional law affords no exception to the rule. The Constitution
of the United States, happily, was framed by exceptional men
thoroughly schooled in the realities of government. It consists,
accordingly, not of principles newly invented, to be put into operation
by means of devices originated for the occasion, but of sound pieces
of tested experience. It has served its purpose beneficently, not
because it was written, but because it has proved itself accordant in
every essential part with tried principles of government—principles
tested by the race for whose use it was intended, and therefore
already embedded in their lives and practices. Its strength will be
found, upon analysis, to lie in its definiteness and in its power to
restrain rather than in any unusual excellence of its energetic parts.
For the right operation of these it has had to depend, like other
constitutions, upon the virtue and discretion of the people and their
ministers. “The public powers are carefully defined; the mode in
which they are to be exercised is fixed; and the amplest securities
are taken that none of the more important constitutional
arrangements shall be altered without every guarantee of caution
and every opportunity for deliberation.... It would seem that, by a
wise constitution, democracy may be made nearly as calm as water
D
in a great artificial reservoir.”

D
Sir Henry Maine: Popular Government (Am.
ed.), pp. 110, 111.

We possess, therefore, not a more suitable constitution than

other countries, but a constitution which is perfectly definite and
which is preserved by very formidable difficulties of amendment
against inconsiderate change. The difference between our own case
and that of Great Britain upon which we have most reason to
congratulate ourselves is that here public opinion has definite criteria
for its conservatism; whereas in England it has only shifting and
uncertain precedent. In both countries there is the same respect for
law. But there is not in England the same certainty as to what the law
of the constitution is. We have a fundamental law which is written,
and which in its main points is read by all alike in a single accepted
sense. There is no more quarrel about its main intent than there is in
England about the meaning of Magna Charta. Much of the British
constitution, on the contrary, has not the support of even a common
statute. It may, in respect of many vital parts of it, be interpreted or
understood in half a dozen different ways, and amended by the
prevalent understanding. We are not more free than the English; we
are only more secure.
The definiteness of our Constitution, nevertheless, apart from its
outline of structural arrangements and of the division of functions
among the several departments of the government, is negative
rather than affirmative. Its very enumeration of the powers of
Congress is but a means of indicating very plainly what Congress
can not do. It is significant that one of the most important and most
highly esteemed of the many legal commentaries on our government
should be entitled ‘Constitutional Limitations.’ In expounding the
restrictions imposed by fundamental law upon state and federal
action, Judge Cooley is allowed to have laid bare the most essential
parts of our constitutional system. It was a prime necessity in so
complex a structure that bounds should be set to authority. The
‘may-nots’ and the ‘shall-nots’ of our constitutions, consequently,
give them their distinctive form and character. The strength which
preserves the system is the strength of self-restraint.
And yet here again it must be understood that mere definiteness
of legal provision has no saving efficacy of its own. These distinct
lines run between power and power will not of their own virtue
maintain themselves. It is not in having such a constitution but in
obeying it that our advantage lies. The vitality of such provisions
consists wholly in the fact that they receive our acquiescence. They
rest upon the legal conscience, upon what Mr. Grote would have
called the ‘constitutional morality,’ of our race. They are efficient
because we are above all things law-abiding. The prohibitions of the
law do not assert themselves as taskmasters set over us by some
external power. They are of our own devising. We are self-
restrained.
This legal conscience manifestly constitutes the only guarantee,
for example, of the division of powers between the state and federal
governments, that chief arrangement of our constitutional system.
The integrity of the powers possessed by the States has from the
first depended solely upon the conservatism of the federal courts.
State functions have certainly not decayed; but they have been
preserved, not by virtue of any forces of self-defence of their own,
but because the national government has been vouchsafed the
grace of self-restraint. What curtailment their province might suffer
has been illustrated in several notable cases in which the Supreme
Court of the United States has confirmed to the general government
extensive powers of punishing state judicial and executive officers
for disobedience to state laws. Although the federal courts have
generally held Congress back from aggressions upon the States,
they have nevertheless once and again countenanced serious
encroachments upon state powers; and their occasional laxity of
principle on such points is sufficiently significant of the fact that there
is no balance between the state and federal governments, but only
the safeguard of a customary ‘constitutional morality’ on the part of
the federal courts. The actual encroachments upon state rights
which those courts have permitted, under the pressure of strong
political interests at critical periods, were not, however, needed to
prove the potential supremacy of the federal government. They only
showed how that potential supremacy would on occasion become
actual supremacy. There is no guarantee but that of conscience that
justice will be accorded a suitor when his adversary is both court and
opposing litigant. So strong is the instinct of those who administer
our governments to keep within the sanction of the law, that even
when the last three amendments to the Constitution were being
forced upon the southern states by means which were revolutionary
the outward forms of the Constitution were observed. It was none the
less obvious, however, with what sovereign impunity the national
government might act in stripping those forms of their genuineness.
As there are times of sorrow or of peril which try men’s souls and lay
bare the inner secrets of their characters, so there are times of
revolution which act as fire in burning away all but the basic
elements of constitutions. It is then, too, that dormant powers awake
which are not afterward readily lulled to sleep again.
Such was certainly the effect of the civil war upon the
Constitution of the Union. The implying of powers, once cautious, is
now become bold and confident. In the discussions now going
forward with reference to federal regulation of great corporations,
and with reference to federal aid to education, there are scores of
writers and speakers who tacitly assume the power of the federal
government to act in such matters, for one that urges a constitutional
objection. Constitutional objections, before the war habitual, have, it
would seem, permanently lost their prominence.
 The whole energy of origination under our system rests with
Congress. It stands at the front of all government among us; it is the
single affirmative voice in national policy. First or last, it determines
what is to be done. The President, indeed, appoints officers and
negotiates treaties, but he does so subject to the ‘yes’ of the Senate.
Congress organizes the executive departments, organizes the army,
organizes the navy. It audits, approves, and pays expenses. It
conceives and directs all comprehensive policy. All else is negation.
The President says ‘no’ in his vetoes; the Supreme Court says ‘no’ in
its restraining decisions. And it is as much the law of public opinion
as the law of the Constitution that restrains the action of Congress.
It is the habit both of English and American writers to speak of
the constitution of Great Britain as if it were ‘writ in water,’ because
nothing but the will of Parliament stands between it and revolutionary
change. But is there nothing back of the will of Parliament?
Parliament dare not go faster than the public thought. There are vast
barriers of conservative public opinion to be overrun before a ruinous
speed in revolutionary change can be attained. In the last analysis,
our own Constitution has no better safeguard. We have, as I have
already pointed out, the salient advantage of knowing just what the
standards of our Constitution are. They are formulated in a written
code, wherein all men may look and read; whereas many of the
designs of the British system are to be sought only in a cloud-land of
varying individual readings of affairs. From the constitutional
student’s point of view, there are, for instance, as many different
Houses of Lords as there are writers upon the historical functions of
that upper chamber. But the public opinion of Great Britain is no
more a juggler of precedents than is the public opinion of this
country. Perhaps the absence of a written constitution makes it even
less a fancier of logical refinements. The arrangements of the British
constitution have, for all their theoretical instability, a very firm and
definite standing in the political habit of Englishmen: and the greatest
of those arrangements can be done away with only by the
extraordinary force of conscious revolution.
It is wholesome to observe how much of our own institutions
rests upon the same basis, upon no other foundations than those
that are laid in the opinions of the people. It is within the undoubted
constitutional power of Congress, for example, to overwhelm the
opposition of the Supreme Court upon any question by increasing
the number of justices and refusing to confirm any appointments to
the new places which do not promise to change the opinion of the
court. Once, at least, it was believed that a plan of this sort had been
carried deliberately into effect. But we do not think of such a violation
of the spirit of the Constitution as possible, simply because we share
and contribute to that public opinion which makes such outrages
upon constitutional morality impossible by standing ready to curse
them. There is a close analogy between this virtual inviolability of the
Supreme Court and the integrity hitherto vouchsafed to the English
House of Lords. There may be an indefinite creation of peers at any
time that a strong ministry chooses to give the sovereign its
imperative advice in favor of such a course. It was, doubtless, fear of
the final impression that would be made upon public opinion by
action so extraordinary, as much as the timely yielding of the Lords
upon the question at issue, that held the ministry back from such a
measure, on one notable occasion. Hitherto that ancient upper
chamber has had in this regard the same protection that shields our
federal judiciary.
It is not essentially a different case as between Congress and
the Executive. Here, too, at the very centre of the Constitution,
Congress stands almost supreme, restrained by public opinion rather
than by law. What with the covetous admiration of the presidency
recently manifested by some alarmed theorists in England, and the
renewed prestige lately given that office by the prominence of the
question of civil service reform, it is just now particularly difficult to
apply political facts to an analysis of the President’s power. But a
clear conception of his real position is for that very reason all the
more desirable. While he is a dominant figure in politics would seem
to be the best time to scrutinize and understand him.
It is clearly misleading to use the ascendant influence of the
President in effecting the objects of civil service reform as an
illustration of the constitutional size and weight of his office. The
principal part in making administration pure, business-like, and
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