‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫”إن هللا يحب إذا عمل أحدكم عمال أن يتقنه ”‬

‫صدق رسول هللا صليّ هللا عليه و سلم‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪Prof. Mohammad A. Younes‬‬ ‫‪11/14/2021‬‬

 Mechatronics

Prof. Mohammad A. Younes

Professor of Metrology and Quality
Production Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
Alexandria University

2 Prof. Mohammad A. Younes November 14, 2021

 Sensors and Transducers

3 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Sensors and Transducers:

-Types
- Main characteristics
-Applications.

4 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Limit Switches (Presence Sensors):
Switches are simple sensors (transducers) that can
distinguish between only two different states of the
measured variable.

Switch output versus transducer output

5 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Limit Switches (Contact type):

When an object pushes against them, lever action

forces internal connections to be changed.

Limit Switches can be wired as :

- Normally Open (NO) - Normally Closed (NC)
- Momentary in Contact (keep a neutral middle state)
- Detent (hold their most recent state)

6 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Limit Switches (Contact type):

Single Pole (SP), Single Throw (ST)

Single Pole (SP), Double Throw (DT)

7 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
 Limit Switches (Contact type):

Single Pole (SP),

Single Throw (ST)

Double Pole (DP),

Single Throw (ST)

8 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Limit Switches (Contact type):

Disadvantages of contact type limit switches:

1- Arcing at near closed position
2- Bouncing at position switching
due to spring action.

Solutions to these problems include:

1- Use a keystroke-recognition program
e.g. in computer key board keys.
2- Use non-contact limit switches
e.g. Hall Effect switch

9 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Non-Contact Presence Sensors (Proximity Sensors):

These are transducers that include control circuitry

that allows them to be used as sensors. The circuitry
changes an internal switch when the transducer
output reaches a certain level.

The most common types of proximity sensors are:

a- Inductive proximity sensors
b- Capacitive proximity sensors
c- Optical proximity sensors
d- Hall Effect sensor

10 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Inductive proximity sensors
Detect the presence of electrically conductive materials.

Object

11 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Inductive proximity sensors

A DC supply is used to generate AC in an internal

coil, which in turn causes an alternating magnetic field.

If a conductive material enters the changing magnetic

field, eddy current is generated in that material, and there
is an increase in the impedance in the proximity sensor .

A current sensor detects drop in the internal AC current

due to increased impedance and controls a switch
providing output.

12 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Capacitive proximity sensors
Capacitive proximity sensors sense ”target”
objects due to target’s ability to be electrically charged.

13 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Capacitive proximity sensors
Since even non-conductors can hold charges, almost any
object can be detected with these sensors.
Most capacitive sensors can be adjusted to switch at
different levels of internal current flow, so it can sense a
wide range of materials at an adjustable distance.
Capacitive proximity sensors are generally larger and
more expensive than inductive ones.
Capacitive proximity sensors can give FALSE READINGS
if not used carefully.

14 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Optical proximity sensors (Light Beam Sensors):
Types:
1- Thru-beam type
2- Retro reflective type

15 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Through beam optical proximity sensor

Retro reflective optical proximity sensor

16 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Optical proximity sensors (Light Beam Sensors):
Light source is usually tailored for the sensor used, Why?
- Infra-red light is usually used.
- Dealing with ambient light.
Most optical proximity light sources Pulse the infra-red
light on and off at a fixed frequency.
The light sensor circuit is deigned so that light that is not
pulsing at this frequency is rejected.

The light sensor can typically be;

i- a semiconductor device (e.g. a photodiode) which
generates a small current when light energy strikes it.
ii- a phototransistor that allows current to follow if light
energy strikes it.

17 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Limit Switches (Non-Contact Type):
Hall Effect Switch:

As a permanent magnet approaches the Hall Effect

sensor, current passing along the sensor is forced
toward one side of the sensor. Contacts at the sides
of the Hall Effect sensor detect that the current is
now concentrated at one side and opens or closes a
semiconductor switch.
18 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
 Resistive Sensing Mechanism

19 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Resistive Transducers
• The measurand directly or indirectly alters the
electrical resistance of a resistive element.

• Electrical resistance is a parameter that we use to

relate voltage and current.

• Sensing takes advantage of changes in resistance

to infer changes in other physical quantities.

Resistance changes because of

material or geometry changes.
20 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
Resistive Sensing
• For example, for the simple uniform conductor.
Where:
ρ: the resistivity,
L: the length
A: cross sectional

• Resistance is altered either by a geometric (A, L) or

material change (ρ) in the resistive element.

• Resistance can be directly measured (by an ohmmeter)

or through a signal conditioning circuit (e.g., a voltage-
divider)
21 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
 R = R1 + R2

Principle of Resistive transducer

i = Vi / (R1+R2) = Vo/R2
Vo = Vi . [R2 / (R1+R2)]
Vo = (Vi/R).R2 = k.R2, k: constant = (Vi/R)
22 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
Operating Characteristic Curve (OCC)

Voltage

Displacement

23 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

24 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
25 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
The Resistive Transducer as a Linear Transducer

Lathe table

Lead screw

Resistive sensor

V out

᷈
Problem:
A linear potentiometer is 50mm long and is uniformly
wound with a wire having a resistance of 10000Ω. Under
normal conditions, the slider is at the centre of the
potentiometer. Find the linear displacement when the
resistance is: i) 3850Ω ii) 7560Ω
If it is possible (using the available arrangement) to
measure a minimum of 10Ω, find the resolution of the
potentiometer in mm.

Solution:
-At normal position: R= 10000/2= 5000Ω
-Resistance per unit length= 10000/50 = 200Ω/mm
Change in resistance = 5000 – 3850 = 1150Ω
Displacement= 1150/200 = 5.75mm
…………..
27 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
The Resistive Transducer as
an angular Transducer

28 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

29 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
 Applications of resistive transducers

-Measurement of linear and angular

displacements
- Measurement of liquid level
- Measurement of temperature e.g. through
volume change.
-Measurement of pressure with the help of e.g.
a diaphragm/ a spring loaded plate.

30 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Spring Type (Pressure) Force Sensors:

31 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Capacitive Transducers

32 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Capacitive Transducers:
The value of capacitance is determined by:
(a) the area of the plates
(b) the distance between the plates
(c) the type of dielectric between the plates

33 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Capacitive Transducers:
A=w.l

C = ε (A / d) = εo εr A/d d
l

Where:
A: overlapping area of plates, m2
d: distance between plates, m
ε = ε0 εr = permittivity of medium, F/m
εo = permittivity of free space, 8.85x 10-12 F/m
εr = relative permittivity

34 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Change in distance between plates:
C = ε (A / d)
Sensitivity:
S = ∂C/∂x = - εA/x2
Capacitance, C

Separation, d

35 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Example:
A parallel plate capacitive transducer uses plates of
area 500mm2 which are separated by a distance 0.2mm.
Calculate the following:

i- Value of the initial capacitance when the dielectric

is air having a permittivity of 8.85x10-12 F/m.
ii- The change in capacitance if a linear displacement
reduces the gap between the plates to 0.18mm.
iii- The sensitivity of the transducer if the gap
between the two plates becomes 0.16mm.

36 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Solution:

At d=0.2mm
C0.2 = ε (A / d)
= 8.85x10-12 x((500x10-6)/(0.2x10-3))
= 2.2125x10-11
At d=0.18mm
C0.18 = 2.4583x10-11
At d=0.16mm
C0.16 = 2.7656x10-11

37 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Three plate capacitive transducer

38 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Capacitive Transducers:

39 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

In the above diagram the flexible diaphragm act as one of
the capacitor plates.
As pressure is applied to the input it bends towards the
fixed plate thus increasing the capacitance.
40 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
 In the above capacitor the position of the dielectric is
varied to vary the capacitance.

41 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Inductive Transducers:

42 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Inductive Transducers:
Self inductance of a coil ”ability of a coil to oppose any
change in current flowing through the coil”.

L = µ (n2 A) / l

Where:
L : inductance (Henry, H)
µ : permeability of core (H.m)
n : No. of turns of coils
A : Cross-sectional area of core, m2
l : length of core, m
A/l : core form factor

43 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Permeability: The ability of a substance to concentrate
magnetic flux. A magnetic field can be created by a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet, which is a looped
coil of conducting material wound on a core many times.

44 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

The inductance of a circuit is influenced by a
number of factors, including:

1) the number of turns in a coil

2) the coil size
3) the permeability of the flux path
14
12
10
Output

8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time/sample No.

45 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Quiz
Name one transducer to measure each of the
following:
1- Number of products passing a check point.
2- Level of water in a tank
3- Surface roughness of a machined surface.

Show the working principle of only one of the

selected transducers.

46 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Temperature Transducers
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD):
Responds to heat by increasing its resistance to electric
current.
The sensitive element is usually made from platinum, but
can be made from tungsten, nickel or copper.
The useful temperature range is roughly –250 to +750°C.

47 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Temperature Transducers

Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD):

Main requirements for a conductor material for RTD:

1- The change in resistance of material per unit change

in temperature should be as large as possible.

2- The material should have a high value of resistivity

so that minimum material is used for RTD construction.

3- The resistance of material should have a continuous

and stable relationship with temperature.

48 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Thermistors:
Responds to heat by decreasing its resistance to electric
current.
Thermistors are usually more sensitive to temperature
change. Thermistors are generally produced using
powdered metal oxides.
More suitable for precision measurement of relatively low
temperature.
The typical temperature range for a thermistor is –50 to
+150°C.

49 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Summary:
1- Thermistors are made out of ceramic or polymer while
RTDs are made out of pure metals.
2. Thermistors have equal or better accuracy than RTDs.
3. Thermistors allow for greater cable lengths compared to
RTDs.
4. Thermistors have a much faster response time compared
to RTDs.
5. RTDs have a greater temperature range compared to
thermistors.
6. RTDs are generalyl used in industrial installation while
thermistors are used in common home appliances.
7-Thermistors can only be used up to 130°C while RTDS
can be used up to 660°C.
50 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
Integrated Circuit (IC) Temperature Sensor:
Responds to temperature increase by increasing reverse
bias current across a P-N junction, generating a small but
detectable current or voltage proportional to temperature.
IC sensors can operate over a range of –55 to +200°C

51 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Thermocouple Temperature Sensors:
Generate a small voltage proportional to the temperature
difference at two locations where a junction of two
dissimilar metals are placed.

52 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

53 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
 Force and pressure Sensors:

All Pressure sensors measure the difference in pressure

between two regions by allowing the pressure from one
region to exert its force against a surface sealing it from a
second region.

Note that;
Force = Pressure x Area

54 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Accelerometer

Accelerometer

Frequency response
of an accelerometer
(Bode Diagram)

55 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Strain gauge sensors:

Strain gauges measure deformation (strain) is related to

exerted force (for a given material and configuration).

56 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Flow Transducers:
Flow sensors measure the volume of material that passes
the sensor in a given time. Sensors based on different
principles are being used:
1- Pressure sensors: the faster the fluid is flowing, the
more pressure it will create on the open end of a pitot tube.

57 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 2- Temperature sensors: Quickly flowing fluids can cool
a temperature sensor in the stream more than a slowly
moving fluid.

58 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

3- Vane-type flow sensor: measures the flow by measuring
the speed of a rotating turbine placed in the fluid flow
stream

59 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 4- Turbine sensors: Turbine blades can be magnetized
and a magnetic sensor outside the pipe can detect the
rotation speed of the turbine.

60 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 Velocity Transducer:

Magnetic Sensor

61 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

Optical Encoder:

Components of an incremental optical encoder.

62 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
 3- Incremental Optical Encoders:

14
12
10
Output

8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time

63 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021

 4- Binary Coded Absolute Encoder: 2^3 2^22^1 2^0
8 4 2 1

0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 2
0 0 1 0 2 3
0 0 1 1 3 4
0 1 0 0 4 5
0 1 0 1 5 6
0 1 1 0 6 7
0 1 1 1 7 8
1 0 0 0 8 9
1 0 0 1 9 10
1 0 1 0 10 11
1 0 1 1 11 12
1 1 0 0 12 13
1 1 0 1 13 14
1 1 1 0 14 15
1 1 1 1 15 16
64 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
 An 8-bit Gray code absolute encoder disk
65 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021
 Thank You

66 Prof Mohammad A. Younes 14/11/2021