Learning

The ability to learn is crucial for all animals. To survive, animals need to learn
things such as which types of foods are dangerous, when it is safe to sleep,
and which sounds or sights signal potential dangers. Learning is central to
almost all aspects of human existence. Learning is defined as a relatively
enduring change in behavior resulting from experience. Learning occurs
when an animal benefits from experience so that it is better adapted to its
environment and more prepared to deal with it in the future. For example,
the animal may be better able to predict when certain events are likely to
happen.

Non-Associative Learning
The simplest form of learning occurs after repeated exposure to a single
stimulus or event. For example, if you move to a new house by some train
tracks, the rumble of passing trains might disturb your sleep. After you live in
the house for a while, you quit waking up to the sound of trains. The change
in response to the stimulus is a form of nonassociative learning.
Nonassociative learning, the simplest form of learning, occurs when you gain
new information after repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event. The
two most common forms of nonassociative learning are habituation and
sensitization. Habituation leads to a decrease in a behavioral response after
repeated exposure to a stimulus. We tend to notice new things around us. If
something is neither rewarding nor harmful, habituation leads us to ignore it.
We constantly habituate to meaningless events around us.
Sensitization leads to an increase in a behavioral response after exposure to
a stimulus. The stimuli that most often lead to sensitization are those that
are meaningful to the animal, such as something threatening or painful. If
you are studying and smell something burning, you probably will not
habituate to this smell. In fact, you might focus even greater attention on
your sense of smell to assess the possible threat of fire, and you will be
highly vigilant for any indication of smoke or flames. In general, sensitization
leads to heightened responsiveness to other stimuli.

Associative Learning
The second type of learning is coming to understand, through personal
experiences, how stimuli or events are related. For example, your dog runs
for the door when you pick up the leash because it has learned this action
leads to a walk. Associative learning is the linking of two events that, in
general, take place one right after the other. Associations develop through
conditioning, a process in which environmental stimuli and behavioral
responses become connected.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning, is learning
through the pairing of a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) with an
unconditioned stimulus (US) to produce a conditioned response (CR), which
is the same as the unconditioned response (UR). It is associative learning,
where one learns that a preceding stimulus signals a subsequent event and,
therefore, triggers a conditioned response.
An unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning is a stimulus that
naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response (UR) without
prior learning. An unconditioned stimulus, therefore, is a biologically potent
stimulus that can elicit an involuntary response. This stimulus-response
relationship is innate, meaning the response is a reflexive or biological
reaction that occurs naturally when the unconditioned stimulus is presented.
For example, food was the unconditioned stimulus that naturally and
automatically triggered the dog’s salivation in Pavlov’s experiments.
An unconditioned response (UR) is an automatic, innate reaction elicited
by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning or conditioning. This
response is reflexive and occurs naturally when the unconditioned stimulus is
presented.
For example, the dog’s initial salivation was an unconditioned response to
food, the unconditioned stimulus and primary reinforcer in Pavlov’s
experiments.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that begins to
elicit a learned or conditioned response after being repeatedly paired with an
unconditioned stimulus. The process that transforms a neutral stimulus into a
conditioned stimulus is classical conditioning.
For example, in Pavlov’s experiments, the sound of a bell or metronome
became a conditioned stimulus that could elicit salivation in dogs after being
repeatedly paired with food.
A conditioned response (CR) is a learned reaction to a previously neutral
stimulus that has become a conditioned stimulus through classical
conditioning.
For example, the dog’s salivation on hearing the bell sound alone was a
conditioned response in Pavlov’s experiments.

Stimulus generalization occurs when a response to a specific stimulus is

elicited by similar, but not identical, stimuli. This happens because the
subject perceives these similar stimuli as being close enough to the original
conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus discrimination is the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli

and respond only to a specific conditioned stimulus. This occurs when a
subject learns that only the original stimulus predicts the unconditioned
stimulus, while similar stimuli do not. Stimulus discrimination is the opposite
of generalization.

Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a relatively passive and automatic process. During
classical conditioning the animal does not have to do anything to learn what
goes together. Learning occurs simply by being in the presence of two stimuli
(the CS and US), one of which automatically evokes a response (the UR).
Classical conditioning involves learning an association between two stimuli,
one of which elicits an involuntary response; no voluntary action is required.
Operant conditioning requires a voluntary action to be performed and has a
consequence. In operant conditioning, organisms associate their own actions
with consequences. Through operant conditioning, an animal learns
predictive associations between an action and its consequences that
determine the likelihood of that action being repeated.
According to this law of effect, any behavior that leads to a “satisfying state
of affairs” is likely to occur again. Any behavior that leads to an “annoying
state of affairs” is less likely to occur again. In other words, the likelihood of a
behavior occurring is influenced by its consequences.
Reinforcement always increases behavior. Through the administration of a
stimulus after a behavior, positive reinforcement increases the probability of
that behavior’s being repeated. Positive reinforcement is often called a
reward. Positive simply means that something is being added, not whether
the reinforcement is good. Rewarded behaviors increase in frequency, as
when people work harder in response to receiving praise or increased pay. In
contrast, negative reinforcement increases behavior through the removal of
an unpleasant stimulus. Negative simply means that something is being
removed.
Punishment reduces the probability that a behavior will recur. Punishment
and reinforcement have opposite effects on behavior. Whereas reinforcement
increases a behavior’s probability, punishment decreases its probability. For
example, giving your dog a treat each time it acts a certain way
(reinforcement) will increase the likelihood it will act that way. Sternly saying
“bad dog” each time it performs an action (punishment) will decrease the
likelihood of its performing that action.
Punishment can make a behavior less likely to occur through positive or
negative means. Again, positive or negative here means whether something
is added or removed, not whether it is good or bad. Positive punishment
decreases the behavior’s probability through the administration of a
stimulus. Usually the stimulus in positive punishment is unpleasant. Being
reprimanded is a form of positive punishment. Negative punishment
decreases the behavior’s probability through the removal of a usually
pleasant stimulus.

Social Learning
Social learning is a powerful adaptive tool for humans. Humans do not need
to personally experience a stimulus or event to learn that it is good or bad or
should be approached or avoided. Children can learn basic skills by watching
adults perform those skills. They can learn which things are safe to eat by
watching what adults eat. They can learn to fear dangerous objects and
dangerous situations by being told about these dangers or watching adults
avoid those objects and situations. Children even acquire beliefs through
observation and instruction. They learn by watching and listening as much as
by doing.
MODELING Because humans can learn through observation, we can be
taught many complex skills through demonstration. For instance, parents use
slow and exaggerated motions to show their children how to tie their shoes.
The imitation of observed behavior is called modeling. The term indicates
that people are reproducing the behaviors of models—those being observed.
Modeling in humans is influenced by numerous factors. Generally, we are
more likely to imitate the actions of models who are attractive, have high
status, and are somewhat similar to ourselves. The influence that models
have on behavior sometimes occurs implicitly, without people being aware
that their behaviors are being altered. Other times people might not want to
admit that they have changed their ways of speaking or dressing to resemble
those of people they admire, such as celebrities or the cool kids in the class.
Overwhelming evidence says, however, that people do imitate what they see
in others.
VICARIOUS LEARNING Through vicarious learning, people learn about an
action’s consequences by watching others being rewarded or punished for
performing the action. For instance, a teacher may make an example of a
student who did not do the homework by scolding this student in front of
classmates. By observing the consequences of this student’s behavior, other
students learn vicariously about the importance of completing homework.