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CHAPTER

4
Adapting Power
Training to Special
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Populations
Robert C. Linkul
Rhodri S. Lloyd

Many strength and conditioning professionals and personal trainers work with
a range of ages and abilities among their clientele. This chapter presents power
training guidelines for populations that have distinctive characteristics and may
require modification of standard training protocols to maximize training effects
and minimize risk of injury. When designing programs to improve power, it is
important to understand power training in the context of both young, devel-
oping athletes and older people who may have a variety of complicating factors
in their medical history.

TRAINING YOUTH POPULATIONS

Alongside physical fitness qualities such as motor skills, strength, and speed,
power is recognized as one of the key components of athleticism for children
and adolescents (51). Leading consensus indicates that enhancing levels of
athleticism over time to improve health, fitness, and physical performance
and reduce injury risk are the hallmarks of long-term athletic development for
youths (51). The capacity to produce high quantities of neuromuscular power is
a requirement for dynamic sporting performance (32, 35) and can differentiate
between playing levels in young athletes (45, 67). Neuromuscular power is also
an important physical attribute for deceleration and reacceleration when rapidly

The authors would like to acknowledge the significant contribution of N. Travis Triplett to this chapter.
2024. Human Kinetics.

EBSCO Publishing: eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) printed on 12/17/2024 3:13:15 PM UTC via JYVSKYLN YLIOPISTO - UNIVERSITY OF JYVSKYL 3879703; NSCA -National
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86 ■ Developing Power

changing direction or dealing with unanticipated movements (84). Therefore,

both children and adolescents should engage in training methods that promote
the development of neuromuscular power to enhance performance and reduce
injury risk.
The most common training modality for developing neuromuscular power in
youths is some form of resistance training (5, 26, 31, 46), a specialized method of
training whereby a person works against a wide range of resistive loads applied
through the use of body weight, weight machines, free weights (barbells and
dumbbells), elastic bands, and medicine balls (53). Despite previous concerns
regarding its safety, resistance training is now recognized as a safe and effective
vehicle for developing muscular strength and power in children and adolescents
and should serve as an essential component of physical activity for all youths
(53). Strength and conditioning professionals and personal trainers who plan,
deliver, and guide athletic development programs for youths should possess a
sound understanding of pediatric exercise science, a recognized professional
certification credential, a background in pedagogy (i.e., the method and practice
of teaching), and an ability to communicate with youths of different ages and
abilities (55).

Natural Development of Neuromuscular Power

in Youths
The natural development of neuromuscular power mirrors that of muscular
strength, which is unsurprising given the close association between the two
physical qualities (101) (see chapter 1 regarding the relationship between
strength and power). Indeed, much like muscular strength, natural increases
in neuromuscular power (as measured by performance in the standing long
jump, with jump distance as a proxy for power) have been shown to occur
in prepubertal children between the ages of 5 and 10 years (9). Maturation of
the central nervous system is typically responsible for the adaptations seen in
neuromuscular power during childhood. Specifically, the ability to activate and
coordinate motor units and the increased neural myelination improve neural
drive through this stage of development (25, 26). A secondary natural “spurt”
in neuromuscular power then appears to commence approximately 18 months
before peak height velocity (PHV), with peak gains typically occurring 6 to 12
months after PHV (7). Peak height velocity refers to the maximum rate of growth
during the adolescent growth spurt and occurs at approximately 11.5 years for
girls and 13.5 years for boys. In addition to the continuing maturation of the
nervous system, adolescence is associated with structural and architectural
changes in contractile tissue, which ultimately increase the capacity to generate
force (88). Proliferations in hormonal concentrations (including testosterone,
growth hormone, and insulin-like growth factor) mediate changes in muscle

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Adapting Power Training to Special Populations ■ 87

size, muscle pennation angle, and further motor unit differentiation (102). One
study indicated that school-aged boys who achieved large, worthwhile changes
in sprint speed (80% of the sample) and jump height (50% of the sample) also
achieved large changes in vastus lateralis and physiological muscle thickness
over an 18-month period (87).
The ability to produce high levels of muscular power depends on the type of
muscular action involved, and research has demonstrated that when a muscle
uses a stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), it can produce greater power outputs than
an isolated concentric muscle action (42). Owing to the dynamics of sport and
physical activity, rarely is a concentric action used in isolation; therefore, it is
important to consider how the regulation of SSC function changes as children
mature. Researchers have shown that the development of the SSC is nonlinear,
with periods of accelerated adaptation for a range of measures of SSC func-
tion reported for age ranges indicative of before and after PHV (59). Research
examining the way the neural regulation of SSC function changes in children
of different maturity groups showed that as children become older and more
mature, they become more reliant on feed-forward mechanisms (pre-activation)
to regulate cyclical high-speed activities that produce a high rate of force, such as
submaximal or maximal rebounding in place (57). Feed-forward activity reflects
involuntary anticipatory muscle activity prior to the observation of any spinal or
supraspinal reflexive activity. Previously, researchers showed that from a sample
of 127 school-aged children, post-PHV boys achieved greater measures of reactive
strength index (RSI) during a maximal five-rebound jump test than their pre-
PHV peers, likely underpinned by the larger relative net impulses driving higher
jump heights in the more mature group (86). Similarly, drop jump data from
a sample of 341 young male athletes (aged approximately 10-16 years) showed
that moderate increases in RSI from before to after PHV were underpinned by
large changes in jump height (attributable to very large increases in relative net
impulse) in the absence of any changes in ground contact time (44).
The increase in SSC function reported in boys does not necessarily follow the
same trajectory in girls. For example, drop jump data from 1,013 girls in middle
and high school showed that RSI and its constituent variables, jump height and
ground contact time, remained unchanged between prepubertal, pubertal, and
postpubertal groups (75). Therefore, there appear to be potential sex-specific
differences in SSC function that likely emerge during adolescence, which can
be attributed to the divergent development of neuromuscular properties in
males and females during adolescence (26). However, data from young female
gymnasts indicate that squat jump, countermovement jump, and drop jump
heights increased from early prepuberty to puberty among girls (65). Considering
the training practices of gymnasts, this demonstrates that appropriate training
can enhance SSC function despite the sex-related differences in neuromuscular
power that may manifest during adolescence.

Trainability of Neuromuscular Power in Youths

Researchers have shown that muscular power increases in a nonlinear fashion
throughout childhood and adolescence, with both boys and girls of all ages and
maturity levels able to show improvement as a result of growth and maturation
alone (8). This is an important factor for researchers, strength and conditioning
professionals, and personal trainers to consider as they plan and deliver training
programs, because growth and maturity-related increases in neuromuscular
power may be misinterpreted as training-induced adaptations. Consequently, to
confidently determine meaningful changes in performance associated with train-
ing, these professionals should understand the typical increases in performance
expected because of growth and maturation in addition to the measurement
error associated with the testing equipment used.
Researchers have shown that traditional resistance training, ballistic exercises,
plyometrics, and weightlifting are the most commonly used forms of resistance
training to develop neuromuscular power (13). While the interaction between
growth, maturation, and the trainability of neuromuscular power requires further
research, the results of several studies show that both children and adolescents
are able to increase this physical quality following exposure to appropriate
resistance-based training interventions (47, 54, 76, 99). Within the pediatric
literature, researchers have shown that traditional resistance training (52, 62, 66),
plyometrics (58, 76), weightlifting (11), explosive resistance training (30), and
combined training (107) are all safe and effective means of enhancing various
indices of neuromuscular power. Resistance training, as part of an integrative
neuromuscular training program, has also been shown to reduce the relative risk
of injury, with exposure at earlier stages of development proving to offer more
protective benefits (71). Resistance training has also been shown to increase
insulin sensitivity in youths who have obesity, because the training mode can
increase both the size and recruitment of fast-twitch muscle fibers (95).
Because there is little evidence of hypertrophic adaptations in children, resis-
tance training–induced increases in neuromuscular power during childhood
are likely determined by changes in the nervous system (6). Conversely, train-
ing-induced gains in neuromuscular power during adolescence typically reflect
not only adaptations to the nervous system but also structural and architectural
properties (26, 63). Researchers have indicated that maturity status, in addition
to baseline fitness, is a key predictor of training responsiveness in measures
of strength and power (52). More research is required to examine the specific
mechanisms that mediate training-induced gains in neuromuscular power in
youths, especially mechanisms that underpin long-term adaptations across dif-
ferent stages of maturation. Previously, researchers have shown that a training
prescription can be manipulated to mirror the training stimulus with naturally
occurring adaptations to augment the training response, a concept referred to
as synergistic adaptation (50). Specifically, a six-week, school-based, resistance

training intervention showed that pre-PHV boys responded more favorably to

plyometric training compared to post-PHV peers, who experienced a greater
training response to traditional resistance training (50). Plyometrics are likely to
stimulate neural adaptations, which also undergo marked natural development
from growth and maturation, whereas resistance training will drive neural and
structural adaptations and are likely to mirror the ongoing neural and structural
changes that are stimulated by adolescence. While synergistic adaptation is in
its relative infancy in the research, there is some supporting evidence that it
influences the development of strength and power (6) and sprint speed (69).
Additionally, meta-analytical data from 75 studies and >5,000 participants show
that the plyometric training response is heightened in pre-PHV boys, whereas
youths who are approaching or have reached PHV appear to respond more
favorably to traditional resistance training (76).
There is a fundamental relationship between muscular strength and neu-
romuscular power (see chapter 1). Evidence indicates that people with higher
strength levels have a greater capacity to produce power (13). Given its multiple
health and performance benefits and its ability to reduce the risk of injury,
resistance training should form an integral part of any youth-based strength
and conditioning program (53). Strength and conditioning professionals and
personal trainers should ensure that all children and adolescents are provided
with developmentally appropriate training strategies to develop sound move-
ment mechanics while simultaneously increasing muscular strength levels
(53). In combination, movement competency and muscular strength will serve
as the foundations for a robust system through which high levels of muscular
power can be produced and attenuated during whole-body dynamic activities.
Researchers have demonstrated the interplay between muscle strength and
movement competency, with data showing that relatively weaker school-aged
boys (as determined from relative peak force in the isometric mid-thigh pull
[IMTP]) were about 8 times more likely to be classified as lower competency
(assessed via the Resistance Training Skills Battery) than relatively stronger boys
(80). Similar data have emerged from adolescent females, with relatively stronger
girls (as measured via IMTP peak force) demonstrating fewer technical deficits
in both the back squat assessment and the drop jump (100). The emphasis on
muscular strength and movement competency is especially prudent considering
the negative trends in muscular strength levels and motor fitness of modern-day
youths (12, 91). Because of the increased sedentariness of children (103) and the
fact that they are less capable of maximally recruiting their high-threshold type
II motor units (18), it is highly probable that in most cases, simply focusing on
increasing their movement competency and muscular strength capacities will
indirectly increase neuromuscular power.
Researchers have examined the effects of a two-year resistance training pro-
gram on strength performance in youth soccer players and have shown that

the magnitude of strength gains increases with age (41). Long-term exposure
to periodized resistance training resulted in relative strength levels being 0.7 ×
body weight in 11- to 12-year-olds, 1.5 × body weight in 13- to 15-year-olds,
and 2.0 × body weight in 16- to 19-year-olds (41). In a separate study, the same
group of researchers showed that after two years of resistance training, 13-, 15-,
and 17-year-old soccer players simultaneously improved 1-repetition maximum
(1RM) squat strength by 100% to 300% and sprinting speed by 3% to 5%,
which was used as a surrogate measure of power (92). Collectively, these studies
underline the meaningful improvements that children and adolescents can make
in response to resistance training, especially over long-term training durations.
Not all youths wish to engage in competitive sports; therefore, strength and
conditioning professionals and personal trainers should not base strength and
power training programming on data from homogeneous populations (e.g., elite
youth soccer players). Researchers have examined the effectiveness of integrative
neuromuscular training interventions on the health- and skill-related measures
of fitness in seven-year-old children (23). They showed that children were
able to make significant gains in curl-up and push-up performance (increased
muscular strength and endurance) and in standing long jump and single-leg
hop performance (increased neuromuscular power) by following an eight-week
training program of 15-minute sessions twice a week (23). A follow-up study
showed that after an eight-week detraining period, training-induced gains in
curl-up and single-leg hop performance (muscular strength and endurance) were
maintained, while those for long-jump performance (neuromuscular power)
significantly decreased (24). This might suggest that muscular strength is easier
to maintain in children, while neuromuscular power capacities require more
frequent stimuli to prevent detraining.
Improvements in muscular power have also been shown in school-aged youths
who followed a four-week plyometric training program (58). Results showed that
12- and 15-year-old boys were able to significantly improve SSC function, while
nine-year-olds were also able to show improvements, albeit not significantly.
This may highlight an age-dependent response to plyometric training and may
indicate that younger children possibly require a different amount of training
to elicit gains similar to those their more mature peers experience. Conversely,
it could simply suggest that training-induced adaptation takes longer to mate-
rialize in younger children, which supports the notion of a long-term approach
to training for athletic development in youths. Moeskops and colleagues (66)
showed that prepubertal female gymnasts who completed a 10-month training
program made significant improvements in a range of isometric and dynamic
kinetics, standing long jump, sprint speed, and vaulting vertical takeoff veloc-
ity and that these changes were not evident in the “gymnastics only” group or
the “nongymnastics” control group. The results of this study also highlighted
that the adaptations realized in the program followed a sequence aligned with
classic block periodization theory. Notably, strength-related improvements were

LIONEL BONAVENTURE/AFP via Getty Images

Simone Biles utilizes muscular power to achieve incredible jump heights.

noted at four months, further strength gains and “power” adaptations were
noted at seven months, and improvements in sprint speed, spring-like behav-
ior, and vaulting takeoff velocity were determined at 10 months. Collectively,
these findings emphasize that even prepubertal children can make meaningful
improvements in strength and power but also that a periodized, long-term
approach to programming is highly effective.
Cumulatively, the results of existing studies within the literature base show
that both children and adolescents can make resistance training gains in neu-
romuscular power, that youths can make improvements in neuromuscular
power as a result of increasing their muscular strength capacities, and that
training-induced gains in neuromuscular power may diminish at a faster rate
than muscular strength in youths.

Translating the Science into Program Design

When designing training programs for children or adolescents, progression
should be based primarily on their technical competency. Strength and condition-
ing professionals and personal trainers should also consider the training age of the
child or adolescent (72), which reflects their relative experience (e.g., number of
years) of formalized training and, potentially, the type of training to which they
have been exposed. Coaches should also be aware of the biological maturation of
the person, because stages of development are characterized by unique physio-
logical adaptations that may influence the training response (56). Because of the

inherent variations in the timing, tempo, and magnitude of maturation, chrono-

logical age should not determine training prescriptions for youths. Psychosocial
maturity should also be taken into account when designing a program to meet
their individual needs (53). For example, an inexperienced and introverted child
lacking confidence may need simpler exercises, more conservative progressions,
and a greater degree of patience than an experienced, confident, and extroverted
adolescent. The following case studies demonstrate how training prescription is
altered in accordance with the individual needs of children or adolescents with
varying degrees of experience and technical competency.
Case Study 1: Child With No Training Experience
and Low Technical Competency
When young children are first exposed to a formalized strength and condi-
tioning program, it is not uncommon that they will be unable to demonstrate
competency in a range of motor skills. Consequently, the initial focus should
be directed toward developing a diverse range of motor skills alongside basic
strength development, which, combined, will positively influence power and
overall athleticism (figure 4.1).

Lower body
bilateral
(concentric and
Lower body eccentric) Upper body
unilateral pushing
(concentric and (vertical and
eccentric) horizontal)

Acceleration, Athletic Upper body

deceleration, motor skill pulling
and competencies (vertical and
reacceleration (AMSC) horizontal)

Throwing, Anti-rotation
catching, and and core
grasping bracing
Jumping,
landing, and
rebounding
mechanics

Figure 4.1 Athletic motor skill competencies.

From J.A. Moody, F. Naclerio, P. Green, E9041/NSCA/F04.01/721224/mh-R1
and R.S. Lloyd, 2013, Motor skill development in youths. In Strength and conditioning
for young athletes: Science and application, edited by R.S. Lloyd and J.L. Oliver (Oxon: Routledge), 53.

Before trying to develop muscular power, coaches should first look to increase
muscular strength levels, because untrained children with low technical com-
petency will likely be a considerable distance from their ceiling potential of
force-producing capacities. Therefore, in addition to training motor skills, base
levels of muscular strength should also be trained during the early stages of the
training program to enable the expression of higher levels of neuromuscular
power. This approach should also develop a robust and highly coordinated
neuromuscular system that youths can use to withstand the reactive and unpre-
dictable forces typically experienced within free play, sports, or recreational
physical activity. A sample training session for an inexperienced child with low
technical competency is provided in table 4.1.
Children with low technical competency should also be exposed to a range
of activities that enable the simultaneous development of other fitness qualities,
such as coordination, speed, power, agility, and flexibility (54). This is because
of the heightened neural plasticity associated with childhood and the accom-
panying trainability of neuromuscular qualities (6). While the development of
neuromuscular power is critical for sport performance, recreational physical
activity, and general health and well-being, taking a broader approach to athletic
development in youths is important because of the inherent trainability of all
fitness components at all stages of development (54). Consequently, strength and
conditioning professionals should not focus on one or two measures of fitness
but should rather provide complementary training activities that develop a wide
range of fitness components in a holistic program.
Additionally, a varied and holistic approach to athletic development is neces-
sary from a pedagogical perspective to keep training sessions fun, interesting,
and motivating for young children (51). Strength and conditioning professionals
and personal trainers should remember that many activities children engage in
on the playground (e.g., hopscotch) present opportunities for power training and
that child-friendly activities that might not reflect the traditional training modes
(e.g., advanced plyometrics or weightlifting) can still be effective in developing
neuromuscular power.
In terms of developing neuromuscular power, childhood can be viewed as
an opportune time to lay the foundation for general athleticism that will enable
youths to participate in more advanced training strategies as they become more
experienced. For example, a major goal for a child with low technical compe-
tency might be to develop the ability to jump and land effectively. This should be
viewed as a critical athletic motor skill that is required for a range of activities—for
example, plyometric training. Over time, and as technical competency and mus-
cular strength increase, the child can challenge this movement pattern through
a higher plyometric training stimulus that provides greater eccentric stress (e.g.,
drop jumps or bounding). Another example could be in the development of
weightlifting ability, whereby childhood should be viewed as an opportunity to

Table 4.1 Sample Training Session for a Child With No Training Experience and Low
Technical Competency
Volume
Phase Exercise Description (sets × reps) Intensity Rest (s)
Fun warm-up Animal shapes The child moves around 4 × 30 s Body weight 30
warm-up games and on the floor in multiple
directions, mimicking various
animal shapes (e.g., bear,
crab, or seal).
Bodyweight Deadbug The child lays on his or 2 × 10 Body weight 30
management her back with the arms (each side)
extended toward the ceiling
and the hips, knees, and
ankles at 90 degrees. The
child extends one leg and
one arm asynchronously,
then returns them to center.
Inchworm The child places the hands 2×8 Body weight 30
in front of the feet, then
walks the hands out as far as
possible while maintaining
torso control. The child
then walks the feet into the
hands.
Dish-to-arch roll The child rolls from a dish 2 × 8 each Body weight 30
position to an arch and back side
to a dish position without
the feet, hands, or head
touching the floor.
Front support The child adopts a front 2 × 10 m Body weight 45
(plank) walk support (plank) position,
while a partner supports
his or her ankles and shins.
The first child then moves
around the floor in multiple
directions and maintains
torso control.
Main 12 in. (30.5 cm) See the regressions for 3×4 Body weight 45
box jump the double-leg snap down
(chapter 6, page 141).
Resistance band See the chain- or band- 3×6 Body weight plus 60
overhead squat resisted back squat* (chapter band tension
6, page 172).
Push-up See the band push-up (page 3×6 Body weight 45
132), but exlude the band.
Band standing (chapter 5, page 134). 3×6 Body weight plus 45
row band tension
*This is a similar, but not identical, version of the recommended exercise that includes a bar; the resistance band overhead squat
does not include a bar and has the child holding a resistance band in an overhead (shoulder press) position while doing a squat.

develop basic motor skills that will help in the execution of full weightlifting
movements and their derivatives as technical competency improves (70).
Case Study 2: Technically Competent Adolescent
With Six Years of Training Experience
When a child has engaged with formalized training during childhood, adoles-
cence can serve as an ideal opportunity to build on existing levels of neuro-
muscular fitness. Developmentally appropriate training can be prescribed to
work synergistically with the heightened hormonal concentrations that result
from puberty. This enables adolescents to achieve greater neural, structural, and
architectural adaptations. Consequently, technically competent adolescents with
a sound training age should be able to generate greater force outputs at higher
velocities, thus enhancing their ability to produce high levels of neuromuscular
power. As part of their athletic development program, technically competent
adolescents of an appropriate training age should incorporate a variety of resis-
tance training modes to develop neuromuscular power, using higher intensities
(e.g., greater external loads or movement velocities), more sophisticated training
strategies (e.g., complex training or cluster training), more advanced technical
demands (e.g., accentuated plyometric training, weightlifting derivatives), or a

Table 4.2 Sample Training Session for a Technically Competent Adolescent With Six Years
of Training Experience
Volume Intensity Rest
Phase Exercise Description (sets × reps) (% 1RM) (min)
Physical Foam rolling The adolescent gently rolls specific body 2 × 10 N/A 1
Preparation parts over the top of the foam roller, (each side)
paying particular focus to areas of muscle
tightness or soreness.
Mini-band The adolescent steps laterally with a mini 2 × 10 N/A 1
walk band positioned just above the knees or (each side)
around the ankles.
Glute bridge Lying on his or her back with the knees 2 × 10 N/A 1
raised and the feet in contact with the floor, (each side)
the adolescent squeezes his or her glutes to
extend the hips toward the ceiling.
Single-leg hop See the progresssions and regressions for 2×4 N/A 1
and hold the single-leg snap down (chapter 6, page (each leg)
143).
Main 12 in. (30.5 cm) (See chapter 6, page 144). 4×3 Body 1-2
depth drop weight
Power clean See the power clean–related progressions 4×2 85 2-3
(chapter 8, page 215).
Back squat (See chapter 6, page 170). 4×5 85 2-3
Jump squat See the chain- or band-resisted back squat 4×4 30 2-3
variations (chapter 6, page 173).

combination of these variables. Regardless of an adolescent’s training history, his

or her motor skill competency should be regularly revisited to prevent technical
deficiencies over time stemming from sudden growth spurts, muscle imbalances,
or injury. A sample training session for an experienced and technically competent
adolescent is provided in table 4.2.

One Size Does Not Fit All: The Need for Flexible
Programming
Table 4.2 outlines an approach to develop neuromuscular power in an adolescent
who has engaged in formalized training during childhood. However, this plan
may not be appropriate for adolescents with no experience in athletic develop-
ment, irrespective of their maturity status. In this situation, the program should
still focus on mastering technical competency; however, the pedagogy involved
in coaching more basic training methods (e.g., to improve fundamental motor
skills) in older youths will likely differ from those used for younger children. Addi-
tionally, while possibly possessing greater levels of muscular strength, untrained
adolescents will typically lack flexibility or may present with muscle imbalances
that should be addressed in the early stages of the program before attempting to
specifically develop neuromuscular power. Conversely, when coaching a natu-
rally gifted and highly athletic child, they should be allowed to progress to more
advanced training strategies or increased intensities while being careful not to
sacrifice technical competency. These scenarios underscore the need to take a
flexible and individualized approach to training youths and coach what is seen.

TRAINING OLDER ADULTS

The ability of older adults (aged ≥65 years) to produce power is thought to be vital
for retaining neuromuscular function as they age. Eccentric strength and power
production in multiple different planes is key in preventing falls, which can lead to
increased morbidity and mortality (3, 29, 98). Retaining neuromuscular function
is important for a variety of reasons, including the ability to perform the activities
of daily living and preserve muscle mass, which is essential for maintaining a
healthy body composition and weight (61, 74, 89). Older adults best develop neu-
romuscular power through tempo-based resistance training, with heavily loaded
compound movements. A good portion of their exercises should include heavily
loaded movements (2, 38, 49) in addition to a specific emphasis on explosive or
ballistic movements that are age- and ability-appropriate, such as tempo lifting,
certain plyometric exercises, and implement release exercises (e.g., throws) (15).
Older adults should keep physical limitations in mind and perform power-based
movements only after developing a base level of strength (82). Therefore, strength
and conditioning professionals and personal trainers who choose to incorporate

power training into resistance exercise programs for older adults should conduct a
thorough assessment, needs analysis, and medical history to truly understand any
physical limitations and/or altered ability levels their client might have, because
this information is vital to the program design process (33). These professionals
should also hold a recognized strength and conditioning qualification, ideally
one specific to the older population, and understand the expected physiological
and biomechanical responses and adaptations in older adults.

Neuromuscular Decline With Aging

To understand the potential training adaptations to a strength and power training
program in the older population, it is necessary to first be familiar with typical
decline in physiological functioning of the muscular, neural, and skeletal systems.
One of the most evident changes in the aging body is sarcopenia, a condition
that causes long-term muscular atrophy and loss of function (3). Sarcopenia
is commonly associated with the involuntary loss of skeletal muscle mass and
strength, and it affects as much as 25% to 45% of the older adult population (19,
20, 48, 83). Much of this total muscle mass loss is caused by disproportionate
losses of the faster-contracting type II muscle fibers (48, 97), likely the result of
a reduction in high-force and rapid, “explosive” activities (19). In conjunction
with the atrophy of type II muscle fibers, the related motor neurons also decline
in function, firing at a lower rate in their range (105, 106). In addition, the motor
unit (a group of muscle fibers and the motor neuron that controls them) remod-
els, resulting in denervation of the type II muscle fibers and reinnervation by
the neurons associated with the slower-contracting type I muscle fibers (105,
106). Other changes brought on with age include decreased amounts of myelin
covering the motor neuron and reduced transmission of the neural signal to the
muscle cells (37, 40, 106). Combined, these alterations reduce force production
and contraction speed, thereby reducing power production in aging muscle.
Connective tissue that forms the joints and other connections between the
muscles and bones loses some elasticity and increases in stiffness beyond what
is optimal for the translation of force from the muscle to the tendon (1). The
ability of a tendon to absorb muscle force and store it as potential energy is crit-
ical to the functioning of the SSC. Therefore, reduced storage of elastic energy
results in a reduction in force and power production (1). Between the ages of
30 and 50 years, strength and power decline gradually. The greatest decline
in strength and power occurs after the age of 60. Starting the sixth decade of
life, older adults will experience a 3.6% loss in muscle strength and a 3% loss
in muscular power each year, on average (96). This is a staggering amount of
strength and power loss and is one of the primary reasons why fall risks are
projected to increase from 63% of older adults experiencing falls in 2014 to 66%
by the year 2030 (33, 96).

Trainability of Power in the Older Population

Numerous researchers have used a variety of power training modalities and
programming in older populations (39, 104). The most common modalities have
been hydraulic or pneumatic resistance exercise machines, release exercises (e.g.,
throws), and traditional free weights (17, 28, 74, 79). The most common way to
test for power involves a countermovement jump or exercises performed with
the intent to move rapidly (e.g., double-leg press in a pneumatic or hydraulic
machine) (10, 61). Because of the previously mentioned neural decline with
aging, machine exercises may be easier for novice individuals to learn because
the movements are less complex and are generally restricted to one plane of
movement, which should improve safety. In addition, hydraulic or pneumatic
resistance is accommodating and adjusts to the individual’s level of effort.
Release exercises (e.g., throws) are more advanced and therefore are typically
performed on a Smith machine (i.e., a guided bar) or with a sandbag, Jam-Ball
(also called a slam ball; i.e., a nonreactive medicine ball), medicine ball, or sand-
filled kettlebell type of implement that can be safely thrown without damaging
the equipment or the facility (15, 38).
Across any age, the relationship between muscular strength and neuromus-
cular power is the same, and stronger people have greater capacity to produce
power (13). Thus, the benefits of power training in older populations are better
realized after establishing a strength base. The other primary component of
power—movement speed—can be addressed successfully in a power training
program for older adults (21, 28, 64, 94). While the magnitude of improvement
in power is more modest than in a young person, positive functional adaptations
are nonetheless possible, and studies of power training in older adults have
shown varying levels of success (36, 64, 77, 79, 90, 93).
Power training can be approached in two ways. The most common method
is to perform high-speed, “explosive” movements (34, 73, 81), while the other
method is to perform movements with a specific emphasis placed on lifting the
tempo with the intent to move quickly (4, 61), which may or may not be possi-
ble based on the load. Each approach has pros and cons. Performing exercises
“explosively” commonly requires applying braking force (i.e., a net force less
than the system mass to permit deceleration via gravitational forces) to slow the
movement before reaching the end of the range of motion. This approach is more
commonly used for novice to intermediate clients. Because of the previously
mentioned losses in muscle mass, motor neuron function, and elasticity in the
connective tissues, older individuals are more affected by the higher forces seen
in explosive power exercises. This has implications for higher risk of injury, so
the emphasis must first be on developing consistent and flawless technique and
ensuring that an eight-week adaptation phase focused on improving strength
is implemented and successfully achieved.

Pneumatic or Hydraulic Training

Pneumatic or hydraulic machine exercises have the advantage that movements
can be performed with the intent to move fast but without the ballistic char-
acteristics at the end of a joint’s range of motion. A drawback to pneumatic or
hydraulic training is that many of these exercises take place in a fixed plane of
movement and are less likely to mimic daily life movements. Research using
eccentric training with a pneumatic training machine or open fly wheel device
has shown promise in improving clients’ power production with minimal wear
and tear on their body and joints (43). Eccentric-focused training with a con-
sistent load, an accommodating load, or a fly wheel resistance have shown to
improve balance, stability, strength, and power in older adults while producing
less stress and wear and tear on their joints (43). Pneumatic, hydraulic, and fly-
wheel eccentric and power-based training is a successful way to develop strength
and power with older adults; however, this style or tempo of lifting does take
time to master and requires a solid foundation of strength as a prerequisite to
minimize risk of injury and maximize potential for success.
Free Weight Training
Researchers have reported that free weight training with loads between 40%
and 80% of the 1RM (or a 4-8 on the rate of perceived exertion scale) is ideal
for older adults to maximize their power production in all modalities of power
training (60). Low to moderate loads (40%-80% of the 1RM) moved in a concen-
tric phase of less than 1 second followed by a 1- to 2-second controlled eccentric
phase allows the individual to move a low to moderate load quickly. This will
improve power (via the concentric phase) and increase strength (via the eccen-
tric phase) by maximizing the potential of the controlled eccentric contraction,
change of direction, and reacceleration of the load during a completed repetition
(60, 96). Performing 3 to 4 sets of 6 to 10 repetitions with this low to moderate
load should allow the individual to move concentrically with high velocity and
eccentrically with smooth low velocity even when fatigued (22). Building power
and strength in the same exercise is a very efficient and effective way to train.
However, it can be very exhausting and may require longer bouts of recovery
between sets and training days (96).
Release Exercises
Power can be developed using free weights, by performing plyometrics, or by
performing release (e.g., throwing) exercises. Free-weight training works well
for older adults and has a relatively low injury rate; however, performing plyo-
metrics (bounds, leaps, skips, jumps, etc.) can be rather risky for the aging body
that is undertrained or untrained. Plyometric and ballistic (i.e., jump training)
exercises, using only body weight, can result in impact forces on landing that
easily exceed three times the participant’s body weight (if not more), putting

overload stress on the joints and skeleton. This dynamic plyometric load can
be too much for an aging body to manage (if not already well trained), because
simply manipulating their own body weight at a slow and controlled speed can
be a challenge for older individuals.
Release exercises are an alternative to maximize the older adult’s ability to pro-
duce power. Low loads (30%-50% of the 1RM for release exercises and 5%-30%
of the 1RM for throwing exercises) can be effectively stabilized and accelerated
during these exercises to allow for power production to be safely obtained (15,
49). Free-weight and machine-based power training has been researched and
reported on for decades, showcasing that it does work efficiently, but does it
truly allow for “maximal” power production? Free-weight and machine-based
movements must be controlled through the entire range of motion with specific
emphasis on the end range of motion, commonly known as the follow-through
phase. An exercise such as a hang power clean must be pulled from the knees
to the shoulders (acceleration or concentric phase), where the weight has to be
stopped (or caught at the follow-through phase) and then returned (preparation
or eccentric phase) to the starting position to be repeated. Due to the deceleration
and catch of the follow-through phase, novice- to intermediate-level clients do not
typically possess the ability to truly perform the movement with 100% maximal
effort, because they must keep control of the load being lifted. If clients could
simply let go of the implement they are accelerating (i.e., in the vertical sandbag
toss), they would be able to maximize all their power-production abilities. This
is where release exercises such as a throw can be beneficial.
Release exercises (e.g., using a Smith machine to do the bench press, overhead
press, or high pull) and throwing exercises (e.g., using a sandbag, sand bell,
or medicine ball to do a slam, vertical toss, or lateral toss) are all movements
suitable for the aging body to safely and appropriately train for power without
having to control or catch weight; clients can simply let go at the top of the
acceleration phase (15). They will still experience the follow-through phase;
however, the load will no longer be present. During release exercises, the lifting
implement (the platform of the leg press or the bar in the Smith machine) will
have to be caught gently and shifted into the preparation phase by eccentrically
decelerating the load, changing direction, and then reaccelerating the load to
perform the next repetition (2, 15).
Regarding throwing exercises, strength and conditioning professionals and
personal trainers need to educate their clients on three criteria and practice
them regularly to ensure the safety and maximum performance of the client’s
experience. When throwing an implement, the following three rules should be
observed:
1. Never take the eyes off the implement. Even if receiving instructions
from a coach or workout partner, the person must stay focused on the
implement, or serious injury can occur.

2. Never attempt to catch the implement in flight. Thrown implements have

massive momentum and rotational spin and are made of shifting or sand-
based materials that make catching them very dangerous.
3. Never turn away from someone throwing an implement. It is the respon-
sibility of those around the individual throwing to get out of the way
of the implement being thrown. Some throwing movements, such as a
between-the-legs vertical toss, are performed with the participant’s back
to the landing area, and the throwing participant cannot see individuals
walking into the landing area. Thus, it is the responsibility of the non-
throwing participants to be aware of their surroundings and not get hit
by a thrown implement.

Translating the Science Into Program Design

The key concept when designing resistance training programs that include
power exercises or a phase of power development for older adults is the needs
analysis. Individual differences in training and medical histories will heavily
influence not only progressions in exercise selection (shown from left to right
in table 4.3) but also the programming and periodization of the training volume
(table 4.4) and other activities and additional stressors. Older adults should be
cleared by a physician for participation in an exercise program and should not
have serious orthopedic or cardiorespiratory conditions or be on medications that
may interfere with their ability to exert themselves physically (78). A secondary
concept when designing resistance training programs for older populations is
the amount of recovery, which is generally suggested to be longer regardless of
whether the primary program goal is hypertrophy, strength, or power. Research
reviewing 11 studies specific to power- and resistance-training recovery proto-
cols for older adults found that resistance training could be safely used by older
populations without concern for impaired recovery (27, 33). The traditional
guideline suggestion of 48 to 72 hours of recovery between training sessions (for
the same muscle group) is ideal. To break that down even further, the novice
older adult client (six months of experience or less) could benefit from a full 72
hours of true recovery between similar training sessions, whereas the advanced
older adult client (one year or more of experience) may benefit from 48 hours
of active recovery between similar training sessions (2).
After the assessment of the older adult has been completed and, where nec-
essary, a medical clearance has been provided, exercises can be selected. For
power training, the most common and effective explosive exercises involve
multiple joints and muscles and include machine exercises, free weights, and
release or throwing exercises such as the bench press release and the vertical
throw. Strength and conditioning professionals and personal trainers need
to keep in mind that developing a strength base for each of these exercises is

Table 4.3 Exercise Selection Progression Guide for Training the Older Adult
Movement
or position Exercise 1 Exercise 2 Exercise 3 Exercise 4 Exercise 5 Exercise 6
Hinge or Bridge Stiff-leg Sit to stand Goblet squat Deadlift Swing
squat deadlift
Row or pull Chest pull Seated row Pullover High pull Pulldown Single-arm
row
Push or press Chest press Decline press Overhead Bench press Incline press Push press
press
Split stance Sled push Step-up Split squat Lunge Drop-step Dynamic
lunge step-up or
split squat
Loaded carry Farmer carry Suitcase carry Goblet carry Hex or trap Waiter carry Overhead
bar carry carry
Complexes Hinge and Slam Jerk Clean Snatch Throw
high pull
Note: Reading the rows from left to right, the exercises progress in relative difficulty, complexity, or challenge from exercise 1
to exercise 6.

Table 4.4 Volume Guide for Training the Older Adult

Reps Sets Load Tempo Recovery
6-15 2-4 per exercise 40%-80% 1RM; 2:1 Standard 30-60 s
4-8 RPE 3:1 Eccentric
4:1 Eccentric
Note: 1RM = 1-repetition maximum; RPE = rate of perceived exertion.

necessary before attempting to perform them in a ballistic or explosive fashion.

Due to the risk of injury, older adult clients should participate in and complete
an 8- to 12-week adaptation-based traditional resistance training program (table
4.5) prior to the introduction of power-based movements (2).
Incorporating a variety of exercises into a periodized program is beneficial for
well-rounded physical development. Training the aging body comes with some
additional considerations of which strength and conditioning professionals and
personal trainers should be aware. Older adults may need more time to learn
each exercise thoroughly (neuromuscular adaptation) and be able to perform
each with proper technique because of the motor-unit recruitment changes that
occur with aging (105, 106). The common limitations that accompany aging
(i.e., arthritis, joint impingement or inflammation, and general muscle soreness
and tightness) may dictate a slower learning curve. Therefore, it may be best
not to introduce new exercises too frequently within the program, especially
for a novice client.

Table 4.5 Adaptation Phase Training Program (Beginning Older Adults)

Exercise Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8
Focus and Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation Eccentric Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation Eccentric
lifting 2:2 2:2 2:2 3:1 2:2 2:2 2:2 4:1
tempo
DB sit to 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×8 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×8
stand (40%) (45%) (50%) (40%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (50%)
DB bench 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×8 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×8
press (40%) (45%) (50%) (40%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (50%)
KB stiff-leg 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×8 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×8
deadlift or (40%) (45%) (50%) (40%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (50%)
RDL
Pulley 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×8 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×8
seated row (40%) (45%) (50%) (40%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (50%)
DB 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×8 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×8
suitcase (40%) (45%) (50%) (40%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (50%)
split squat
or step-up
Sled push — — — — 2 × 30 s 2 × 35 s 2 × 35 s 2 × 40 s
(40%) (45%) (45%) (50%)
Sled drag — — — — 2 × 30 s 2 × 35 s 2 × 35 s 2 × 40 s
(40%) (45%) (45%) (50%)
Note: For novice and intermediate older adults, some of the loads and repetitions usually associated with training athletic pop-
ulations may be too ambitious and are therefore modified slightly here. The emphasis should be to create progressive overload
through increasing volume (i.e., hypertrophy), load (i.e., strength), or movement velocity (i.e., power and speed) to target the
desired adaptations. The percentages in parentheses indicate the load; see table 4.4 for more detail. DB = dumbbell; KB =
kettlebell; RDL = Romanian deadlift.

Once the exercises have been chosen, incorporating them into a periodized
program is the next step (see chapter 3). Some exercises may not be performed
in a particular program phase because they are not the best choice for the set,
repetition, and load scheme (volume) in that phase or simply due to the complex-
ity of the movement pattern. It is important to think through which exercises
will be performed during each primary training phase based on the training
outcome or goal (e.g., hypertrophy, strength, power). For the novice older client,
the focus of each phase is more singular. Strength development should be the ini-
tial focus, followed by muscular development (hypertrophy) and then by power
development (tables 4.6 and 4.7). The novice client should not hurry through
any phases of their training program, because neuromuscular development of
movement patterns and the development of foundational strength-binding sites
are necessary for the progression of more muscular growth (hypertrophy) or
for power development (moving a load quickly) (2, 38). A more highly trained
older adult may spend more or less time on a particular training phase due to
their training outcomes or goals (tables 4.8 and 4.9).

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Table 4.6 Novice Older Adults: Workout 1 (Monday)
Exercise Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12

lifting tempo 2:2 2:2 2:1 3:1 2:1 2:2 2:1 3:1 2:1 2:2 2:1 3:1
DB single- 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
arm clean (40%) (45%) (50%) (60%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (65%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
and press
Hex bar 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
deadlift* (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
DB bench 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
press (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
DB suitcase 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
drop step (40%) (45%) (50%) (60%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (65%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
Lunge
DB three- 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
point single- (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
arm row
BALLISTIC WORK
Sled push — — — — 30 s 35 s 40 s 45 s 30 s 35 s 40 s 45 s
(50%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (50%) (60%) (65%) (70%)
Medicine ball — — — — 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6
lateral toss (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
Note: For novice and intermediate older adults, some of the loads and repetitions usually associated with training athletic populations may be too ambitious and are therefore
modified slightly here. The emphasis should be to create progressive overload through increasing volume (i.e., hypertrophy), load (i.e., strength), or movement velocity (i.e., power
and speed) to target the desired adaptations. The percentages in parentheses indicate the load; see table 4.4 for more detail. DB = dumbbell.
*Clients can use the loaded sit-to-stand squat or leg press if they are unable to perform this exercise.

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Table 4.7 Novice Older Adults: Workout 2 (Thursday)

Exercise Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12

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Focus and Adaptation Adaptation Speed Eccentric Hypertrophy Hypertrophy Speed Eccentric Hypertrophy Hypertrophy Speed Eccentric
lifting tempo 2:2 2:2 2:1 3:1 2:1 2:2 2:1 3:1 2:1 2:2 2:1 3:1
DB single- 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
arm snatch (40%) (45%) (50%) (60%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (65%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
Kettlebell or 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
DB goblet (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
squat*
Band or 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
pulley single- (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
arm chest
press
DB suitcase 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
single-leg (40%) (45%) (50%) (60%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (65%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
step-up
Band or 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
pulley seated (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
row
BALLISTIC WORK
Sled pull — — — — 30 s 35 s 40 s 45 s 30 s 35 s 40 s 45 s
(50%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (50%) (60%) (65%) (70%)
Medicine ball — — — — 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6 2 × 12 2 × 10 2×8 2×6
scoop toss (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
Note: For novice and intermediate older adults, some of the loads and repetitions usually associated with training athletic populations may be too ambitious and are therefore
modified slightly here. The emphasis should be to create progressive overload through increasing volume (i.e., hypertrophy), load (i.e., strength), or movement velocity (i.e., power
and speed) to target the desired adaptations. The percentages in parentheses indicate the load; see table 4.4 for more detail. DB = dumbbell.
*Clients can use the loaded sit-to-stand squat or leg press if they are unable to perform this exercise.

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Adapting Power Training to Special Populations ■ 105
Table 4.8 Advanced Older Adults: Workout 1 (Monday)

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Exercise Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12
Focus and Hypertrophy Hypertrophy Speed Eccentric Hypertrophy Hypertrophy Speed Eccentric Hypertrophy Hypertrophy Speed Eccentric
106 ■ Developing Power

lifting tempo 2:1 2:2 1:1 5:1 2:1 2:2 1:1 4:1 2:1 2:2 1:1 3:1
DB single- 3 × 12 3 × 10 3 × 8b 3×6 4 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8b 4×6 4 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8a 4×6
arm clean (50%) (55%) (60%) (65%) (55%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
and press
Hex bar 3 × 12 3 × 10 3 × 8b 3×6 3 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8b 4×6 3 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8a 4×6
deadlifta (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
DB bench 3 × 12 3 × 10 3 × 8b 3×6 3 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8b 4×6 3 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8a 4×6
press (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
DB suitcase 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
drop step (40%) (45%) (50%) (60%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (65%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
lunge
DB three- 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
point single- (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
arm row
BALLISTIC WORK
Sled push — — — — 2 × 30 s 2 × 35 s 3 × 40 s 3 × 45 s 3 × 30 s 3 × 35 s 3 × 40 s 3 × 45 s
(50%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (50%) (60%) (65%) (70%)
Medicine ball — — — — 2 × 12 2 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
lateral toss (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
Note: For novice and intermediate older adults, some of the loads and repetitions usually associated with training athletic populations may be too ambitious and are therefore
modified slightly here. The emphasis should be to create progressive overload through increasing volume (i.e., hypertrophy), load (i.e., strength), or movement velocity (i.e., power
and speed) to target the desired adaptations. The percentages in parentheses indicate the load; see table 4.4 for more detail. DB = dumbbell.
a
Clients can use the loaded sit-to-stand squat or leg press if they are unable to perform this exercise.
b
Emphasize a power-based lifting tempo.

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Table 4.9 Advanced Older Adults: Workout 2 (Thursday)

Exercise Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12

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Focus and Hypertrophy Hypertrophy Speed Eccentric Hypertrophy Hypertrophy Speed Eccentric Hypertrophy Hypertrophy Speed Eccentric
lifting tempo 2:1 2:2 1:1 5:1 2:1 2:2 1:1 4:1 2:1 2:2 1:1 3:1
DB single- 3 × 12 3 × 10 3 × 8b 3×6 4 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8b 4×6 4 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8a 4×6
arm snatcha (50%) (55%) (60%) (65%) (55%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
Kettlebell or 3 × 12 3 × 10 3 × 8b 3×6 3 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8b 4×6 3 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8a 4×6
DB goblet (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
squata
Band or 3 × 12 3 × 10 3 × 8b 3×6 3 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8b 4×6 3 × 12 4 × 10 4 × 8a 4×6
pulley single- (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
arm chest
press
DB suitcase 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
single-leg (40%) (45%) (50%) (60%) (50%) (55%) (60%) (65%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
step-up
Band or 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
pulley seated (50%-55%) (60%-65%) (70%-75%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (80%)
rows
BALLISTIC WORK
Sled pull — — — — 2 × 30 s 2 × 35 s 3 × 40 s 3 × 45 s 3 × 30 s 3 × 35 s 3 × 40 s 3 × 45 s
(50%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (50%) (60%) (65%) (70%)
Medicine ball — — — — 2 × 12 2 × 10 3×8 3×6 3 × 12 3 × 10 3×8 3×6
scoop toss (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%) (60%) (65%) (70%) (75%)
Note: For novice and intermediate older adults, some of the loads and repetitions usually associated with training athletic populations may be too ambitious and are therefore
modified slightly here. The emphasis should be to create progressive overload through increasing volume (i.e., hypertrophy), load (i.e., strength), or movement velocity (i.e., power
and speed) to target the desired adaptations. The percentages in parentheses indicate the load; see table 4.4 for more detail. DB = dumbbell.
a
Clients can use the loaded sit-to-stand squat or leg press if they are unable to perform this exercise.
b
Emphasize a power-based lifting tempo.

Selecting Specific Exercises for Training the Aging Body

The program design workouts found in tables 4.3 and 4.4 feature exercises
selected specifically for the aging body. It is the belief of this chapter’s first
contributor that bilateral lifting of one implement (i.e., barbells) can be more
uncomfortable for older clients who have physical limitations more commonly
found in the aging body (shoulder impingements, arthritis, medial or lateral
epicondylitis, etc.). Training with two individual implements that can move
independently of each other (dumbbells, fatbells or center-mass bells, kettlebells,
etc.) can provide a more comfortable lifting experience for the aging body with
physical limitations (108). For example, the pronated barbell bench press, pro-
nated barbell back squats, the pronated barbell overhead press, and pronated
barbell prone bench rows can stress physical limitations commonly associated
with aging. Using implements that allow for independent range of motion and
movement, such as dumbbells, kettlebells, or fatbells, allows clients to control or
advance their varying degrees of freedom via range of motion and the angle in
which they hold and maneuver the implement throughout the repetitions (108).
Along the same line of thinking, the trap bar or hex bar deadlift can provide
a more comfortable and safe lifting experience for the older and aging body,
because clients are placed inside the load as opposed to countering the load in
front of them. The neutral grip position of the trap bar or hex bar deadlift and
the extra height (1-3 inches [2.5-7.6 cm]) of the handles make this deadlift a
more anatomically comfortable lift with regard to the wrists, elbows, shoulders,
hips, and knees and their alignment in the neutral starting position. For an older
adult, the kettlebell deadlift (with a pulling height of 12 inches [30.5 cm]) can
produce an effect similar to the trap bar or hex bar deadlift, because clients can
place themselves directly over the top of the load and properly pull it from the
floor into a stable standing position, keeping the weight pulled as close to their
body as possible to reduce low back stress or pressure. Most older adults lack
the mobility and flexibility to address and grab a barbell (with a pulling height
of 8 inches [20.3 cm]) in a deeply flexed and pronated grip position with their
hands addressing the bar outside their knees; however, opening the stance (a
wide or sumo stance) and properly addressing a kettlebell with their hands
between their feet allows for a greater range of motion (depth), resulting in a
comfortable, safe, and effective movement.
One aspect with which strength and conditioning professionals may strug-
gle is how best to load the exercise when training for power with older adults.
Though research has been collected on this topic, the specifics of what load is
ideal for ultimate power production are still unclear. Currently, research supports
using a load ranging from 40% to 80% of the 1RM (16, 17, 28, 90). However,
the results of some studies showed ideal power development for both upper and
lower body exercises using 40% to 60% of the 1RM across the board (87, 100).
This is supported anecdotally by the first contributor of this chapter, because

he has used the 40% to 60% load and repetition scheme with his clients suc-
cessfully for over a decade.
Ideally, a variety of loads will be used, but load determination is influenced
by both the exercise selection and the goal of training (see chapter 3). Some
researchers have shown that balance and gait speed are more positively affected
by loads in the lower end of the training range (body weight to about 40% of
maximum), while getting up out of a chair or climbing steps is more positively
affected by loads of 50% to 80% of maximum (14, 90). Phases of a program that
use these varying loads can also vary in length. In more highly trained older
adults, a short phase (two weeks) may effectively be used, while a frailer novice
client may need eight weeks to make significant improvements.
How to Select the Proper Load for Older Adults: Criteria
for Success and Reduced Risk of Injury
Although the following three questions are quite simple, they are often over-
looked or simply ignored in the general scheme of program design for any client,
let alone the older adult. By addressing these three criteria, the strength and
conditioning professional or personal trainer should be able to select loads safely
and efficiently for their participants on a regular basis (49).
1. Can the client perform the number of repetitions set as the goal?
2. Can the client perform the number of repetitions and the exercise with
the proper technique throughout the entire set?
3. Can the client perform the number of repetitions with the proper tech-
nique at the lifting tempo that is required?
Criteria one and two are typically achieved; however, criterion three is what
most participants fail to maintain. The tempo will switch as fatigue sets in with
a load that is too heavy and a proper lifting tempo is no longer possible. For
example, a deadlift tempo of 3 seconds eccentric to 1 second concentric (i.e.,
3:1) is maintained for 5 of the desired 10 repetitions, but at repetition 6, the
tempo changes to 2 seconds eccentric and 2 seconds concentric (2:2) as the
client begins to struggle, and by repetition 8, the tempo has flipped to 1 second
eccentric and 3 seconds concentric (1:3) because the load is now obviously too
heavy for the client and he or she is struggling to perform any more repetitions.
Addressing these three criteria will reduce risk of injury due to overload and
will work toward pushing the client’s limits without exceeding them. Great
success, strength, and power gains can be achieved by enforcing these three
lifting criteria (49).
Otherwise, a program design for older adults is not that dissimilar to a design
for a younger adult, except for a slower overall progression. Loads are relative
to the person’s own strength levels, and programming should be goal driven,
with variety and adequate recovery (figure 4.2).

• Past or current disease or

orthopedic problems?
Obtain a medical and a training history.
• Resistance training or other
exercise background?

Select exercises based on program goals, • Structural or isolation exercises?

technique experience or ability, equipment • Resistance training background?
availability, and time availability. • Free weights or machines?
• Ideal workout length?

Determine training frequency based on • 2 or 3 times per week?

training status, load scheme, exercise • Heavy phase or lighter phase?
type, and other concurrent exercise. • Structural or isolation exercises?
• Other activities?

Arrange exercises in each training • Structural before accessory,

session according to their type. explosive before normal speed

Assign load, repetitions, and rest period

length based on the training goal.
• Higher volume, lower load, and short
rest vs. moderate volume, load,
and rest vs. lower volume, higher
Assign training volumes according to the load, and longer rest
training status and training goals.

Figure 4.2 Steps for constructing a periodized program for an older adult.
E9041/NSCA/F04.02/721229/mh-R1

CONCLUSION
When developing neuromuscular power in youths, recognize and follow these
key points:
f In children and adolescents, neuromuscular power will naturally increase
as a result of growth and maturation.
f All youths can make worthwhile gains in neuromuscular power when
exposed to developmentally appropriate training programs.
f While enhancing neuromuscular power might be the ultimate aim of a
youth-based strength and conditioning program, strength and condition-
ing professionals and personal trainers should first look to develop motor
skill competency and requisite levels of muscular strength.
f Irrespective of whether the training program attempts to develop motor
skills, muscular strength, or neuromuscular power, progression should
be based on a combination of technical competency, training age, and
biological and psychosocial maturation.

f Allow flexibility when designing and following a program to ensure that

the training prescribed meets an individual’s needs.
When a primary training goal is to develop neuromuscular power in an older
adult, take note of and follow these guidelines:
f Neuromuscular power is a function of both peak strength levels and the
ability to perform a movement rapidly.
f All older adults have the capacity to improve their neuromuscular power
somewhat with well-designed and well-implemented training programs,
using traditional resistance training, high-tempo or eccentric resistance
training, and release and throwing exercises. The range of their success
will depend on their individual work ethic, physical limitations, and
medical history.
f Training for neuromuscular power should be performed only after an older
adult has completed an eight-week adaptation-phase training program and
can perform movements with proper technique for the desired number
of sets and repetitions, both under load and at high or low lifting tempos.

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CHAPTER
5
Upper Body Power
Exercises
Disa L. Hatfield

Upper body power is critical in sports involving overhand or underhand

throwing, hitting, combat, or upper body propulsion. The physiology and
physics of power development of the upper body are the same as those of the
lower body. However, upper body power training presents unique training
considerations. Variance in recommendations for training intensity based on
sex, experience, and sport can make programming for developing upper body
power challenging. In addition, the research literature has not adequately
addressed many commonly debated issues, such as the role of rotational exer-
cises in improving transfer of momentum and the use of variable resistance
devices as training aids. The purpose of this chapter is to address performance
aids, training devices, and testing devices that are specific to upper body power
training and to provide techniques, instructions, and exercise variations for
upper body power exercises.

SPECIAL AIDS FOR UPPER BODY POWER

TRAINING
Coaches, strength and conditioning professionals, and athletes are always seek-
ing training devices or aids that will promote athletic performance. Aside from
dietary and supplemental ergogenic aids, a variety of products can enhance
power training and performance.

Power Training Aids

A key component of power training implements is the ability to train for ballistic
movements, allowing the athlete to accelerate throughout the entire concentric
range of motion and resulting in greater power output (35, 36). For this to occur,

113

athletes must release any weight or resistance they are holding. Thus, medicine
balls are the most common aids used in upper body power training and have
continued to evolve since they were first noted in modern literature in the late
19th century. Although medicine balls are often described within the scope of
plyometric exercises, many medicine ball exercises exceed 250 milliseconds of
movement time associated with plyometric tasks and are, in most cases, ballistic.
Medicine ball variations include those with handles, ropes, and rebounding and
nonrebounding capabilities (soft toss balls) and those that come with additional
rebounding components, such as vertical trampolines. Medicine balls come in
a variety of sizes and weights, are widely available at retail stores and through
fitness equipment manufacturers, and are cost-effective compared to other resis-
tance training modalities. Many of the exercises described in this chapter use a
medicine ball, which should be considered the minimum equipment required
for upper body power training.
A second ballistic training variation is a bench press throw. While the bench
press throw exercise has been shown to improve upper body power in the lit-
erature, it is a high-risk exercise (3, 5). A Smith machine allows an athlete to
catch a barbell more easily on the descent and also allows for a greater eccentric
preload. Most Smith machines come with adjustable stops that can be set to
stop the bar before impact in case of a missed catch. Some Smith machines are
equipped with a magnetic braking system to catch the bar, but a braking system
requires more time to reset between repetitions and negates the stretch-short-
ening cycle between repetitions. Overall, a Smith machine is an added cost,
takes up a great amount of space, and still involves risks. Because of this, the
popularity of variable-resistance training aids that require increased concentric
force through the range of motion has increased.
Special aids, such as resistance bands and chains, were first used by power-
lifters in their bench press training to increase the rate of force development.
While both aids increase resistance through the concentric range of motion,
resistance bands enhance the eccentric loading of a free-weight exercise, lead-
ing to maximized power output during the concentric phase (7, 21, 27). In
addition, proponents of these training aids suggest they may be beneficial in
decelerating bar speed (20, 27). However, research concerning the effectiveness
of using bands to increase strength is conflicting and fraught with potential
validity issues (7, 10, 26, 27, 44). Some evidence suggests that short-term training
(seven weeks) with elastic bands in addition to a free-weight barbell improves
upper and lower body strength and lower body power (1). In one study that
measured upper body power after training with bands, the authors reported
no significant differences between the results of using resistance bands in
conjunction with free-weight bench press training compared to seven weeks of
free-weight bench press training (21). In another study, large effect sizes for the

variable-resistance group (i.e., the group using bands) were reported, but these
differences were not statistically significant (39). The authors speculated that
this result was due to a small sample size and short duration of training (e.g.,
six weeks.) One potential drawback to using resistance bands during traditional
free-weight training is that the intensity of the load is not easily characterized
because of individual differences in bar path trajectory and length with and
without bands. This means that intensity can only be prescribed as a repetition
range (RM) and that the quantifying volume-load cannot be compared across
individual athletes. Researchers have noted that bands contribute 20% to 32%
of an individual’s 1RM to the training load (1, 27), but measuring this requires
additional equipment during practical application. The available literature is too
sparse to recommend the addition of resistance band training as a necessary
component of upper body power training, but it can be considered a novel
addition to training, with both potential benefits and limitations. This modality
is discussed in more detail in chapter 9.

Acute Performance Aids

Only a small body of literature addresses specialized aids to improve upper body
power production in an acute setting, such as an individual training session.
Compression garments are the most popular acute training aid.
How compression garments work to aid acute athletic performance is not
fully understood. Compression garments enhance the early concentric phase of
an exercise through stored elastic energy from the eccentric phase and subse-
quent increased velocity following the amortization phase (47). Some evidence
suggests that compression garments may aid in recovery after a strenuous resis-
tance training session, but sport-specific performance information is limited
(22, 24, 30) and suggests some markers of sport performance (i.e., throwing or
swinging accuracy) may be acutely improved but that velocity and power are
not affected (37).
Despite little research in this area, compression garments for upper body
athletic performance are popular in certain athletic populations, particularly
powerlifters. This has led to the development of commercially available devices,
such as the Sling Shot, for recreational powerlifters. The Sling Shot is an elastic
band worn across the chest while bench pressing. Researchers suggest that the
Sling Shot and similar devices, such as graduated compression sleeves, lead to
acute increases in 1RM and bar velocity during submaximal repetitions (16, 32).
However, despite a higher absolute load in the Sling Shot condition, a decrease
in muscle activation during both a 3RM (at 87.5% of the 1RM) and an 8RM (at
70% of the 1RM) in the triceps brachii and pectoralis major, as measured by
electromyograph, was observed due to the higher average 1RM load, suggesting
that muscular adaptations from chronic training might be negatively affected (16,

47). Compression garments may be useful in acute training to enhance power

and accuracy, but chronic training performance and physiological outcomes
have not been reported.

Bar Speed and Power Measuring Devices

to Monitor Training Progress
Independent of athletic performance, a variety of methods are available for
monitoring the progress of upper body power training. Commonly used field
tests include a simple medicine ball throw, such as a chest pass, for distance
(see chapter 2). While this test is certainly inexpensive and easy to administer,
few normative data are available that can be used for comparing athletes to the
sporting population (19).
Several commercially available devices, such as linear position transducers,
accelerometers, and laser devices, can determine power and velocity during
bar, medicine ball, and bodyweight exercises. These devices use either tensi-
ometry (to approximate bar speed from time displacement) or accelerometry
(to calculate velocity). The reported validity and reliability of these devices are
good in experimental conditions; however, measurement error in the field may
be quite high. To maintain good reliability within individual facilities, strength
and conditioning professionals should be trained in the setup and placement
of these devices so that within- and between-tester measurement conditions
are consistent. In addition, only a few devices have been validated for accuracy
across a wide range of loads (45).
Wearable inertial devices have been found to have good validity and reliability
to determine upper body power, but the results have not been documented with
a variety of training loads (38, 42). In addition, as with field tests, normative
data do not exist for a wide variety of populations (13, 19), although this does
not affect the use of these devices for longitudinal monitoring as long as the
testing procedures are standardized. Aside from testing, anecdotal evidence
suggests that some of these devices are used during training to monitor power
and velocity in acute sessions. Athletes typically try to remain within a certain
percentage of their maximum velocity or power output at a given load and thus
receive instant feedback that motivates them to maintain a high-power output on
each repetition or throw. However, more research is needed to fully understand
where velocity-loss thresholds should be set, especially for upper body power
training. A velocity-loss threshold set at 10% to 30% is potentially within the
measurement error of some devices. While kinematic software analysis has been
shown to be effective in teaching complex movements, programming based on
power output and barbell or ball velocity has not been well studied in upper
body power training (40). The use of velocity-based training is discussed in
more detail in chapter 9.

UPPER BODY POWER TRAINING

CONSIDERATIONS
There are multiple factors to consider when training to enhance upper body
power. For instance, production of upper body power rarely happens without
concomitant movement from the lower body. Optimizing the transfer of force
and power production from lower body movements can enhance upper body
power output (referred to as transfer of momentum). In addition, the prescrip-
tion of acute resistance program variables, such as intensity, when training for
power are not as well defined in evidence-based research as other performance
outcomes such as strength.

Transfer of Momentum
Ballistic exercises, in which deceleration of the bar or person is negated, are
necessary in upper body power training. Deceleration is needed in exercises
such as the bench press, because the bar must slow at the end of a bench press
motion so it does not leave the athlete’s hands (34). Thus, the agonist muscle
is not concentrically active through the whole range of motion (ROM) (36).
Momentum is the tendency of an object to continue moving and is defined as
mass multiplied by velocity. In a traditional bench press exercise, the point of
deceleration (sometimes referred to as the sticking point) theoretically depends on
training status, load, kinematics of muscle activation (such as in a concentric-only
versus an eccentric–concentric bench press,) and mechanical advantage of the
agonist muscles (31, 41, 46). To overcome the deceleration phenomenon (e.g.,
≤45% of the range of motion during a bench press, depending on load) (36),
it is necessary to either transfer the momentum to another object or continue
to accelerate and allow the bar to leave the athlete’s hands, such as in a bench
press throw (37). Resistance bands decrease the need for eccentric deceleration
by increasing the external resistance through the concentric ROM and allow
the muscle to continue to work concentrically through a greater ROM (21, 27).
The results of multiple studies suggest that upper body power has a meaning-
ful relationship with lower body power, similar to its relationship with dynamic
core strength (9, 11, 12). In an acute setting, throwing distance, velocity, and
peak power output of the upper body are all significantly increased when lower
limbs are used in the movement (9, 11, 12). Motions such as throwing a shot put,
shooting a basketball, or throwing a punch require a sequence of activation from
the ground up, in which momentum passes from the lower body to the torso,
the torso to the shoulder, the shoulder to the elbow, the elbow to the wrist and
fingers, and finally to the implement (37). Thus, lower body and torso power
movements and exercises that transfer momentum through the upper body
should be included in acute training sessions and longer-term training programs.

Intensity
Researchers have indicated that the intensity of upper body power training
may depend on sex, sport, arm length, and training experience (2, 3, 6). For
instance, researchers have reported that trained athletes produce maximal power
at a lower percentage of their 1RM in comparison to untrained individuals (3).
This training adaptation is important because it indicates the ability of trained
athletes to synchronously recruit motor units and shift the force–velocity curve
up. In basic terms, trained athletes are more explosive and require less initial
resistance to recruit fast-twitch fibers.
Researchers have reported that maximal power outputs during a bench press
throw in various athletic populations lie between 15% and 60% of the 1RM
(2, 4, 8, 33, 37). Athletes should strive to perform weighted upper body power
exercises at an intensity that produces the highest power. Bar speed measur-
ing devices, as described earlier in this chapter, allow for easy monitoring of
power during an exercise such as a bench press throw. If these devices are not
available, choose loads of 30% to 60%. One study found that while upper body
peak power occurred at 30% of the 1RM in the sample population, there were
no significant differences between power at 30%, 40%, or 50% of the 1RM (8).
In addition, the relative load that produced peak power in the upper body was
different from the relative load that produced peak power in the lower body.
Additionally, training power at a specific load tends to result in enhanced
performance at that load; therefore, training power across a spectrum of loads
may be most beneficial (14, 23). Because of the many factors that influence the
load at which peak power occurs, monitoring power during training may be
essential for an individualized training prescription.
Regardless, few field-friendly methods exist for monitoring velocity and power
while performing upper body power exercises such as medicine ball throws and
plyometric drills. Despite a lack of peer-reviewed recommendations of loading
intensity for medicine ball drills, plyometric and medicine ball training both
have been shown to improve athletic performance parameters such as throwing
and hitting velocity (11, 19). As such, plyometric and medicine ball training
should be thought of as essential to upper body power training, because both
work to enhance the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), thus increasing explosive
ability and power over time.

Rotator Cuff Mechanics

The muscles of the shoulder joint serve several purposes during power move-
ments, including dynamic stabilization of the joint, force generation, and
eccentric deceleration toward the end of the full ROM (25, 28, 37). Unlike other
joints, the glenohumeral joint is largely unstable, because only a small portion
of it articulates with the glenoid fossa; subsequently, the purpose of the sur-

rounding musculature is mainly to provide stabilization, not to produce power.

The unique functions of these muscles and the anatomy of the shoulder joint
result in a high rate of strain, impingement, and tendinitis in the surrounding
structures (25). Muscular imbalance caused by repetitive motion and overuse is
a factor in these injuries (28). However, despite the incidence of shoulder injury,
little research has been conducted concerning exercise volume, technique,
and adaptations in strength and conditioning programming, which may help
reduce the risk of injury in athletes (28). The research that does exist is highly
specialized and often uses clinical equipment that is not widely available, such
as isokinetic machines (19). Probably the most common generalized advice for
training rotator cuff mechanics is to address muscular imbalances that may
lead to injury (15, 28).
For the purposes of this chapter, coaches, strength and conditioning profes-
sionals, and athletes should consider the following:
f Despite the lower load of many power exercises, upper body power exer-
cises that contain an enhanced eccentric portion should be classified as
high intensity. Partner-assisted loading, rebounding, and resistance-band
exercises will increase the eccentric loading of the shoulder joint and
should be performed in lower volumes. While resistance bands increase
the resistance at the top end of an exercise to aid in decelerating the
movement, they also increase the eccentric force, which may increase
injury potential. The effects of acute and chronic training with these
devices on shoulder mechanics and movement have not been addressed.
f Release exercises such as the bench press throw and medicine ball exer-
cises can reduce but do not fully negate the need for deceleration.
f No power exercises exist for the rhomboids and latissimus dorsi, which
primarily function to stabilize the shoulder joint. If an athlete’s regular
sport training involves repetitive external rotation or pushing motions,
muscular imbalances between the anterior and posterior upper body may
be exacerbated. While some power exercises use shoulder muscles that are
involved in internal and external rotation, very few power exercises work
the rear deltoids, rhomboids, and latissimus dorsi. When programming
upper body power exercises, equalize the volume for muscle groups that
push and pull, or address the volume inequalities in the athlete’s tradi-
tional resistance training routine to prevent muscular imbalances that
can lead to rotator cuff injuries (28).

Rotational Exercises
Research suggests that isometric core strength is related to injury prevention and
athletic performance (17, 29, 34, 35). This, along with concerns that dynamic

abdominal exercise exacerbates low back pain, has led to programming solely
isometric core exercises, such as a plank, to improve abdominal strength (34).
However, research addressing the role of the trunk muscles in sport performance
suggests that dynamic training of the lateral core musculature (e.g., obliques)
allows for effective transfer of forces from the lower body and increases power
development of the upper body (18, 43). While performance research indicates
that athletes should train using the movements they will perform in their sport,
practitioners should also individually assess the history of lower back injury and
the athlete’s training status and then choose exercises accordingly. In addition,
it may be prudent to consider the sport-specific pattern of momentum transfer.
For instance, lower limb strength deficits have been reported to disrupt the
kinetic chain and contribute to impingement syndrome in the shoulder (25,
28). For additional information on rotational training and trunk strengthening,
see chapter 7.

UPPER BODY POWER EXERCISES

Choosing exercises to include in a program to train upper body power depends
on many factors. Considerations include loading, the athlete’s training expe-
rience, and the type of movement. To better facilitate these choices, exercises
described in this chapter are categorized as ballistic, plyometric, or variable
resisted exercises. Ballistic exercises aim to produce peak or near-peak power
outputs (usually with moderate loads over a prolonged movement time, such as
>250 milliseconds) and are traditionally defined as those in which the resistive
force leaves the athlete’s hands (such as a bench press throw) or the athlete leaves
the ground, negating the need for deceleration during the concentric muscle
action. Plyometric exercises can share commonality with ballistic exercises,
but the movement times are usually <250 milliseconds. For instance, exercises
such as bounding or depth jumps are ballistic (the athlete leaves the ground,
and the concentric portion of the exercise is not decelerated), but in plyometric
exercises, either a more complex movement pattern is used or the intensity of
the exercise is increased because of an enhanced eccentric portion. Variable
resistance exercises specifically use elastic bands to affect the absolute load
throughout the movement.

Exercise Finder
Exercise Exercise category Page number
Ballistic inverted row Ballistic 127
Band bench press Variable resistance 132
Band push-up Variable resistance 132
Band standing row Variable resistance 134
Bench press throw on Smith machine Ballistic 122

Ballistic Exercises
JUMP PUSH-UP
Aim
To improve upper body ballistic power.

Action
1. Start at the top of a push-up with
the head in a neutral position and
the arms extended (photo a).
2. Perform a standard push-up with
a
a full ROM (photo b), while explo-
sively extending the arms so the
hands leave the ground and land
in the same place (photo c).
3. Begin the next repetition imme-
diately after landing.
Variations
b See band and depth-drop push-ups.
As a ballistic exercise, jump push-ups
may also be done with a weight vest,
if the athlete has sufficient strength
and control.

BENCH PRESS THROW ON SMITH MACHINE

Aim
To allow for maximal power generation throughout the range of motion with minimal
braking or deceleration at the end of the concentric motion.

Action
1. Most Smith machines come equipped with a safety lock, racks, or both that can
be set to just above chest level, meaning the bar will not touch the chest. Set the
safety locks at a height that prevents the bar from landing on the athlete if he or
she and the spotter both fail to catch the bar.
2. Use a spotter for this exercise.
3. The start position is the same as for a standard flat barbell bench press. Carefully
unrack the weight and hold it with the arms extended. The spotter helps the
athlete unrack the bar. If the athlete rotated his or her hands during the unrack,
the hands should be repositioned to the appropriate placement after turning the
bar to unlock it from the rack (i.e., regrip). The spotter should help stabilize the
bar during this process.
4. Begin by flexing the elbows and lowering bar toward the chest.
5. At the bottom of the movement, rapidly extend the elbows and release the bar
when the elbows reach full extension.
6. Catch the bar in its downward path, quickly lower it to a self-selected depth, and
then begin the next repetition. The spotter should help catch the bar to make sure
the athlete has control, and the safety locks should be positioned so that the bar
cannot touch the athlete’s chest.
7. The spotter should remain diligent during the entire motion to help the athlete
catch the bar.

Variations
Devices are available that attach to the bar and automatically catch the bar when it
starts to descend after the throw; however, these also negate the optimized eccentric
loading of the exercise.

STABILITY BALL SHOULDER ROLL

Aim
To improve ballistic upper body power generation in athletes who may not be capable
of performing jump push-ups or banded push-ups.

Action
1. Lie prone with the arms and legs extended over a stability ball. The ball should
be large enough that the feet touch the ground in the starting position (photo a).
2. Carefully flex the knees, then extend the legs rapidly while the trunk rolls over
the ball.
3. Once the hands reach the floor, flex the elbows for the countermovement (photo b).
4. Rapidly extend the elbows and roll back to the starting position.

SCOOP TOSS
Aim
To improve external rotational ballistic power.

Action
1. Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart.
2. Hold a medicine ball at hip level, with the arms fully extended (photo a).
3. Perform the countermovement by flexing the hips and knees to approximately a
half-squat position (photo b).
4. The athlete concentrically extends the knees and hips while externally rotating
at the shoulders to throw the ball up and backward over the head in a rapid and
controlled manner (photo c).

a b c

SLED ROW
Aim
To develop upper body power using a ballistic pulling movement.

Action
1. Begin by standing in an upright athletic stance, holding the attached ropes at a
fully extended length (photo a).
2. Perform a standard row by flexing at the elbows through a full ROM, keeping the
hands at midtorso level, and rapidly pull the sled toward the body while maintaining
an athletic stance with the lower body (photo b).
3. Walk or run backward until the rope is at length again and repeat the row. Care
should be taken that the rope is long enough or the sled load is heavy enough
that the sled cannot be pulled the complete distance and cause a collision.

Variations
Intensity can be varied by increasing or decreasing the load on the sled. In addition,
this exercise can be done with one arm.

DROP-CATCH LANDMINE ROW

Aim
To develop upper body power using a ballistic pulling movement.

Action
1. Begin by standing in the
standard bent-row posi-
tion (slight knee flexion
and hip flexion), holding
the bar just underneath
the collar (photo a).
2. Perform a standard row
by rapidly flexing at the
elbow through a full
ROM and releasing the
bar at the top (photo b).
a
3. Catch the bar while still
maintaining position and
prepare for the next
repetition (photo c).

Variations
Intensity can be varied by
increasing or decreasing the
load on the bar, but ensure
that any added plates will
not come in contact with the
athlete during the exercise.

BALLISTIC INVERTED ROW

Aim
To develop upper body power using a ballistic pulling movement.
Action
1. Position a bar 2 to 3 feet
(0.6-0.9 m) off the ground
in a rack. Begin in a prone
position, gripping the bar
slightly wider than shoul-
der-width apart. The back
should not be in contact
with the ground (photo a).
2. Perform an inverted row by
rapidly flexing at the elbows
a through a full ROM. The bar
should be about midster-
num at the end of the ROM
(photo b). Toward the end
of the ROM, release the bar
and switch to a very close
grip (hands should almost
be touching) (photo c). This
switch should occur before
the beginning of the next
concentric action.
3. Repeat the concentric
action, alternating the grip-
b switch.
Variations
Intensity can be decreased by
flexing the knees and placing the
feet closer to the center of grav-
ity. Intensity can be increased by
wearing a weighted vest.

Plyometric Exercises
DEPTH-DROP PUSH-UP
Aim
To develop upper body power through enhanced eccentric loading and a short contact
time with the ground. The athlete’s relative strength may be a factor in keeping a short
amortization phase and maintaining the plyometric nature of the exercise. For many
individuals, this may be classified as a ballistic rather than plyometric exercise, due to
the ground contact time being >250 milliseconds.

Action
1. Begin at the bottom of the push-up position, with the hands on raised platforms
(of equal height) placed on either side of the shoulders. Generally, the height
of the blocks, platforms, or sometimes bumper plates used is between 2 and 6
inches (5.1-15.2 cm) (photo a).
2. Begin the movement by extending the elbows, then move the hands off the
platform and onto the floor (photo b).
3. Explosively extend the arms so that the hands leave the ground (photo c) and
land back on the platform.
The platform height will vary depending on the intensity desired, the athlete’s experi-
ence level, and the length of the athlete’s arms. Higher platforms will result in greater
eccentric loading and are more appropriate for experienced athletes.

Variations
• Begin at the bottom position of the push-up, with the hands on top of a
medicine ball (in line with the upper chest) and the arms extended, then move
the hands from the ball to the floor (approximately shoulder-width apart) and
perform a push-up to the level of the ball.
• Explosively extend the elbows so that the hands leave the ground and land
back on the ball.
• The height of the medicine ball will vary depending on the intensity desired,
the athlete’s experience level, and the length of the athlete’s arms.

a b c

CHEST PASS
Aim
To translate increased power in sport-specific passes through a practiced shortened
amortization phase time and enhanced eccentric loading.

Action
1. Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart and hold a medicine ball at the center
of the chest (photo a).
2. Perform a countermovement by flexing the elbows before the throw, then slightly
flex the knees and hips to produce a lower body countermovement (photo b).
3. During knee and hip extension, extend the elbows and release the ball at full
extension (photo c).

a b c

Variations
• Perform chest passes as quickly as possible with a partner to allow for en-
hanced eccentric loading and optimization of the SSC.
• For a deltoid exercise, throw the medicine ball straight up into the air from
the center of the chest. Ensure no one else is in the immediate area in case
the throw goes awry. The athlete must be prepared to catch the ball on the
descent.
• To perform the exercise without a partner, throw a larger soft toss (nonbounce)
medicine ball against a wall. (These balls diminish the rebound effect.) Start in
the original stance on both feet. As the ball releases, explosively jump forward

off one leg and land on the

opposite foot, as in a forward
pass in basketball. This is an
intermediate-level exercise
(photo d).
• Perform the exercise using a
rebounder, such as a vertically
mounted trampoline (interme-
diate level).

OVERHEAD THROW
Aim
To improve overhead throwing power.

Action
1. Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart, holding a medicine ball in front of the
body with the arms extended (photo a).
2. Flex the shoulders to lift the ball over and slightly behind the head (photo b).
3. Keeping the elbows extended, extend the shoulders to throw the ball toward a
wall, being sure to release the ball while it is still over the head (photo c).
4. Aim the ball at a spot on the wall so that when it rebounds, it returns to the hands,
which are still positioned over the head.

Variations
• Throw for distance instead of using a wall for the rebound (novice level).
• Instead of releasing the ball over the head, maintain contact with the ball and
slam it toward the ground while simultaneously flexing the knees and hips to
about a quarter-squat position. This is a novice-level variation, commonly called
a medicine ball slam; use a soft toss ball for minimal rebound.
• For an advanced variation, use a split stance and an explosive forward jump
during the overhead throw, maintaining awareness of the rebound (photo d).
• For an intermediate variation, use a rebounder.

a b c

Variable Resistance Exercises

A flat band or tubing offers both resistance during the concentric muscle action and
an enhanced eccentric action (as opposed to a weight or dumbbell placed on the
athlete’s back, which does not offer enhanced loading). As a variable resistance aid,
bands allow for increased velocity at the start of the concentric phase. The enhanced
eccentric loading may increase potential energy storage and concentric power.

BAND PUSH-UP
Aim
To improve eccentric loading and facilitate force generation throughout the concentric
range of motion.
Action
1. In a push-up position, hold one
end of a flat resistance band or
tubing in each hand, with the
band or tubing running across
the upper back and rear deltoids
(photo a).
a
2. Perform a standard push-up
(photo b).

Variations
Increase intensity by leaving the
ground, similar to a jump push-up.

BAND BENCH PRESS

Aim
To improve eccentric loading and facilitate force generation throughout the concentric
range of motion.

Action
1. Perform this exercise using the same form as a standard flat barbell bench press.
2. Loop one end of a flat resistance band (resistance tubing is not strong enough for
this exercise) on each side of the bar on the inside of the sleeve close to the weights.

3. Attach the other end of each band to a rack (newer models come with hooks on
the edge of the platform near the floor) or to a heavy dumbbell placed on the
floor. If dumbbells are used, they should be heavy enough that they will not be
lifted during the movement. Typically, the total dumbbell weight should exceed
the bar’s weight.
4. Spotter duties are similar to those for the barbell bench press. However, the added
resistance of the bands will increase the tension when the spotter hands off the
bar and may also lead to more instability during the handoff. The spotter should
release the bar smoothly into the athlete’s hands. In addition, the spotter is at
added risk because of the potential for the bands to snap or the dumbbells to roll.
5. The bands should be as vertical as possible when the bar is unracked and in the
standard start position (photo a).
6. The resistance band will offer an enhanced eccentric load and more resistance at
the end of the concentric action to help slow the movement velocity. This tension
can lead to wavering of the bar if the athlete does not have complete control of
the bar and can also lead to a rebound effect at the end of the movement when
the band snaps the bar back down.
7. Focus on moving the bar explosively through a full ROM but without bouncing
the bar off the chest (photo b).

Variations
Intensity can be adjusted by varying the weight on the bar and the length and thickness
of the resistance band, as long as the athlete can move with great velocity.

a b

BAND STANDING ROW

Aim
To increase force generation throughout a concentric range of motion.

Action
1. Attach a resistance band to a stable rack at approximately chest level.
2. Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart and grasp the ends of the band.
3. Start the movement with the elbows fully extended and the band held taut but
not stretched (photo a).
4. Fully flex the elbows to perform a rowing movement through a full ROM (photo
b), then quickly return to the starting position and begin the next repetition.

Variations
• The intensity depends on the thickness and length of the band used and the
distance the athlete stands from the band attachment site.
• This exercise can be varied in the same manner as a barbell or dumbbell row
exercise.

a b

CONCLUSION
Developing upper body power is complex. Strength and conditioning profes-
sionals consider an athlete’s level (i.e., novice, intermediate, or advanced) when
choosing exercises and designing a program. In addition, several training aids,
such as elastic bands and plyometric exercises, may enhance the intrinsic prop-
erties of power development. However, the literature neither presents a clear
picture of the long-term effects of using these aids nor offers concrete evidence
on establishing training intensity. Applied recommendations include training
at 30% to 60% of the 1RM for optimal power development and using both bal-
listic and plyometric exercises in training. In addition, establishing a strength
base in both the upper and lower body may lead to reduced injury and greater
improvement in the transfer of momentum for sport-specific activities such as
ball passing, pitching, and stick shooting.

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CHAPTER
6
Lower Body Power
Exercises
Bobby Smith
Brandon Burdge

Lower body power is critical for enhancing athletic performance for many sports
(13). Power needs to be expressed in a variety of ways for each sport and its
positional requirements. The most common movements used to develop lower
body power are vertical jumping tasks. The vertical jump is one of the most
versatile exercises due to the ability to add variety to the movement. Because of
this versatility, vertical jumping tasks can be subdivided into ballistic (i.e., slow
stretch-shortening cycle [SSC]; ground contact time [GCT], >250 milliseconds)
and plyometric (i.e., fast SSC; GCT, ≤250 milliseconds). When considering tools
to use, it is important to consider the process of progression to ensure athletes
are perfecting the basics while adding complexity to their training regimen to
include multiple qualities (i.e., force production, rate of force development, and
elasticity) and patterns (vertical, linear, lateral, etc.).
When training for power, two underlying factors need to be considered: force
and velocity, or work done divided by time (see chapters 1 and 2). This chapter
will discuss a variety of plyometric and ballistic movements; both modalities
fall on multiple areas of the force–velocity curve while involving the SSC, which
is imperative for power development. Both also rely on the neurophysiological
aspect (i.e., the myotatic stretch reflex) and elastic components associated with
the SSC. In SSC-based movements, the eccentric force, reflex stimuli, and elastic
contributions are greater than normal due to the rapid descent, which increases
the eccentric (stretch) load. For instance, a depth jump within a training ses-
sion magnifies the eccentric portion of the movement due to the height from
which the athlete is dropping, increasing velocity and therefore momentum

137

(momentum = mass × velocity) on ground contact. The increased momentum

requires a greater braking (i.e., eccentric) impulse, equivalent to the individual’s
momentum, to decelerate. Although a depth jump belongs more in the ballistic
category due to the larger angular displacement of the joints and longer GCT, it
also emphasizes the use of the myotatic stretch reflex of the SSC. On the other
hand, a drop jump with reduced angular displacement and a shorter GCT will
emphasize the use of the elastic components of the SSC, making it a plyometric
exercise. The main difference between these exercises is that the peak knee and
hip angle in the drop jump will be less than in the depth jump to allow for a
quicker, more springy action from eccentric to concentric, with the drop jump
being more ankle dominant and exhibiting a short GCT (e.g., <250 milliseconds).
Effective lower body power training should not only improve the way one can
produce force quickly but also be able to dissipate impact force and redistribute
force throughout the body when performing tasks within the respective sport.
Many movements within field sports are ground based and require moving
in multiple planes of motion. The body positioning and direction in which
movement is occurring will determine the ability of the muscles and tendons
to produce force and absorb forces, respectively. For instance, jumping sports
with a run-up start (e.g., basketball, volleyball, and high jump) should consider
movements that require athletes to reorganize their body position to be able
to redirect and produce force quickly when moving dynamically. Coaches and
strength and conditioning professionals who work with athletes in high-contact
sports (e.g., football, rugby) should consider using movements or methods that
expose their athletes to high forces and high rates of force development to pre-
pare them for heavy-duty contact from another athletes. Training programs for
locomotion sports (e.g., hockey, ice skating, and cycling) should include move-
ments and methods that enhance the athletes’ ability to accelerate and maneuver.
The most important consideration when applying lower body power training
is the safety of the athlete. Injuries happen not only when the body is accelerat-
ing (e.g., baseball or softball players straining their hamstrings when rounding
a base) but also when it is decelerating (e.g., a basketball guard cutting the rim
and rupturing an anterior cruciate ligament). Deceleration mechanics, some-
times incorrectly referred to as force absorption (muscles must produce force to
decelerate the athlete, based on the impulse–momentum relationship), should be
a fundamental movement quality in training programs to train the deceleration
(i.e., eccentric) portion of the SSC. This is very important for change-of-direction
and agility movements (e.g., a running back in American football), jumping and
landing (e.g., a basketball forward coming down from a rebound), and speed
(e.g., a soccer midfielder maneuvering through defenders) (8). Coaches and
athletes should consider unique tools for training deceleration mechanics that
are relative to the sport and positional requirements (8).

Outlined in this chapter are key exercises and methods that lead to superior
lower body strength, power, and elasticity. The exercises are organized into
four categories: deceleration (i.e., force absorption), force production, plyomet-
ric, and ballistic. The deceleration category ties into the eccentric actions of
movements, whereas the force production category ties into the eccentric and
concentric actions of movements. Plyometrics and ballistics tie into the coupling
of eccentric and concentric movements. The ballistic category includes two
subcategories (preballistic and ballistic exercises) and provides greater detail on
major considerations, methodology, modalities, and so on. Each category lists
key exercises with sample progressions and regressions and is divided into four
planes of motion (vertical, linear, lateral, and rotational).

DECELERATION EXERCISES
Learning to attenuate force through landing, decelerating the center of mass, and
stabilizing is part of an effective training program. For sports that rely on rapid
changes of direction, developing proper mechanics and power in attenuating
force is critical to injury prevention and performance. Prioritizing skills in this
order ensures that athletes are technically and physically prepared to tolerate the
high demands of landing and cutting motions, including appropriate landing
mechanics (8). In all contexts, athletes should aim to develop effective biomotor
abilities, placing particular emphasis on control, motion, and strength from the
earliest age possible to ensure that proper structural strength, stability, range,
and movement are developed for deceleration tasks.
The biggest benefit of appropriate deceleration exercises is the ability to control
body position and redistribute force throughout the body. If the body has a mis-
alignment within the bones or joint structure, it will directly affect the muscles’
function to produce force or stabilize certain joint structures throughout the
kinetic chain—the interrelated groups of body segments, connecting joints, and
muscles working together to perform movements and the portion of the spine
to which they connect (14). For example, if an athlete is performing a double-leg
hurdle jump and lands with excessive knee valgus (knees rotated inward toward
the midline), this affects not only the ability to decelerate or dissipate force from
the ground but also to produce force when jumping out of that position. There
are myriad reasons why this happens (i.e., lack of body awareness, restrictions
within certain joint structures, or weakness in certain muscle groups), but it is
important for the strength and conditioning professional to step in and educate
when the issue is relevant to the task at hand. The use of augmented feedback
(e.g., video analysis) is an effective way to intervene and reassure athletes that
they are executing a skill correctly (11). The skill of deceleration with appro-
priate mechanics (i.e., body posture) requires regular attention and practice to
ensure quality of movement. The volume may vary based on the complexity

of the movement and the goals of the training program. The force generated
in some exercises can be very high (e.g., a snap down or a depth drop), so it is
important to keep in mind that the exercise selection should match the com-
plexity, volume, and intensity of the movement as well as the athlete’s readiness
and training maturity.

Exercise Finder
Exercise Exercise category Page number
90-degree single-leg vertical hop Force production: 158
rotational plane
90-degree vertical jump Force production: 157
rotational plane
Band- or chain-resisted hex bar deadlift Jerk-related 173
Barbell back squat Ballistic-related: 170
preballistic
Barbell front squat Ballistic-related: 169
preballistic
Chain- or band-resisted back squat Ballistic-related: ballistic 173
Chain- or band-resisted front squat Ballistic-related: ballistic 172
Depth drop Deceleration 144
Double-leg forward or backward pogo hop Plyometric: linear plane 162
Double-leg pogo hop Plyometric: vertical plane 160
Double-leg snap down Deceleration 141
Dumbbell jump Ballistic-related: ballistic 174
Hex barbell deadlift Ballistic-related: 172
preballistic
Hurdle jump Force production: linear 150
plane
Landmine rotational press Ballistic-related: ballistic 175
Lateral or medial hop Force production: lateral 155
plane
Lateral pogo hop Plyometric: frontal plane 163
Lateral vertical jump Force production: lateral 153
plane
Push and recover Force production: lateral 156
plane
Resisted lateral push and recover Ballistic-related: ballistic 174
Resisted sprint Force production: linear 152
plane/ ballistic-related:
ballistic
Rotational pogo hop Plyometric: rotational 165
plane

Exercise Exercise category Page number

Single-leg forward hurdle hop Force production: linear 151
plane
Single-leg forward or backward pogo hop Plyometric: linear plane 163
Single-leg lateral or medial pogo hop Plyometric: frontal plane 164
Single-leg pogo hop Plyometric: vertical plane 161
Single-leg rotational pogo hop Plyometric: rotational 165
plane
Single-leg snap down Deceleration 143
Single-leg vertical jump Force production: vertical 148
plane
Split jump Force production: vertical 147
plane
Split-stance snap down Deceleration 142
Standing long jump (also referred to as the Force production: linear 149
broad or horizontal jump) plane
Vertical jump (countermovement jump) Force production: vertical 145
plane

Deceleration Exercises
DOUBLE-LEG SNAP DOWN
Aim
To train the body to effectively decel-
erate in a bilateral stance while main-
taining control, avoiding knee valgus
and excessive forward lean of the trunk
when descending from a jump or plyo-
metric exercise.

Action
1. Start with the arms above the head,
standing tall on the toes (photo a).
2. Rapidly bring the arms down and
behind the body, while rapidly
flexing the knees, hips, and ankles
to end in a quarter- or half-squatted
position (photo b).

Sample Progressions
• Jump to stick
• Weighted snap down (i.e., using
a weighted vest) a b

• Split-stance snap down

• Single-leg snap down

Sample Regressions
• Double-leg snap down without swinging the arms
• Box jump

SPLIT-STANCE SNAP DOWN

Aim
To train the body from a bilateral split-stance position to be able to effectively decelerate
and maintain control when descending from a jump or plyometric exercise.
Action
1. Start with the arms above the head and the legs split front and back (similar to
the starting position at the top of a split squat) (photo a).
2. Rapidly bring the arms down into a sprinter stance while rapidly flexing the knees,
hips, and ankles (which ever leg is back, the arm on the same side will be forward)
(photo b).

Sample Progressions
• Start with feet parallel, then split the feet on the snap down
• Vertical jump to split-stance stick
• Single-leg snap down

Sample
Regressions
• Split squat
• Double-leg
snap down

a b

SINGLE-LEG SNAP DOWN

Aim
To train the body from a single-leg position to be able to effectively decelerate and
maintain control when descending from a jump or plyometric exercise.

Action
1. Start with the arms above the head while raising one knee to 90 degrees (photo
a). To add more complexity, the exercise can be progressed by standing on the
toes of the supporting leg.
2. Rapidly bring the arms down into a sprinter stance while rapidly driving one leg
back and balancing on the other leg (whichever leg is raised is the arm that is
forward) (photo b).

Sample Progressions
• Single-leg vertical hop to double-leg stick
• Vertical jump to single-leg stick

Sample Regressions
• Single-leg squat
• Hop to box
• Split-stance snap down

a b

DEPTH DROP
Aim
To train the body to effectively decelerate and maintain a safe position when landing
from a jump or plyometric exercise.

Action
1. The appropriate drop height is either equal to or slightly above the countermove-
ment vertical jump height or single-leg hop height. The landing position (double
leg or single leg) should fit the athlete and the goals of the training program.
(Too much height can diminish the landing technique and lead to poor movement
competency or potential injury.)
2. Proceed to step off the box with the arms in the air (photo a), then rapidly snap
the arms down while landing in a quarter- or half-squatted position (photo b).
3. The landing should be relatively quiet, due to a compliant strategy.

Sample Progressions
• Increase the box height in small increments (such as 4 inches [10.2 cm])
• Single-leg depth drop
• Lateral double-leg or single-leg depth
drop
• Ninety-degree rotational double-leg or
single-leg depth drop

Sample Regressions
• Lower box height
• Change single leg to double leg

a b

FORCE PRODUCTION EXERCISES

The angle of the joints, alignment of the bones, and plane of motion directly
affect a muscle’s function as it distributes force throughout the body to allow
movement to occur. It is important to consider the complexity of the movement
and the intensity of training, because these should determine the volume being
prescribed. When progressing into force production following deceleration tasks,
deceleration and propulsion should come together within an exercise, ensur-
ing efficient use of the SSC. The emphases of force production are to achieve a
medium response by the body and to introduce power training.
For ease of reference, these exercises are grouped by the plane of motion that
is predominantly trained, and sample regressions and progressions are provided.
The following describes the terminology used for each exercise:
f Stick: Reset after each repetition
f Jump: Push off both feet, land on both feet
f Hop: Push off one foot, land on same foot
f Bound: Push off one foot, land on opposite foot
f Mini-bounce: Small bounce between repetitions (increase volume of foot
contacts with less impact on the ground and promote elastic properties
of the SSC)
f Repeat: Two repetitions in a row
f Continuous: More than two repetitions in a row

Force Production Exercises:

Vertical Plane
These exercises consist of jumping, bounding, or hopping in place for maximum height.

VERTICAL JUMP
(COUNTERMOVEMENT JUMP)
Aim
To develop lower body bilateral power in the vertical plane.

Action
1. See “Double-Leg Snap Down” for the starting position (photo a).
2. Rapidly flex the hips, knees, and ankles to perform a countermovement while
swinging the arms downward (photo b), then immediately extend the hips, knees,
and ankles while swinging the arms upward to jump straight into the air (photo c).
3. On the descent, land back in the double-leg snap down position.

Sample Progressions
• Depth jump
• Repeat vertical jump
• Weighted vertical jump
• Weighted vest or dumbbells

Sample Regressions
• Remove the arm swing (placing the hands on the hips or holding a dowel
across the shoulders)
• Squat jump (however, this eliminates the use of the SSC)

a b c

SPLIT JUMP
Aim
To develop lower body bilateral power in the vertical plane.

Action
1. See “Split-Stance Snap Down” for the starting position (photo a). To add more
complexity, the exercise can be progressed by starting on the toes of the front
foot. (The back heel should already be raised in the starting position.)
2. Rapidly perform a countermovement (i.e., a snap down into a split-stance snap
down position) (photo b), followed by immediate and rapid extension of both
legs to jump for maximal height (photo c).
3. On the descent, land back in the split-stance snap down position to attenuate
the impact forces.

Sample Progressions
• Repeat split jump
• Alternating split jump (in place)
• Weighted split jump (add a weighted vest, dumbbells, medicine ball, etc.)

a b c

Sample Regressions
• Split jump into a double-leg landing
• Split-stance squat jump (this eliminates the use of the SSC)
• Countermovement jump

SINGLE-LEG VERTICAL JUMP

Aim
To develop lower body unilateral power in the vertical plane.

Action
1. See “Single-Leg Snap Down” for the starting position (photo a shows the more
complex starting position of the exercise).
2. Rapidly perform a countermovement (i.e., a snap down into a single-leg snap
down position) (photo b), followed by immediate and rapid extension of the leg
to jump for maximal height (photo c).
3. On the descent, land in the single-leg snap down position to attenuate the impact
forces. This is also a good opportunity to reinforce proper landing mechanics.

a b c

Sample Progressions
• Repeat single-leg hop
• Alternating bounds (in place)
• Single-leg depth jump

Sample Regressions
• Single-leg hop to double-leg landing (this makes the subsequent landing less
demanding)
• Single-leg squat jump (however, this eliminates the use of the SSC)
• Countermovement jump

Force Production Exercises:

Linear Plane
These exercises consist of jumping, bounding, or hopping for maximum height or
distance in the sagittal plane.

STANDING LONG JUMP (ALSO REFERRED TO

AS THE BROAD OR HORIZONTAL JUMP)
Aim
To develop lower body bilateral power in the linear plane.

Action
1. Stand with the hips and knees fully extended and the arms above the head (photo
a). To add complexity and displacement (i.e., distance or height traveled) per unit
of time (i.e., duration) for acceleration, the starting position can be progressed
by standing on the toes.
2. Perform a rapid countermovement (photo b) and jump forward (photo c).
3. Land in the double-leg snap down position.

Sample Progressions
• Depth drop to long jump
• Repeat long jump
• Vertical jump to long jump
• Weighted long jump

Sample Regressions
• Remove the arm swing
• Long jump with no countermovement (however, this eliminates the use of the
SSC)

a b c

HURDLE JUMP
Aim
To develop lower body bilateral power and elasticity in the linear plane.

Action
1. Stand with the hips and knees fully extended and the arms above the head (photo
a). To add more complexity and increase velocity during the countermovement,
the starting position can be progressed by standing on the toes.
2. Perform a rapid countermovement (photo b) and jump over a hurdle (photo c).
(Tucking will occur if the hurdle is higher than or relatively close to the athlete’s
countermovement vertical jump height, which can reduce takeoff velocity, pro-
pulsive forces, and jump height.)
3. Land in a double-leg snap down position.

Sample Progressions
• Depth drop to hurdle jump
• Repeat hurdle jump
• Hurdle jump to long jump
• Single-leg hurdle jump

Sample Regressions
• Tuck jump
• Snap down to hurdle jump

a b c

SINGLE-LEG FORWARD HURDLE HOP

Aim
To develop lower body unilateral power in the linear plane.

Action
1. Start with arms above the head and one leg raised to 90 degrees (photo a).
2. Rapidly perform a countermovement (photo b) and hop over a hurdle (photo c).
3. Land in single-leg snap down position.

Sample Progressions
• Repeat hurdle hop
• Alternating linear bound

Sample Regressions
• Single-leg long jump to double-leg landing
• Single snap down to hurdle hop
• Double-leg hurdle jump

a b c

RESISTED SPRINT
Aim
To develop lower body power in the linear plane.

Action
1. Attach a sled, chain, or prowler to the body via a harness or belt and proceed to
sprint as fast as possible with the applied load.
2. Choose the load and distance depending on the goal. Shorter distances (10
to 30 yards [9.1-27.4 m]) allow for high-quality effort. The load should not be
heavy enough to deteriorate running mechanics. A study by Bachero-Mena and
González-Badillo (1) showed the relationship between different loads accounting
for 5% to 20% of the body’s mass and the velocity lost within the acceleration
phase. For positive effects on sprint training without diminishing or changing the
sprinting mechanics, the load prescribed should not reduce the velocity by more
than 10% (1). The optimal load for resisted sprinting has not been established in
longitudinal studies (1). Of note, the surface friction between the sled and the
ground will affect the load.

Sample Progressions
• If the distance of the sprint is being increased, consider decreasing the load to
allow for high-quality effort and less strain on the body. The athlete’s velocity
should not be reduced by more than 10% (1).

• If the load is being increased, consider decreasing the distance to allow for
high-quality effort and less strain on the body. The velocity should not be re-
duced by more than 10% (1).

Sample Regression
• Unresisted sprint

Force Production Exercises:

Lateral Plane
These exercises consist of jumping, bounding, or hopping for maximum height or
distance in the frontal plane.

LATERAL VERTICAL JUMP

Aim
To develop lower body bilateral power in the lateral plane.

Action
1. Stand with the hips and knees fully extended and the arms above the head (photo
a). To add more complexity, the starting position can be progressed by standing
on the toes.
2. Rapidly perform a countermovement (photo b) and jump up while pushing the
body either left or right (photo c).
3. Land in a double-leg snap down position.

Sample Progressions
• Repeat lateral vertical jump
• Repeat lateral tuck jump
• Lateral hurdle jump
• Repeat lateral hurdle jump
• Depth drop to lateral jump
• Depth drop to lateral hurdle jump
• Depth drop to repeat lateral hurdle jump

Sample Regressions
• Lateral box jump
• Snap down to lateral jump
• Snap down to lateral box jump

a b c

LATERAL OR MEDIAL HOP

Aim
To develop lower body unilateral power in the lateral plane.

Action
1. Start with the arms above the head and one leg raised to 90 degrees (photo a).
2. Rapidly perform a countermovement (photo b) and hop over a hurdle with either
the inside or outside leg (photo c).
3. Land on the same leg that is hopping in a single-leg snap down position.

Sample Progressions
• Lateral or medial hurdle hop
• Repeat lateral or medial hurdle hop
• Lateral bound
• Repeat lateral bound
• 45-degree linear bound

Sample Regressions
• Lateral or medial hop to double-leg landing
• Lateral or medial hop to box
• Single-leg snap down to lateral or medial hop

a b c

PUSH AND RECOVER

Aim
To develop total body strength and power in the lateral plane.

Action
1. Start in an athletic position (photo a).
2. Push hard with the outside leg while reaching with the inside leg and covering
ground while staying low (photo b).
3. Land on the outside foot (photo c) and recover and reset in an athletic position
for each repetition.

Sample Progressions
• Band-resisted push and recover
• Sled- or chain-resisted push and recover
• Side shuffle
• Side shuffle to sprint
• Band-resisted side shuffle
• Sled- or chain-resisted side shuffle

Sample Regression
• Step and replace

a b c

Force Production Exercises:

Rotational Plane
These exercises consist of jumps, bounds, or hops for maximum height or distance in
the transverse plane.

90-DEGREE VERTICAL JUMP

Aim
To develop lower body bilateral power in the transverse plane.

Action
1. Stand with the hips and knees fully extended and the arms above the head (photo
a). To add more complexity, the starting position can be progressed by standing
on the toes.
2. Rapidly perform a countermovement (photo b), then jump while rotating the
body 90 degrees (photo c).
3. Land in the double-leg snap down position (photo d).

a b c d

Sample Progressions
• 180-Degree vertical jump
• Repeat 90- to 180-degree vertical jump
• 90-Degree hurdle jump
• Depth drop to 90-degree vertical jump

Sample Regression
• Snap down to 90-degree vertical jump

90-DEGREE SINGLE-LEG VERTICAL HOP

Aim
To develop lower body unilateral strength and power in the transverse plane.

Action
1. Start with the arms above the head and one leg raised to 90 degrees (photo a).
2. Rapidly perform a countermovement (photo b), then hop and rotate 90 degrees
while in the air (photo c).
3. Land in the single-leg snap down position (photo d).

a b c d

Sample Progressions
• Repeat 90-degree single-leg vertical hop
• 90-Degree single-leg vertical bound
• Repeat 90-degree single-leg vertical bound
• 180-Degree single-leg vertical hop
• Repeat 180-degree single-leg vertical hop
• 180-Degree single-leg vertical bound
• Repeat 180-degree single-leg vertical bound

Sample Regressions
• Single-leg snap down to 90-degree hop or bound
• 90-Degree single-leg vertical hop to double-leg landing
• 90-Degree vertical jump to single-leg landing

PLYOMETRIC TRAINING
The purpose of plyometric training is for speed and power athletes to recruit and
develop the SSC in multiple planes of motion. It emphasizes a rapid transition
from eccentric (net muscle lengthening) to concentric (net muscle shortening)
movements. This type of training should be used in an athlete’s training regimen
to enhance the ability to jump, cut, and run efficiently.
The models associated with plyometric training are the mechanical (i.e.,
series elastic and parallel elastic) and neurophysiological (i.e., potentiation via
stimulation of the muscle spindle) models. Within the mechanical model, the
connective tissue (i.e., series elastic components [associated tendons] and par-
allel elastic components [fascia]) is the workhorse for plyometric exercises, with
some additional contribution from the associated muscles. In this model, elastic
energy in the musculotendinous components is increased with a rapid stretch
and then stored. This is immediately followed up with a concentric muscle
action, which increases total force production. The neurophysiological model
involves neurological potentiation—that is, change in the force–velocity profile
characteristics of the muscles’ contractile components caused by the magnitude
and rate of lengthening of the muscle during the eccentric phase, increasing the
magnitude and rate of force production during the concentric phase. This is an
involuntary response (i.e., reflex action) to an external stimulus that stretches
the muscle. Muscle spindle activation occurs during plyometric exercises and
is stimulated by a rapid stretch, causing reflexive muscle action and reciprocal
inhibition of the antagonists. For greater detail on the mechanical and neuro-
physiological models, refer to Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning (13).
Plyometric training should not necessarily mimic a sport movement; however,
it should be used to develop the SSC relevant to the demands and positional

requirements of a sport. For example, elite volleyball players may perform coun-
termovement-style jumps, such as block jumps, jump sets, and spike jumps,
1,000 to 4,000 times per week during practices and matches. Adding sets of
countermovement jumps within a training session can increase the workload
for the athletes, which can be detrimental to their health and performance. The
strength and conditioning professional should consider multiple possibilities
that allow athletes to receive types of training they are not getting (e.g., ballis-
tics, maximal strength training, and recovery) so that one quality is not being
overemphasized. de Villarreal and colleagues (7) found that depending on the
time of the year, athletes performing low (one session a week; 420 foot-contacts)
and moderate (two sessions a week; 840 foot-contacts) volumes of plyometric
training sessions had greater jumping and sprinting gains than those performing
high volumes (four sessions a week; 1,680 foot-contacts). Of note, these volumes
of plyometric tasks are high, and athletes unfamiliar with the activities should
be progressively exposed to them.
Similar to the category for force production exercises, exercises in this category
are grouped by the plane of motion that it is predominantly trained, and the
same terminology is used. Unlike force production, the emphasis for plyometrics
is a shorter GCT along with development of transitional power and elasticity.

Plyometric Exercises: Vertical Plane

These exercises consist of repeated or continuous jumps, hops, or bounds focusing on
a shorter GCT and/or height in place.

DOUBLE-LEG POGO HOP

Aim
To develop and improve bilateral elasticity and tissue quality within the foot, ankle,
and knee complex.

Action
1. Start with the hands either on the hips (photo a) or to the side of the body and
the feet flat on the ground.
2. Proceed to hop straight up into the air with both feet and minimal knee flexion
(photo b), striking the ground with the full foot. The goal is minimal GCT, and
repetitions should feel springy and bouncy.
3. The body should ideally maintain a stacked position (head, neck, and spine in
neutral alignment, with the ribs and pelvis stacked on top of each other).

Variations and Progressions

• Double-leg pogo hops with mini-bounce
• Continuous double-leg pogo hop to box

a b

SINGLE-LEG POGO HOP

Aim
To develop and improve unilateral elasticity and tissue quality within the foot, ankle,
and knee complex.

Action
1. Start with the hands either on the hips (photo a) or to the side of the body, with
one foot raised slightly off the ground.
2. Proceed to hop straight into the air on one foot with minimal knee flexion (photo
b), striking the ground with the full foot. The goal is minimal GCT, and repetitions
should feel springy and bouncy.
3. The body should ideally maintain a stacked position (head, neck, and spine in
neutral alignment, with the ribs and pelvis stacked on top of each other).

Variations and Progressions

• Single-leg pogo hops with mini-bounce
• Alternating bound in place
• Continuous single-leg pogo hop to box

a b

Plyometric Exercises: Linear Plane

These exercises consist of repeated or continuous jumps, hops, or bounds focusing on
shorter GCT while moving forward or backward within the sagittal plane.

DOUBLE-LEG FORWARD OR BACKWARD

POGO HOP
Aim
To develop and improve bilateral elasticity and tissue quality within the foot, ankle,
and knee complex in the vertical plane.

Action
1. Start with the hands either on the hips or to the side of the body and the feet
flat on the ground.
2. Proceed to hop straight up while moving forward or backward with both feet and
minimal knee flexion, striking the ground with the full foot. The goal is minimal
GCT, and repetitions should feel springy and bouncy.
3. The body should ideally maintain a stacked position (head, neck, and spine in
neutral alignment, with the ribs and pelvis stacked on top of each other).

Variations and Progressions

• Double-leg forward or backward pogo hop with mini-bounce

• Continuous double-leg hurdle hop

• Continuous double-leg hurdle hop with mini-bounce
• Continuous double-leg hurdle jump
• Continuous double-leg hurdle jump with mini-bounce
• Continuous long jump (this can potentially increase the GCT due to the in-
creasing momentum of each jump, which requires high braking and propulsive
impulse)

SINGLE-LEG FORWARD OR BACKWARD

POGO HOP
Aim
To develop and improve unilateral elasticity and tissue quality within the foot, ankle,
and knee complex in the sagittal plane.

Action
1. Start with the hands either on the hips or to the side of the body, with one foot
raised slightly off the ground.
2. Proceed to hop straight up while moving forward or backward on one foot with
minimal knee flexion, striking the ground with the full foot. The goal is minimal
GCT, and repetitions should feel springy and bouncy.
3. The body should ideally maintain a stacked position (head, neck, and spine in
neutral alignment, with the ribs and pelvis stacked on top of each other).

Variations and Progressions

• Single-leg forward or backward pogo hop with mini-bounce
• Continuous single-leg hurdle hop
• Continuous single-leg hurdle hop with mini-bounce
• Linear bound
• 45-Degree linear bound

Plyometric Exercises: Frontal Plane

These exercises consist of repeated or continuous jumps, hops, or bounds focusing on
a shorter GCT within the frontal plane.

LATERAL POGO HOP

Aim
To develop and improve bilateral elasticity and tissue quality within the foot, ankle,
and knee complex in the frontal plane.

Action
1. Start with the hands either on the hips or to the side of the body and the feet
flat on the ground.
2. Proceed to hop straight up while moving left or right with both feet and minimal
knee flexion, striking the ground with the full foot. The goal is minimal GCT, and
repetitions should feel springy and bouncy.
3. The body should ideally maintain a stacked position (head, neck, and spine in
neutral alignment, with the ribs and pelvis stacked on top of each other).

Variations and Progressions

• Lateral pogo hops with mini-bounce
• Continuous lateral hurdle hop
• Continuous lateral hurdle hop with mini-bounce
• Continuous lateral hurdle jump
• Continuous lateral hurdle jump with mini-bounce

SINGLE-LEG LATERAL
OR MEDIAL POGO HOP
Aim
To develop and improve unilateral elasticity and tissue quality within the foot, ankle,
and knee complex in the frontal plane.

Action
1. Start with the hands either on the hips or to the side of the body and one foot
raised slightly off the ground.
2. Proceed to hop straight up while moving left or right on one foot with minimal
knee flexion, striking the ground with the full foot. The goal is minimal GCT, and
repetitions should feel springy and bouncy.
3. The body should ideally maintain a stacked position (head, neck, and spine in
neutral alignment, with the ribs and pelvis stacked on top of each other).

Variations and Progressions

• Lateral pogo hops with mini-bounce
• Continuous lateral or medial hurdle hop
• Continuous lateral or medial hurdle hop with mini-bounce
• Continuous lateral hurdle jump
• Continuous lateral hurdle jump with mini-bounce

Plyometric Exercises: Rotational Plane

These exercises consist of repeated or continuous jumps, hops, or bounds focusing on
a shorter GCT within the transverse plane.

ROTATIONAL POGO HOP

Aim
To develop and improve bilateral elasticity and tissue quality within the foot, ankle,
and knee complex in the transverse plane.

Action
1. Start with the hands either on the hips or to the side of the body, with the feet
flat on the ground.
2. Proceed to hop straight up while rotating the hips and feet 45 degrees to the left
and right with minimal knee flexion, striking the ground with the full foot. The
goal is minimal GCT, and repetitions should feel springy and bouncy.
3. The body should ideally maintain a stacked position (head, neck, and spine in
neutral alignment, with the ribs and pelvis stacked on top of each other).

Variations and Progressions

• Forward and backward rotational pogo hop
• Lateral rotational pogo hop
• 45-Degree forward or backward rotational pogo hop
• Repeat 90- or 180-degree rotational vertical jump
• Repeat 90- or 180-degree rotational long jump
• Repeat 90- or 180-degree hurdle jump

SINGLE-LEG ROTATIONAL POGO HOP

Aim
To develop and improve unilateral elasticity and tissue quality within the foot, ankle,
and knee complex in the transverse plane.

Action
1. Start with the hands either on the hips or to the side of the body, with one foot
raised slightly off the ground.
2. Proceed to hop straight up while rotating the hips and feet 45 degrees to the left
or right on one foot with minimal knee flexion, striking the ground with the full
foot. The goal is minimal GCT, and repetitions should feel springy and bouncy.
3. The body should ideally maintain a stacked position (head, neck, and spine in
neutral alignment, with the ribs and pelvis stacked on top of each other).

Variations and Progressions

• Single-leg forward or backward rotational pogo hop
• Single-leg lateral or medial rotational pogo hop
• 45-Degree forward or backward rotational pogo hop
• 90- or 180-Degree continuous rotational vertical hop
• 90- or 180-Degree continuous rotational vertical hop with mini-bounce
• 90- or 180-Degree continuous alternating bound
• 90- or 180-Degree continuous alternating bound with mini-bounce

BALLISTIC TRAINING
The purpose of ballistic training is to increase power by applying resistance
beyond body weight. While plyometric training targets fast SSC activity against
a relatively low load, ballistic training targets maximal force capability with a
moderate to high load. Ballistic training offers a range of loads (e.g., no external
load to approximately 50% of the 1-repetition maximum [1RM]) from which
to target the force–velocity spectrum to enhance the rate of force development
(4, 5, 6).
There are multiple ways to program ballistic exercises. An example of a single
ballistic training session per week would be performing approximately three
to six exercises, with 3 to 6 sets per exercise and 3 to 6 repetitions per set.
Another example for multiple ballistic training sessions throughout the week
would be performing approximately one to two exercises per day, with 3 to 6
sets per exercise and 3 to 6 repetitions per set. When programming ballistic
exercises, it is paramount to attend to movement quality and load. For specific
programming examples, see chapters 9 and 10.
Ballistic exercises should be performed only if the athlete possesses efficient
movement competency relative to the movement being prescribed. The following
list gives recommendations, considerations, methods, and modalities backed by
research and trends within the strength and conditioning profession.

General Recommendations and Considerations

Training Age and Experience
f Athletes with a low training age or lack of experience with resistance
training should prioritize technique and movement quality before apply-
ing ballistic training to their training regimen.

Load Prescription
f Research has shown that the use of different training loads elicits different
training adaptations and has further indicated load- and velocity-specific
adaptations in muscular power development.

f It is suggested that athletes select training loads that will improve the
ability to develop power against a specific resistance they often encounter
in their athletic events.
f Multiple researchers have suggested that the loading range for ballistic
training falls anywhere between 0% and 50% of the 1RM back squat
(4, 5, 6), whereas in semiballistic exercises such as weightlifting, peak
power output occurs anywhere between 70% and 90% for lower body
exercises (3, 4).
Exercise Selection
f Exercise selection dictates the mechanical specificity of training. Mechan-
ical specificity refers to the kinetic and kinematic similarity of a training
exercise to the actual athletic performance. This also aligns with the
principle of specific adaptations to imposed demands.
f Such kinetic and kinematic variables include but are not limited to force
and power exerted, rate of force development, velocity of movement,
movement pattern, type of muscle action, range of motion, and duration
of movement.
f Investigators suggest that athletes include multijoint ballistic exercises
or weightlifting exercises and derivatives that are mechanically specific
to the actual athletic movements in their training programs to develop
muscular power and enhance dynamic athletic performance.

Strength Level of the Athlete

f Besides the nature of the exercise, the strength level or training history
of the athlete could also affect the optimal load.
f Researchers found that stronger athletes produced the maximal power
output at a higher percentage of the maximum load (40% of the 1RM) than
did weaker athletes (10% of the 1RM) in the squat jump and suggested
that an upward shift in the optimal load may be present as the maximum
strength levels of athletes increase (4, 5, 6, 16).
f Other research has demonstrated the contrary results, suggesting that
stronger athletes used lower percentages of the 1RM than did weaker
athletes to attain the maximum mechanical power output during the
bench press throw and jump squat (4, 5, 6, 16).
f Based on these research results about the relationship between the optimal
load and the athlete’s strength level or training history, training could be
expected to shift the percentage of maximum strength at which the highest
power is produced (i.e., the optimal load) either upward or downward.

Program Design
f Periodization of training programs is important for optimum muscular
power development (see chapter 3).
f Several investigators have demonstrated and insisted on the superiority of
sequential periodized training programs, in which the training emphasis
is initially on general strength with a later emphasis on more specific
power development, compared with nonperiodized training programs
with no or little variation (9, 10).
f Baker suggested that the optimal load shifts toward a higher percentage
of the 1RM during phases that emphasize strength-oriented training
(i.e., training with high resistance and low velocity) and toward a lower
percentage during phases that emphasize speed-oriented training (i.e.,
training with low resistance and high velocity) (2).

Common Methods and Modalities

Dynamic Effort
f A widely used modality within Louie Simmons' conjugate training system
(15) emphasizes using training loads between approximately 30% and
80% of the 1RM, with the intention of increasing power over a period of
time (for example, back squats: 8 × 2 at 60% of the 1RM).

Accommodating Resistance
f Resistance bands or chains can be used to accommodate specific loads
at certain parts of a movement.
f Loads should be reduced by 20% to 50% from what is typically assigned
based on the usual repetition scheme (for example, hex bar deadlifts with
10% to 15% band resistance: 5 × 3 at 50% of the 1RM).
Contrast Training
f Contrast training involves pairing a high-force strength movement with
a high-velocity movement (for example, performing a heavy single back
squat at 90%, then immediately performing the repeat hurdle jump).

French Contrast Training

f French contrast training involves pairing a high-force strength movement
with a high-force plyometric movement, high-force power movement,
and high-velocity movement (for example, performing a heavy single

front squat at 90% of the 1RM, then immediately performing a repeat

hurdle jump along with a dumbbell jump and a band-assisted continuous
vertical jump).
See chapters 3 and 8 for more details on programming some of the methods
listed above.

Ballistic-Related Exercises: Preballistic

This section of exercises aims to improve and develop lower body movement compe-
tency and strength. It will include exercises performed without the use of elastic bands
or chains. Sets can range from approximately 3 to 6 and repetitions from 5 to 10 or
more (refer to the previous discussion on ballistic training or to chapters 9 and 10 for
more information on programming). When choosing exercises, it is important to consider
the goal of the program and the environment in which athletes are training (group-
based or private). The judgement on progressing athletes from preballistic to ballistic
exercises may be subjective if the athlete is working in a team environment or one-on-
one with a strength and conditioning professional. The use of testing modalities may
be an efficient way to know when an athlete is ready to progress to ballistic exercises.

BARBELL FRONT SQUAT

Aim
To develop lower body strength in the vertical plane.

Action
1. Begin with the bar placed across the front of the shoulders (using either a parallel
or a crossed-arm position). The chest is up and out, and the head is tilted slightly
upward. The feet are shoulder-width apart with the toes pointed either forward
or slightly outward (photo a).
2. Descend by flexing the hips and knees while maintaining a neutral back position
until the desired position is reached (photo b). (Depth will vary from athlete to
athlete based on their technique and range of motion.)
3. Return to the starting position by extending the hips and knees while maintaining
a neutral back position.

BARBELL BACK SQUAT

Aim
To develop lower body strength in the vertical plane.

Action
1. Begin by gripping the bar with a shoulder-width pronated grip and placing the
bar on the upper back and shoulders (a high-bar or low-bar position can be used).
The chest is up and out, and the head is tilted slightly upward. The feet are shoul-
der-width apart with the toes pointed either forward or slightly outward (photo a).
2. Descend by flexing the hips and knees while maintaining a neutral back position
until the desired position is reached (photo b). (Depth will vary from athlete to
athlete based on their technique and range of motion.)

3. Return to the starting position by extending the hips and knees while maintaining
a neutral back position.

HEX BARBELL DEADLIFT

Aim
To develop lower body strength in the vertical plane.
Action
1. Begin by standing in the middle
of the hex bar with the handles
directly to the side (high or low
handles can be used). Grip the
handles with a neutral and closed
grip, and flex the hips and knees
to get into the starting position
(similar to the bottom of a squat)
(photo a).
2. Stand up with the bar by extend-
ing the hips and knees while
maintaining a neutral back posi-
tion until the hips and knees are
fully extended (photo b).
3. Return to the starting position
by flexing the hips and knees
while maintaining a neutral back
a b position.

Ballistic-Related Exercises: Ballistic

CHAIN- OR BAND-RESISTED FRONT SQUAT
Aim
To develop lower body strength and power in the vertical plane.

Action
1. See the “Preballistic” section.
2. Apply rubber elastic bands or chains to the bar that equal the desired load to be
trained. For example, if the prescribed load is 75% of the 1RM, including bands
or chains contributing 15% toward the load, then 60% of the load should come
from the weight loaded. This should allow greater acceleration from the bottom
of the lift to promote higher rates of force moving toward the total vertical dis-
placement of the movement (12).
3. The movement should feel lighter at the bottom and heavier at the top to drive
more intent throughout the entire movement as the load increases when the
bands stretch.

Variation
• Box front squat (add a slight pause on the box to limit SSC function)

CHAIN- OR BAND-RESISTED BACK SQUAT

Aim
To develop lower body strength and power in the vertical plane.

Action
1. See the “Preballistic” section.
2. Apply rubber elastic bands or chains to the bar that equal the desired load to be
trained. For example, if the prescribed load is 75% of the 1RM, including bands
or chains contributing 15% toward the load, then 60% of the load should come
from the weight loaded. This should allow greater acceleration from the bottom
of the lift to promote higher rates of force moving toward the total vertical dis-
placement of the movement (17). A similar approach, but with higher loads, can
be used if the primary focus is on strength development.
3. The movement should feel lighter at the bottom and heavier at the top to drive
more acceleration throughout the entire movement.

Variations
• Box back squat (add a slight pause on the box to inhibit SSC involvement)
• Barbell jump squat (to develop lower body bilateral power while involving the
SSC and to tolerate external loads)
• Barbell squat jump (to develop lower body bilateral power without involving
the SSC and to tolerate external loads)

BAND- OR CHAIN-RESISTED
HEX BAR DEADLIFT
Aim
To develop lower body strength and power in the vertical plane.

Action
1. See the “Preballistic” section.
2. Apply rubber elastic bands or chains to the bar that equal the desired load to be
trained. For example, if the prescribed load is 55% of the 1RM, including bands
or chains contributing 15% toward the load, then 40% of the load should come
from the weight loaded. This should allow greater acceleration from the bottom
of the lift to promote higher rates of force moving toward the total vertical dis-
placement of the movement (17). A similar approach, but with higher loads, can
be used if the primary focus is on strength development.
3. The movement should feel lighter at the bottom and heavier at the top to drive
more acceleration throughout the entire movement.

Variations
• Hex bar jump squat (to develop lower body bilateral power while involving the
SSC and to tolerate external loads)
• Hex bar squat jump (to develop lower body bilateral power without involving
the SSC and to tolerate external loads)

DUMBBELL JUMP
Aim
To develop lower body power in the vertical plane.

Action
1. See “Vertical Jump” within “Force Production Exercises.”

Variations
• Accentuated eccentric loaded vertical jump
• Accentuated eccentric loaded split jump
• Accentuated eccentric loaded box jump
• Accentuated eccentric loaded long jump

RESISTED SPRINT
Aim
To develop lower body power and speed in the linear plane.

Action
1. See “Resisted Sprint” within “Force Production Exercises.”

Variations
• Band- or chain-resisted sprint
• Sled drag
• Sled push
Loading for a sled drag or sled push will vary based on the distance, the training age
of the athlete, and the phase of the sprint that is the focus.

RESISTED LATERAL PUSH AND RECOVER

Aim
To develop lower body power and speed in the lateral plane.

Action
1. See “Push and Recover” within “Force Production Exercises.”

Variations
• Band-resisted push and recover
• Sled- or chain-resisted push and recover
• Side shuffle
• Side shuffle to sprint
• Band-resisted side shuffle
• Sled- or chain-resisted side shuffle

LANDMINE ROTATIONAL PRESS

Aim
To develop lower and upper body power and speed in the rotational plane.

Action
1. Begin by placing a barbell in a landmine attachment. Face parallel to the bar
(shoulders across the collar of the bar) with the outside hand supinated on the
end of the barbell (the bar can start at either the hip or the shoulders) (photo a).
2. Rapidly dip the hips and knees (photo b) and accelerate the bar upward, rotating
90 degrees (photo c).
3. Return the bar back to the starting position in a controlled manner.

Variation
• Landmine rotational split jerk

b c

CONCLUSION
There are myriad effective exercises and methods to develop lower body power.
When selecting exercises or methods, the context of the sport, the tasks asso-
ciated with the sport, and the athlete’s positional requirements are important
considerations. Within the context of each, it is important to consider areas that
need more attention and to educate athletes on the need for understanding their
strengths and weaknesses.

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CHAPTER
7
Anatomical Core Power
Exercises
Douglas M. Tvrdy

The anatomical core is a general term used to describe the trunk or torso region
and the muscle groups that create movement, resist movement, and protect and
control the axial skeleton (rib cage, vertebral column, pelvic girdle, and shoulder
girdle) and associated passive tissues (cartilage, ligaments, and joint capsules).
The abdominals, internal and external obliques, erector spinae, quadratus lum-
borum, and multifidi are the main muscle groups involved in the anatomical
core, but other groups also contribute. The anatomical core is an integral part
of nearly all athletic movements and must be trained to help prevent injury and
improve performance via improved lumbopelvic control.
Some researchers have shown that pre-existing anatomical core stability
is not a predictor of superior sport performance (12, 13, 20). However, other
researchers have shown significant improvements in sport activities (throw
velocity, jump height, and running speed) after training the anatomical core
over an appropriate period of time (longer than six to eight weeks), compared
to standard training alone (4, 9, 14, 16, 18, 19). The results of this research jus-
tify the incorporation of anatomical core training in strength and conditioning
programs to improve performance.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANATOMICAL CORE

The functions of the anatomical core are spinal stiffness or stability, trunk
movement and control, and kinetic chain linkage. Spinal stiffness or stability is
the ability to resist forces acting on the spine. Trunk movement is the muscularly
controlled movement of the axial skeleton. Kinetic chain linkage is the ability
to maintain energy-efficient links between the upper and lower body. Improved
anatomical core strength will further enhance power for sport performance (4,
9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 19) and protect against injury (11).

177

Spinal Stiffness
The muscles of the anatomical core, first and foremost, work in conjunction to
create spinal stiffness. This is achieved by isometric muscle actions or controlled
concentric and eccentric muscle actions by opposing muscle groups. Increasing
spinal stiffness and stability can decrease microtrauma and macrotrauma to
the sensitive structures housed within the anatomical core region (7). Also, by
creating spinal stiffness and stability, the anatomical core provides the foun-
dation upon which the limbs can move to generate force and finely detailed
motor actions, which become the essence of sport movements. Without a solid
foundational base, limb movements will be uncoordinated and may lead to
increased injury risk of the distal segments.

Trunk Movement
The anatomical core musculature directly controls trunk movement, which
occurs in all planes of movement and routinely within a combination of planes.
An example of these movements occurring in multiple planes simultaneously is
the swing of a bat or club. Rotation occurs in the transverse plane, with exten-
sion occurring in the sagittal plane and side-bending occurring in the frontal
plane during the swing. The muscle actions creating these movements are a
complex combination of concentric, isometric, and eccentric action moving in
a finely tuned concert of acceleration–deceleration and isometric stability. This
multifaceted responsibility of the anatomical core presents a very important yet
difficult opportunity in sport performance training.

Kinetic Chain Linkage

The anatomical core is a crucial link between the lower extremities and upper
body in the kinetic chains that make up functional whole-body sport movements.
Commonly used in rotational movements in sports, the anatomical core is the
link in transferring the kinetic energy created in the lower extremities to the
upper body. A weak anatomical core allows the force or energy created by the
lower extremities to dissipate before the movement is completed, resulting in
suboptimal and inefficient motion. This can also be seen in lateral movements
in which poor trunk control may cause malalignment of the lower extremity,
leading to decreased power output. The loss of this energy will result in decreased
sport performance and possible injury.

CHALLENGES AND BENEFITS OF TRAINING

THE ANATOMICAL CORE
Training the anatomical core presents a unique challenge given the axial skele-
ton’s expansive available range of motion in a variety of planes and a multitude

of joints requiring simultaneous control in all aspects. The anatomical core

musculature is responsible for stabilizing and moving many spinal segments
that combine to create coordinated movement throughout all planes of motion.
The anatomical core’s interaction with and role as a link between the upper and
lower extremities during movement increase the stress placed on it. Adding
to the complexity of the movement, this system of muscles must continuously
provide stability and stiffness to create the base of support for the limbs during
dynamic sport activities. Creating controlled and coordinated movement of the
anatomical core in all planes should help to prevent injury and provide forceful
movements (8). The strength and conditioning professional must give equal and
careful consideration to each component during the training program.

Upper Extremity Benefits of Training

the Anatomical Core
During upper extremity activities, the anatomical core is essential to providing
a solid link within the kinetic chain to conserve energy and force when they
are transferred from the lower extremities through the trunk and into the
upper extremities. During rotational movements, the anatomical core may also
augment that force. Stability in the rib cage and spine allows for powerful and
precise movements of the upper extremities. Researchers have demonstrated
this principle, finding that participants improved handball throwing speed
following an anatomical core training program (9, 16).

Lower Extremity Benefits of Training

the Anatomical Core
Core stability development has also been shown to benefit lower body sport
activities. Spinal stiffness provides a solid foundation proximally to allow for
powerful movements in the distal segments. This is of great importance, because
many lower extremity muscles have attachment points on the axial skeleton and
need a solid anchor point to produce powerful contractions. These movements
can be part of either an open-chain activity, such as kicking a ball, or a closed-
chain activity, such as running and jumping. In an activity with a closed kinetic
chain, the anatomical core enables the hip musculature to produce forces trans-
mitted into the ground to create propulsion. Prieske (14) showed improvements
in performance during both open (kick velocity) and closed (sprint speed) kinetic
chain activities from an anatomical core strengthening program.

Specificity of Training
Dynamic anatomical core stabilization with limb movements that incorporate the
muscle groups specific to the desired sport tend to show greater improvements

than standard training, which consists of practice of the individual sport along
with running, conditioning, and resistance training (22). Thus, the specificity
of training is paramount to the maximization of results. Reed and colleagues
(15) suggested that training muscle groups used for a specific sport or move-
ment resulted in larger sport-specific improvements, such as golf scores. Sato
and Mokha (18) demonstrated that an anatomical core stabilization program
targeting the trunk and hip extensor muscle groups produced a 30-second
improvement in 3.1 mile (5.0 km) running times compared with a control
group. Other researchers have shown increased jump heights and sprint speed
with anatomical core stabilization compared to standard training alone (4, 19).
Exercise selection should be based on the model of specificity of training move-
ments and muscle action to maximize training and produce the greatest results.

TYPES OF EXERCISES
Anatomical core exercises are placed into three categories: stabilization and pos-
tural control, dynamic control, and ballistic exercises. Stabilization and postural
control emphasizes multimuscle contraction for spinal stiffness in proper posture
and position. Dynamic control requires coordinated trunk and limb movement
against outside forces that minimize aberrant trunk motions. Ballistic exercises for
the anatomical core are high-velocity, multijoint trunk movements that involve
the stretch-shortening cycle (10).

Stabilization and Postural Control Exercises

Stabilization and postural control exercises are the foundational exercises of the
first phase of anatomical core musculature training. Stabilization exercises pro-
mote a neutral spine position consisting of 5 to 10 degrees of lumbar lordosis, 10
to 15 degrees of thoracic kyphosis, and 5 to 10 degrees of cervical lordosis. This
posture is seen during plank exercises. Given the sensitive nature of the passive
structures contained within the framework of the anatomical core (intervertebral
discs, nerves, etc.), great care should be taken to avoid prolonged exposure to
extreme ranges of motion to avoid possible injury. During this phase of ana-
tomical core training, the body will begin to create neuromuscular pathways as
the athlete learns these fundamental movements, and over time, the body will
become more efficient in the neural economy of movement control.

Dynamic Control Exercises

Controlled trunk movements are introduced in the dynamic control category
of exercise. Dynamic control exercises, such as the rollout, the Pallof press, and
stir the pot, will further challenge the neuromuscular system by incorporating
unstable environments or resisted limb movement (11). Control of the spine
will limit microtrauma and other injuries while improving kinetic chain energy

transfer. Moderate resistance in this phase of the exercise program may begin
to provide the stimulus for muscle hypertrophy.

Ballistic Exercises
Ballistic exercises create high-velocity force production and incorporate move-
ments that are similar to sport activities. Medicine ball toss exercises feature
a stretch-shortening cycle and explosive actions, which are often the basis for
power sports. These movements will provide the necessary resistance to further
enhance muscle hypertrophy, which will increase power production.

EXERCISE PROGRESSION
Hibbs and colleagues (3) proposed a training model with a low threshold of
exercise (typically <60% of the maximal voluntary contraction [MVC]) for those
lower on the training scale and a higher threshold of exercise (typically >60% of
the MVC) that incorporates a high dosage of dynamic and ballistic exercises to
receive the maximum benefit. Thus, matching the exercise load to an athlete’s
current anatomical core fitness level will help optimize training and stimulate
appropriate physiological changes. Far too often, the training level is either too
low or too high to stimulate a physiological change. An appropriate dosage of
exercise is one in which the athlete is challenged to near fatigue but still able
to maintain proper form to prevent injury. If the athlete is unable to maintain
proper form, the exercise should be ended. This fitness level–matched training
will lead to greater power and sport performance.

Training Progression
Long-term training (more than eight weeks) that progresses to dynamic and
ballistic training is most beneficial for sport-specific improvements (22). The
need for long-term training is most likely due to the muscle hypertrophy and
physiological muscular changes seen in endurance training that occurs over
more than 16 workouts (2). This infers that a higher level of muscular force is
needed to create substantial gains that result in improved sport performance.
Short-term benefits of neuromuscular training have often been seen in studies,
but not at the level of significant competitive gains (1, 5, 6, 17). Anatomical core
stabilization is best done in sequential phases, which will progress and challenge
athletes as they advance in strength and power production.

First Phase: Stabilization

The first two to three weeks focus on isometric contraction of the anatomical
core musculature for stabilization, with an emphasis on form and technique
training. The proper form of these exercises is characterized by maintaining a
neutral spinal position, with minimal deviation into flexion and extension or

a lateral side-bend of the lumbar spine, during exercises including planks and
bird dogs. Technique training is the primary goal of the first phase. During
this phase, the athlete will hold the exercise position for 10-second intervals,
progressing repetitions and hold times as endurance and control improve.

Second Phase: Intermediate and Dynamic Control

Weeks three through seven focus on maintaining controlled anatomical core
movement and stabilization with dynamic forces acting upon the trunk and
limbs. An example of this would be controlling the anatomical core during
lateral presses and bridges with hamstring curls. This phase transitions the
athlete from isometric contractions to regulated concentric and eccentric muscle
actions that prepare him or her for the final phase.

Third Phase: Explosive or Ballistic Movements

The last few weeks and beyond are focused on creating more speed and force
production in a controlled fashion to replicate sport movements (chops and ball
tosses). Control of the anatomical core musculature at high speeds is essential to
maximize energy transfers for the different kinetic chains in the body. As part
of an ongoing program, some elements from all phases should be incorporated
to maintain fundamental training of correct posture and technique to enhance
progressive ballistic training and injury prevention.

COMMON EQUIPMENT USED

IN ANATOMICAL CORE TRAINING
Several pieces of equipment are commonly used in anatomical core training.
Different types of balls, suspension straps, and bands can provide resistance to
increase strength through progressive overload and provide dynamic challenges
to increased neuromuscular control. Mats and padding may provide comfort
and protect bony prominences.

Balls
A variety of different balls may be used in training the anatomical core. Weighted
balls can provide progressive overload during ballistic movements. balls provide
unstable surfaces to increase neuromuscular control. The use of balls allows for
a high degree of unconstrained movement.

Medicine Balls
Medicine balls are often used in plyometric training, because they easily allow
for high-speed force production in a variety of planes and positions. Different
medicine balls have different levels of stiffness and the ability to rebound. Softer
balls will rebound at slower speeds and may be more appropriate for beginners.

The appropriate style and size of the ball should be based on the goals and
training level of the athlete.

Stability Balls
Stability balls, also called Swiss balls, used in anatomical core training increase
anatomical core musculature activation (21). These balls provide an unstable
surface that further enhances the difficulty of exercises and challenges the neu-
romuscular system in a controlled fashion. Using unstable surfaces incorporates
reactionary movements necessary to adjust to a fluid situation that mimics the
ever-changing environment of sport competition.

Suspension Straps
Suspension straps allow for a highly customizable resistance level and degree
of difficulty according to the angle of the body while still allowing for a high
degree of freedom of movement. These straps create an unstable environment
that further enhances neuromuscular control of the anatomical core and accom-
modates internal and external forces rapidly.

Elastic Bands
Elastic bands provide resistance to the limbs, enhancing the spinal stiffness that
provides the base for limb movements during dynamic activity. Elastic bands
have a variable amount of force based on the amount of stretch that is placed on
them, allowing for quick accommodation to the athlete’s current abilities. This
variable resistance also challenges the anatomical core throughout the range of
motion to produce stability and create powerful sport-related actions.

Mats and Padding

Mats and padding provide cushioning to protect bony prominences when per-
forming exercises. Some larger pads or cushions can also produce an unstable
surface that will create a more challenging environment.

Exercise Finder
Exercise Exercise category Page number
Abdominal crunch toss Ballistic 198
Bird dog Stabilization 187
Bridge with hamstring curls Dynamic control 188
Chest press with lateral pull (pallof press) Dynamic control 192
Front plank Stabilization 184
Lateral toss Ballistic 199
Medicine ball alternating toss on wall Ballistic 197
(continued)

Exercise Finder (continued)

Exercise Exercise category Page number

Medicine ball chop Dynamic control 194
Medicine ball side-chop on wall Ballistic 196
Modified prone-over-ball spine extension: “modified Stabilization 186
superman over ball”
Plank with circular upper-body stabilization on a Dynamic control 190
stability ball: “stir the pot”
Rollouts Dynamic control 189
Side plank Stabilization 185
Unilateral carry Dynamic control 193
Wood chop Ballistic 195

Stabilization Exercises
FRONT PLANK
Aim
To create abdominal strength and spinal stiffness against posteriorly directed forces.

Action
1. Begin in a prone position, with the elbows and forearms on padding or a mat as
needed for comfort.
2. Raise the body up to a point where only the elbows and toes are touching the
ground. The knees, hips, and shoulders should form a straight line. The spine
should be held in a neutral position without allowing the hips to “sag” or “tent”
in the air (see photo).
3. This position is held for a certain period of time, as discussed earlier in the chapter.
4. The body is then lowered back down to the mat to the starting position.

Variations
• Perform the plank with the feet on a stability ball. Placing half of the contact
points on a ball creates an unstable environment that further challenges the
anatomical core for more dynamic stabilization. Extra caution should be used
when adding a ball or other dynamic implement.
• Perform the plank with the feet in suspension straps with hip abduction. Place
the feet in the straps and obtain a plank position, move into slight hip abduc-
tion, and then return to the starting position. Special attention should be paid
to maintaining a neutral spinal posture with the movement of the legs.
• Add leg lifts to the plank. Maintaining a plank position, alternate lifting the
legs into slight hip extension.

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