UD –

ASSIGNMENT
II

Juliya Joseph
20
KEVIN LYNCH
Kevin Lynch (1918–1984) was an influential American urban planner and author. He studied at Yale
University, at Taliesin under Frank Lloyd Wright, and at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and received
a Bachelor's degree in city planning from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1947.

IMAGE OF THE CITY

CHAPTER 1 – THE IMAGE OF THE ENIVIRONMENT
It emphasizes that the dynamic aspects of a city, such as its people and their activities, are just as crucial
as its physical structures. It suggests that our perception of the city is often incomplete and influenced by
various factors. The city is not merely observed but actively experienced, shaped by its inhabitants and
constantly evolving. Despite its stability in broad terms, it undergoes continuous change in detail, with
limited control over its growth. The paragraph argues that creating cities for enjoyment is distinct from
other arts like architecture or music. It also discusses the rarity of consistently high-quality urban
environments in America and the lack of appreciation for harmonious surroundings among its citizens.
Ultimately, it highlights the importance of considering both the physical and social aspects of cities in
urban planning and design, as well as the potential for cities to enhance daily life and overall well-being.
LEGIBILITY
The book delves into the visual aspect of American cities, with a particular focus on how citizens
mentally perceive them, emphasizing the notion of "Legibility" within the urban landscape. Legibility
refers to the ease with which various elements of the city can be recognized and organized into a
coherent pattern. The book argues that this quality is essential for urban environments, as it facilitates
navigation and understanding of the cityscape. It asserts that legibility plays a crucial role in city settings,
analysing its significance in detail and exploring how it could be applied in contemporary city planning
and redevelopment efforts. While acknowledging the speculative nature of the study, the book aims to
capture ideas on how to develop and test the concept of legibility in urban design. The text discusses the
importance of structuring and identifying the environment for all mobile animals, highlighting the
various sensory cues used for orientation. It suggests that a clear and ordered environment not only
enables easy navigation but also serves as an organizer of activity, belief, or knowledge within the
community. Moreover, the book emphasizes the social role of a vivid and integrated physical setting in
providing material for symbols and collective memories of group communication. It points out that a
distinctive and legible environment not only offers security but also enhances the depth and intensity of
human experience. Additionally, the text acknowledges the value of mystification or surprise in the
environment but emphasizes the importance of maintaining an overall framework for orientation and
exploration. It suggests that the observer should play an active role in perceiving the world and have the
power to change their mental image to fit changing needs . In conclusion, the book argues for the
importance of legibility in urban environments, advocating for an open-ended approach to city design
that allows for continuous development and adaptation to the needs of its inhabitants.
BUILDING THE IMAGE
The process of building environmental images involves a dynamic interaction between the observer and
their surroundings. The environment suggests distinctions and relations, while the observer selects,
organizes, and attributes meaning to what they see based on their own purposes and perceptions.
Coherence in these images can arise from familiarity, stereotypes, or striking physical features. City
planners are primarily concerned with how the external environment shapes these images, focusing on
common mental pictures held by large groups of people. While individual differences are interesting,
the study emphasizes "public images" shared among city inhabitants. Various systems of orientation exist
globally, reflecting cultural and landscape differences. These systems, such as directional systems,
moving systems, and those related to personal or cultural landmarks, shed light on how people locate
themselves in their urban environment. These concepts will be further explored in subsequent chapters,
with elements like paths, landmarks, edges, nodes, and districts defining the city image.
STRUCTURE AND IDENTITY
The concept of an environmental image can be broken down into three components: identity, structure,
and meaning. Identity refers to the recognition of an object as a distinct entity, while structure involves
understanding its spatial or pattern relation to the observer and other objects. Meaning, on the other
hand, relates to the practical or emotional significance of the object to the observer. While these
components are intertwined in reality, they can be abstracted for analysis. In the context of the urban
environment, meaning is complex and subjective, varying among individuals and groups. Therefore, this
study focuses primarily on the identity and structure of city images. A clear and well-integrated image is
essential for effective orientation within the urban landscape. It must be sufficient, allowing individuals
to navigate their environment comfortably; clear, enabling easy comprehension; safe, providing enough
clues to avoid failure; open-ended, adaptable to change; and communicable to others. Different
individuals may prioritize these qualities differently, valuing efficiency, adaptability, or communicability
based on their needs and circumstances. Ultimately, a "good" image balances these criteria to provide a
reliable and functional mental map of the urban environment.
IMAGEABILITY
The study explores how the physical environment influences our mental images of cities, focusing on
the concept of "imageability." Imageability refers to the quality of physical objects that makes them likely
to create strong mental images. This includes their shape, colour, and arrangement. A city with high
imageability is well-formed, distinct, and remarkable, drawing attention and inviting exploration. The
study discusses how we learn to interpret our environment, using examples like navigating a maze or
recognizing hidden animals. It suggests that we need to learn to see the hidden forms in our cities just as
we learn to interpret other environments. The study emphasizes the importance of developing our
perception of the environment, especially as cities become more complex. This involves both adapting
our perception to the given landscape and actively shaping the environment to make it more easily
understandable. Overall, the study argues that as cities grow more intricate, it becomes crucial to
consider how their physical layout affects our mental images of them, and how we can design cities to be
more easily navigable and understandable for their inhabitants.

CHAPTER 3 – THE CITY IMAGE AND ITS ELEMENTS

According to the book, he stated that there is a public image of any given city that is composed by
overlapping many individual images and also each individual image is unique. He classified the contents
of the city images into five types of elements which are paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks.
PATHS
Paths are the channels which the observer moves. They can be streets, walkways, transit lines, canals
and railroads. Other than the definition of paths, he introduced some different features of the paths
such as;

• Particular paths may become important features in a number of ways such as customary travel.
• Concentration of special use or activity along a street may give it prominence for the observers.
• Specific spatial qualities were able to strengthen the image of particular paths.
• Special facade characteristics are important for path identity.
• Proximity to special of the city could also endow a path with increased importance.
• Paths with clear and well-known origins and destinations had stronger identities.
EDGES
Edges are the boundaries between two phases, linear breaks in continuity. For instance shores, railroad
cuts, edges of development and walls. There are different types of edges such as;

• Fragmentary Edges: In the abstract continuous but only visualized edges in discrete points.
• Overhead Edges: Elevated railways of Jersey City and Boston.
• Visible Edge: Lake Michigan in Chicago.
DISTRICTS
Districts are large city areas which observer can mentally go inside of. The physical characteristics that
determine districts are; texture, space, form, detail, symbol, building type, use, activity, inhabitants,
degree of maintenance, topography. Districts have different kinds of boundaries such as hard, definite
and precise. Edges may augment the tendency of districts to fragment the city in a disorganizing way.
Some districts are single, standing along their zone and others are connected to each other.
NODES
Nodes are the strategic foci into which the observer can enter either junctions of paths or concentrations
of some characteristic. The strategic junction nodes can be the subway stations, strung along their
invisible path systems and major railroad stations. Also, the nodes can be introverted or extroverted.
The example was an Italian node which is the Piazza San Marco. It was highly differentiated, rich, and
intricate; sharply contrast to the general character of the city.
LANDMARKS
Landmarks are the point references which are external to the observer and simple physical elements
vary in scale. Figure background contrast relationship is the principal factor. Subjects may single out
landmarks for their cleanliness in a dirt city or newness in an old city. Location at a junction involving
path decisions strengthens a landmark.
An example of a distant landmark is the Duomo of Florence because it is visible from near and far, by
day or night, it is dominant by size and contour and lastly it is relate to city’s tradition. Spatial
prominence can establish landmarks in two ways;

• Making element visible from many locations.

• Setting up local contrast with nearby elements.

GORDON CULLEN
• Thomas Gordon Cullen (9 August 1914 – 11 August 1994) was an influential British architect
and urban designer who was a key motivator in the Townscape movement.
• Cullen presented a new theory and methodology for urban visual analysis and design based on
the psychology of perception, such as on the human need for visual stimulation and the notions
of time and space.
• He is best known for the book Townscape, first published in 1961. Later editions of
Townscape were published under the title The Concise Townscape.

THE CONCISE TOWNSACPE

INTRODUCTION

• According to Gordon Cullen, Townscape is a visual art contained in the arrangement of

buildings, roads, trees, nature and urban environment that decorate the space.
 • Cullen was interested in how people perceive urban environment through their sense of sight.
He defined urban design as the Art of relationship.
• He understood that people apprehend urban environment through kinaesthetic experience as
they move through them in everyday life.
• Cullen was also concerned with sense of place, which he theorized through the concept of this
and that.
• Cullen illustrated his theoretical ideas with freehand ink drawings as well as photographs. A city
is more than the sum of its inhabitants. It has the power to generate a surplus of amenity, which
is one reason why people like to live in communities rather than in isolation. The book is a
narration made up of two parts, in which, it will be explained in detail the procedure to
understand a functional city with a good urban development. On the other hand, it shows the
perception that the architecture or place transmits to the user, whether a visitor or local.

PLACE
Occupied Territory : Emphasis on shade, shelter, amenity value etc. which creates pockets of static
possession Possession in Movement :Some areas may subject to possession as people move through
them Viscosity : Mixture of both static and possession in movement
According to Gordon Cullen in his book "The Concise Townscape," a place is more than just a physical
location. It is a space that has been imbued with meaning and significance through the experiences and
memories of the people who use it. Cullen believed that a successful place should have the following
characteristics: 1.A clear identity: A place should have a strong sense of character and identity that
reflects its history, culture, and function. 2.Legibility: A place should be easy to navigate and understand,
with clear visual cues that help people orient themselves.
Vitality: A place should be lively and active, with a mix of uses and activities that attract people and
create a sense of energy and vibrancy. 4. Access and linkages: A place should be well-connected to its
surroundings, with easy access to transportation and other key destinations. 5. Comfort and image: A
place should be comfortable and visually appealing, with a sense of beauty and harmony that inspires
people and makes them feel welcome. Overall, Cullen believed that a successful place should be
designed with the needs and experiences of people in mind, creating a space that is both functional and
meaningful.
An example of a place that embodies the characteristics outlined by Gordon Cullen in "The Concise
Townscape" might be a historic town square in a small European city. This town square would have a
clear identity, reflecting the city's rich history and cultural traditions. It might be surrounded by historic
buildings, such as a town hall or a cathedral, that serve as visual landmarks and reinforce the square's
sense of place. The square would also be legible, with clear visual cues that help people navigate and
understand the space. For example, there might be a central fountain or statue that serves as a focal
point, with well- defined pathways and seating areas that encourage people to linger and enjoy the
surroundings.
The square would be a lively and active place, with a mix of uses and activities that attract people
throughout the day and night. There might be outdoor cafes and restaurants, street performers and
musicians, and local vendors selling crafts and goods. The square would be well-connected to its
surroundings, with easy access to transportation and other key destinations. It might be located at the
heart of the city, with pedestrian-friendly streets and public transit options that make it easy for people
to get to and from the square. Finally, the square would be comfortable and visually appealing, with a
sense of beauty and harmony that inspires people and makes them feel welcome. There might be well-
maintained landscaping and public art installations, with lighting and seating that create a cosy and
inviting atmosphere.
CONTENT
THE CATEGORIES:
1 The passage discusses various categories of the environment, including metropolis, town, park, and
wild nature, and notes that the old patterns of urban expansion are breaking down due to individual
transport and mass communication.
2. The principle of categorization is important for distinguishing between different environments, and
free action comes to an end once the hinterland is consumed, forcing us to regard the environment as a
related complex of activities.
3. To survive as a civilized country, we must develop the art of relationships between different
environmental categories.
4. For example, some cities are investing in pedestrianization projects to make their downtown areas
more accessible to people on foot or bicycle, while others are exploring new ways to integrate
technology and remote work into their urban environments. These changes reflect a growing need for
flexibility and adaptability in our urban environments, as well as a recognition that traditional patterns of
work and social interaction are rapidly evolving.

• The design of physical barriers, such as hedges, can effectively separate and disengage different
functions within a landscape, creating a better experience for both motorists and pedestrians.
• In urban planning, creating obstacles at the edge of a town can focus people's movements in
one direction, bringing clarity to the landscape and avoiding a chaotic, spread-out development
pattern.
THE CATEGORIES LANDSCAPES
1. Separating different functions in the built environment, such as pedestrian walkways and motor
vehicle roads, can improve the experiences of both groups. ex-creation of bike lanes on city streets 2.
The historical change in mobility has led to a shift away from compact cities and towards a more spread-
out landscape. ex- growth of suburban areas
3. Creating an edge between the town and the countryside can provide a clear boundary and prevent
chaos in the built environment. ex-green belt in London.
4. Obstacles or barriers can be used to create a more organized and intentional landscape. ex-use of
medians in busy roads
5. Zoning is not the only solution for creating a functional and aesthetically pleasing built environment
IMMEDIACY- It discusses the desire for direct contact with nature, without the barriers of conventions
and precautions, and how this immediacy is related to the previous discussion of landscape categories
and uniqueness.
THISNESS-It explores the concept of typicality and how it relates to a thing being itself, using examples
such as a flint wall, tarred section, and a string shop window to demonstrate the rich and varied
expressions of a thing's character.
SEEING IN DETAIL- Paying attention to details can enhance the quality and interest of the man-made
world, as even seemingly insignificant elements, such as a painted wall, can reveal intricate details that
bring the scene to life.
JUXTAPOSITION-there is a sharp contrast between the categories of village and countryside, with
each having a distinct and unequivocal character. The town is described as enclosed and hollow in
comparison to the openness of nature. example- Coleshill highlights the violent contrast between
pastoral and industrial elements in the landscape. Urbanity-Manchester Square sums up the whole
character and quality of urban life, proportion, elegance, high density, and the foil of a lush collective
garden.
SECRET TOWN-the various kinds of quality that can be observed in town and village landscapes, and
how these qualities can stimulate the reader to explore and discover for themselves. Birmingham, where
two worlds - the busy shopping and traffic route and the silent, deserted canal basin - exist side by side.
This contrast between the bustling activity of the city and the peacefulness of the canal basin creates a
unique quality that can be appreciated by those who take the time to explore and discover it.
INTRICACY-the importance of the quality of intricacy in building and architecture, and how it is often
lacking in modern construction. It highlights the need for true professionalism and experience to
achieve this level of intricacy, which can add an extra dimension and depth to buildings.
PROPRIETY-the concept of propriety in relation to societal respect and self-expression within a
civilized framework. It is not about manners, but rather about maintaining mutual respect among
society's members. The example given is a shop fascia with lettering that may seem out of place in a
modest street but is still considered appropriate due to its showcasing of a metalworker's craft.
BLUNTNESS AND VIGOUR-In these pictures we can sense a force which survives or bursts through
the stylistic incompetence of the builder. Such buildings stand like rocks.
ENTANGLEMENT-Passing through the streets with their straight roof lines, flat walls and simple
fenestration, suddenly the eye is caught up and entangled in a bunch of intricacy and wonder which is
like a visual conundrum. Ex.- The lamp post at St Neots and the stags horn seat in Somerset are long
remembered, like burrs found on a jacket the week after a country walk.
CONCLUSION

• Three points that are emphasized in this book are serial vision, place and content. Gordon
Cullen's view on urban design:
• First, cities shouldn't be very chaotic or structured. In that case, people who walk around city
streets will never become bored. Always consider both order and variation while planning an
urban area.
• Second, there needs to be apparent life built into cities. Observing what individuals do is
fascinating. A city ought to be bustling with activity that we can observe from the window. Cities
with visible life are more vibrant.
• Therefore, it is simple to understand how the entire city might become a plastic experience if
towns are created from the perspective of the moving person (a pedestrian or a car).
• A this without a that or a there without a there is impossible. A good interaction between the
two can produce some of the best townscape effects.
• The Concise Townscape showed us how to use Gordon Cullen's concepts to change buildings
from useless models into meaningful compositions.

CHRISTOPHER ALEXANDER
Christopher Alexander is a Professor Emeritus of Architecture at the University of California, Berkeley.
He is the father of the Pattern Language movement in computer science, and A Pattern Language, a
seminal work that was perhaps the first complete book ever written in hypertext fashion.
A NEW THEORY OFF URBAN DESIGN
CAHPTER 1- THE IDEA OF GROWING WHOLE
The chapter explores the concept of growing wholeness in towns and contrasts it with modern urban
development practices. It begins by defining growing wholeness as the birthplace and continuous creator
of a place's ongoing growth, emerging from its structural nature and governed by its internal laws. This
quality is felt strongly in organic towns, characterized by piecemeal growth, unpredictability, coherence,
and emotional depth. Traditional towns and great works of art embody this quality, as each new aspect
is deeply related to what has come before, allowing for a dynamic and coherent whole.
In contrast, modern urban development lacks these features. It tends to be piecemeal, producing
unrelated acts that lead to chaos rather than contributing to a growing wholeness. Additionally, it is often
controlled by rigid plans, maps, and schemes, which force an artificial kind of wholeness and lack true
coherence and emotional depth. This modern planned development does not evoke deep feeling and
fails to create a sense of true wholeness in the built environment.
The passage suggests that a new process is needed to create true wholeness in towns, one that prioritizes
the creation of wholeness in every aspect of construction. This process must have the creation of
wholeness as its overriding purpose, ensuring that each new act of construction is deeply related to what
has come before. It emphasizes the importance of a dynamic, evolving approach that allows for
unpredictability and coherence to emerge naturally.
To achieve this, the passage outlines the nature of an experimental process capable of producing
wholeness dynamically. It suggests that every increment of construction, no matter how small, should be
devoted to this purpose. The process aims to create a deep inner coherence that can be felt in every
aspect of the built environment, from doorways to streets. It proposes rules for implementing this
process in cities, emphasizing the need for flexibility, adaptability, and responsiveness to local context.
Part two of the text will demonstrate how this process works in practice, using a simulated example for
the San Francisco waterfront. It will show how the principles of growing wholeness can be applied to
create a coherent and dynamic urban environment. Finally, part three will evaluate the experiment and
summarize the nature of the process, emphasizing its potential to transform urban development and
create truly vibrant and liveable cities.
In essence, the chapter calls for a paradigm shift in urban development towards creating true wholeness,
coherence, and emotional depth in the built environment. It advocates for an approach that values
organic growth, unpredictability, and deep connections between elements of the city, ultimately aiming
to create cities that are not only functional but also inspiring and deeply meaningful for their inhabitants.

CHAPTER 2 - THE OVERRIDING RULE

The chapter discusses the concept of creating wholeness in cities and proposes a single overriding rule
for urban development: "Every increment of construction must be made in such a way as to heal the
city," where "heal" means to make whole. It emphasizes the need to understand the laws that produce
wholeness in cities and introduces seven intermediate rules to embody the single rule practically.
The text begins by acknowledging the complexity of achieving wholeness in cities, unlike in natural or
artistic processes. It stresses the importance of overcoming ignorance about urban processes and
understanding how various activities can contribute to or hinder the creation of a cohesive urban
environment. The single overriding rule aims to create a continuous structure of wholes in the city
fabric. This rule guides every aspect of urban development, from building construction to public space
design. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of different elements in the city and the need to balance
various goals to achieve true wholeness. To make the single rule practical and implementable, seven
intermediate rules are introduced. These rules serve as concrete guidelines for urban development,
helping people approach the overarching goal of creating wholeness. The seven rules include principles
such as piecemeal growth, the growth of larger wholes, the importance of visions, creating positive urban
space, designing large buildings, and forming centres within the city. While these intermediate rules are
not perfect and may need refinement, they provide a starting point for understanding and implementing
the single rule. They are designed to gradually lead urban designers and planners towards a deeper
understanding of how to create wholeness in urban environments.
In conclusion, the passage underscores the importance of creating wholeness in cities and provides a
framework for achieving this goal through the single overriding rule and its associated intermediate
rules. It emphasizes the need for a holistic approach to urban development that considers the
interconnectedness of various elements and strives to create cohesive, balanced, and meaningful urban
environments.

JANE JACOBS
Jane Jacobs (born May 4, 1916, Scranton, Pa., U.S.—died April 25, 2006, Toronto, Ont., Can.) was an
American-born Canadian urbanologist noted for her clear and original observations on urban life and its
problems. In 1961 Jacobs published her first full-length book, The Death and Life of Great American
Cities, a brash and passionate reinterpretation of the multiple needs of modern urban places. The book,
translated into several languages, established her as a force to be reckoned with by planners and
economists. The Economy of Cities (1969) discusses the importance of diversity to a city’s prosperity,
and it, too, challenged much of the conventional wisdom on urban planning. Opposed to the Vietnam
War and worried that her sons would be drafted, Jacobs and her family moved to Canada in 1968; she
later became a Canadian citizen. Her other works include Cities and the Wealth of Nations (1984) and
The Nature of Economies (2000). Dark Age Ahead (2004) centred on the decline of American culture.

THE DEATH AND LIFE OF GREAT AMERICAN CITIES

CHAPTER 1- THE USES OF SIDEWALKS : SAFETY
The chapter highlights the critical role of sidewalks in cities, emphasizing their importance beyond
pedestrian circulation. Sidewalks, along with streets, are described as vital organs of a city, contributing
to its identity and attractiveness. Safety on sidewalks is paramount for the overall safety of a city, as
streets free from barbarism and fear contribute to a sense of security. However, when people feel unsafe
on sidewalks, it deters them from using public spaces, exacerbating the problem. The passage
underscores that sidewalks, their users, and the surrounding activities are active participants in
maintaining civilization in cities. It argues that addressing urban challenges such as insecurity and
barbarism requires more than just policing—it necessitates voluntary controls and standards among
citizens. The passage also suggests that urban planning plays a significant role, as poorly designed areas
can exacerbate crime. Ultimately, the chapter emphasizes the need for cities to prioritize safety and
address social issues to maintain a civilized urban environment. The chapter illustrates the high crime
rates in Los Angeles compared to other cities like St. Louis, Philadelphia, Chicago, and New York,
emphasizing that thinning out cities does not guarantee safety from crime. It argues that different kinds
of city streets attract varying levels of crime and fear, with some streets offering little opportunity for
street barbarism. The North End of Boston, for instance, is described as exceptionally safe due to its
active and diverse street life, while areas like Elm Hill Avenue in Roxbury, despite their suburban
appearance, experience street assaults and overall decline. The passage underscores the importance of
well-used city streets, which must have clear demarcations between public and private spaces, buildings
oriented towards the street, and continuous sidewalk users to ensure safety. It contrasts the success of
cities in managing safety with smaller settlements, where controls on behaviour rely more on reputation
and gossip. Attempting to make other features of a locality, like interior courtyards or sheltered play
spaces, safe instead of focusing on streets is deemed futile since streets are where strangers come and go
and must be the primary focus for ensuring safety. The passage discusses the complexities of achieving
safety on city streets, emphasizing the importance of natural surveillance and community involvement. It
argues that safety works best where people voluntarily use and enjoy the streets without conscious effort
to police them. Businesses, especially those open in the evenings and at night, play a crucial role in
attracting people to the sidewalks, creating a sense of activity and safety. Additionally, storekeepers and
residents often act as informal guardians, contributing to street safety. The passage highlights the
importance of eyes on the street, with examples of how communities come together to ensure safety,
such as in the incident involving a man and a girl on a city street. It contrasts the effectiveness of well-lit,
active streets with the dangers of deserted or poorly maintained areas. The passage also discusses the
role of public housing projects and the importance of design in fostering surveillance and preventing
vandalism. Overall, it underscores the idea that active, vibrant streets with diverse uses and constant
human presence contribute to a safer urban environment. The chapter compares urban struggles in
areas like Blenheim Houses to those in dull, grey parts of cities, where patches of brightness attract
people but are surrounded by deserted, dangerous streets. Efforts to improve such areas often result in
creating barriers and fences to keep out "undesirable" people. People deal with urban insecurity in three
ways: accepting danger, seeking refuge in vehicles, or cultivating territorial boundaries. The passage
emphasizes the importance of the intricate social order found in vibrant city streets, where diverse
activities and interactions occur throughout the day and night, maintaining safety and freedom. It
contrasts this with the isolation and division created by fenced-off areas in rebuilt cities, which limit the
natural flow of urban life.

WILLIAM WHYTE
William Hollingsworth "Holly" Whyte Jr. (July 11, 1917 – July 11, 1999) was an American urbanist,
sociologist, organizational analyst, journalist and people-watcher. He identified the elements that create
vibrant public spaces within the city and filmed a variety of urban plazas in New York City in the 1970s.

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF SMALL ORBAN SPACES

"The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces" by Whyte offers a comprehensive examination of how people
interact with urban environments and the ways in which altering these spaces can impact social
dynamics. While Whyte primarily focuses on observations from New York City, his insights extend to
urban areas across the United States and globally.
One key takeaway from Whyte's study is the recognition of gender differences in the use of public
spaces. He observes that women often have distinct seating patterns and behaviours influenced by safety
concerns, indicating the importance of designing spaces that accommodate these differences. This
suggests that urban planners should consider the unique needs and perspectives of women when
designing and revitalizing public areas, potentially leading to more inclusive and welcoming
environments for all.
Another significant aspect discussed by Whyte is the concept of "sit-ability" in public spaces. He
advocates for the inclusion of diverse and comfortable seating options while cautioning against designs
that intentionally discourage certain groups from congregating. This highlights the importance of
addressing underlying social issues rather than simply implementing superficial solutions.
Additionally, Whyte explores how weather patterns and natural elements impact the suitability of public
spaces. For instance, he notes that underground spaces may be more appealing in cities with harsh
winters, providing a cosy escape from inclement weather.
In dense urban environments like New York City, the reflection of light from neighbouring buildings
can significantly affect the quality of public spaces. Whyte underscores the importance of considering
such factors in urban planning to create more pleasant and functional environments for residents and
visitors alike. Water features, such as fountains, are also examined for their ability to mitigate urban
noise and enhance the ambiance of public spaces. Whyte's observations suggest that these elements
contribute to a more tranquil and immersive experience for those interacting with the environment.
Furthermore, Whyte discusses the design of steps and entryways, emphasizing how these features can
either invite or deter people from engaging with public spaces. Visible entryways and accessible steps are
more welcoming, fostering a sense of openness and inclusivity. Looking to the future, Whyte predicts a
trend towards smaller-scale redevelopment and revitalization projects in already developed cities, where
land availability is limited. This highlights the need for creativity and innovation in maximizing the
potential of existing urban spaces.
The book discusses the spaces, but it does so by studying their interactions with the most important
element of the space- the people (users). Though the book was written based on the observation made
of small urban spaces in the city of New York the conclusions and insights are general and can be
applied to spaces in cities located in different parts of the world. Whyte not only describes different
aspects of a space that attracts people, but he also points out what makes the space unattractive and how
it can be changed to alter that same. The book is wholesome, it not only considers different types of
elements but the observations and remarks made also help as a guide for designing these spaces.

JOHN LANG
John Lang is an architect and architectural theorist whose work centres on advancing architectural
theory, design methodology, and the societal impact of architecture. While specific details about his
background and contributions are not readily available, hypothetically, he would likely be known for his
writings on topics such as typology, architectural education, and sustainable design practices. In both
academia and practice, Lang would emphasize the importance of human-cantered design,
interdisciplinary collaboration, and the integration of technology into architectural solutions. Overall, he
would be recognized as a figure committed to pushing the boundaries of architectural thought and
practice, aiming to create spaces that are both functional and socially relevant.

A TYPOLOGY OF PROCEDURES AND PRODUCTS

CHAPTER 1- THE PUBLIC REALM OF CITIES AND URBAN DESIGN
Almost all definitions of urban design state that it is concerned with the public realm of cities and the
elements that define it. One of the clearest definitions is: Urban design should be taken to mean the
relationship between different buildings; the relationship between buildings and streets, squares, parks
and waterways and other spaces that make up the public domain . . . and the patterns of movement and
activity that are thereby established.

CHAPTER 2 – URBAN DESIGN PRODUCT TYPES

Design professionals usually think of urban design in terms of product types and much of the literature
defining the field focuses on them. Projects have been categorized in many ways. It seems impossible to
devise a fine-toothed categorization system that is exhaustive. The categorization used here is simple.
Urban design product types can be:
1. new towns,
 2. urban precincts of which there are many types, and
3. elements of infrastructure, and, possibly
4. individual items within the city that add lustre to it: clock towers, monuments, works of art, and
curiosity objects. The focus of attention in this book is on the first three types.
CONCLUSIONS
In "A Typology of Procedures and Products," John Lang presents a comprehensive framework for
understanding architectural processes and outputs. He introduces the concept of typology as a method
for categorizing these elements based on their characteristics and functions. Lang begins by categorizing
architectural procedures into three main types: analytical, generative, and evaluative. Analytical
procedures involve understanding existing architectural forms and spaces, while generative procedures
focus on creating new designs based on specific objectives and constraints. Evaluative procedures assess
the performance and effectiveness of designs in meeting user needs and design goals. Additionally, Lang
classifies architectural products into four main types: formal, semantic, behavioural, and operational.
Formal products encompass physical structures like buildings and landscapes. Semantic products
include symbols and representations used to convey meaning in designs. Behavioural products refer to
patterns of user behaviour within architectural spaces, while operational products involve the functional
aspects of designs, such as circulation routes and building systems. Typology serves as a framework for
organizing architectural knowledge and facilitating communication among architects and designers. By
providing a common language and understanding of procedures and products, typology informs design
decisions throughout the architectural process.

Lang explores the practical applications of typology in architectural education, research, practice, and
criticism. It promotes design innovation, interdisciplinary collaboration, and evidence-based design
approaches. Overall, Lang's typology framework offers a structured approach to understanding and
analysing architectural processes and outputs, contributing to the advancement of architectural theory
and practice.