Scribd
Upload
18 views3 pages

Exemplar

Uploaded by

mojtabataghvafard
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
18 views3 pages

Exemplar

Uploaded by

mojtabataghvafard
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 3

Exemplar-based models are a family of linguistic theories that use a person's memory of

linguistic experiences to explain how they understand language:

 Theory
Exemplar theory assumes that people store detailed memories of linguistic events, called
exemplars, and use these to categorize new stimuli.
 Features
Exemplar models are based on the idea that linguistic knowledge is made up of specific
experiences, not abstract generalizations. Exemplars can include words, phrases, or utterances,
and they contain phonetic detail and information about the context in which they were
experienced.
 Applications
Exemplar models are used in many areas of linguistics, including phonetics, phonology,
morphology, syntax, and semantics. They can explain phenomena that are difficult to explain
using rule-based models, such as gradual language change and frequency effects in
comprehension.
 Origin
Exemplar-based models originated in psychology as a theory of perception. They have become
increasingly popular in linguistics since the 1990s.

Here are some key aspects of exemplar-based models in phonetics and phonology:

 Perception and production


Exemplar theory assumes that speech production and perception are closely linked, and that
speech events are stored in memory as exemplars.
 Cognitive map
The phonetic and phonological properties of exemplars are encoded in a cognitive map, which
is represented as a multi-dimensional space.
 Exemplar clouds
Perceived speech events form clouds of exemplars on the map, and these clouds represent the
categories of a language.
 Hybrid models
Phonologists and phoneticians have introduced hybrid models that combine exemplar storage
with compositional representations of phonological structure.
 Computational implementations
Researchers can use computational implementations of exemplar models to explore the types
of linguistic behavior they predict.

 Empirical work
Empirical work tests how well exemplar-based predictions match actual linguistic patterns.
 Phonetic convergence
Exposure to a particular talker's pronunciation can cause participants' pronunciations to
shift. This is an example of phonetic convergence, which is when listeners are more likely to
select a shadowed pronunciation as a better imitation.

Subphonemic representations of speech are finer-grained phonological representations that are


maintained during the categorization process. Here is some related information about
subphonemic representations of speech:

 Subphonemic sensitivity
Individuals with lower phonological skills may have higher subphonemic sensitivity, which
indicates finer-grained phonological representations.

Here are some examples of subphonemic representations of speech:

 Vowel differences
The difference in the vowel sounds in "boat" and "bone" is an example of subphonemic
variation. Although the vowel is the same phoneme in both words, the articulatory overlap with
the following consonant makes the vowel sound different.
 Homophonous sequences
Sequences of phonemes that are homophonous, meaning they have multiple potential
meanings, contain low-level acoustic differences. For example, the words "flour" and "flower"
differ in duration based on how often they are used.
 Subphonemic differences between syllables
Adults use subphonemic differences between syllables to determine which word is the
target. For example, the words "cap" and "captain" have subphonemic differences that help
determine which word is being used.
Episodic theories of phonology suggest that perceptual details are stored in memory and are
important for later perception. Acoustic representations of speech are the physical properties of
speech, such as sound wave signals, and are analyzed through varying frequencies, amplitudes,
and durations.
An indexical representation is a sign, message, or text that is based on a direct connection
between a representamen and its object. Indexical representations are often linguistic
expressions, such as words or adverbs, whose meaning can change depending on the context or
the speaker's reference.
Fine-grained representations are detailed, in-depth, or involve fine detail.
The double phonemic boundary is a phenomenon where bilinguals have different category
boundaries for speech sounds than monolinguals, and these boundaries can shift depending on
the language context.
Here are some findings from studies on the double phonemic boundary:
Bilinguals and monolinguals both shift boundaries
Both bilinguals and monolinguals shift their phonemic boundaries in the expected direction.
Bilinguals' boundaries shift more with confidence
The magnitude of the shift in bilinguals' boundaries is correlated with their confidence in using
both languages.
Differences are more noticeable in adult learners
Differences in phonetic behavior are most noticeable in bilinguals who learned their second
language as adults.
Bilinguals often perceive and pronounce speech sounds differently than monolinguals because
their first and second languages interact.
Phonological priming is a version of form priming, in which two phonologically overlapping
words are presented, and the word presented first (the prime) influences the accuracy and
speed of responses to the second word (the target). For example, upon hearing the prime
GRIEF, listeners take longer to respond to the target GREEN compared to the unrelated
condition with the prime CLUMP (Slowiaczek & Hamburger, 1992). Note that faster
processing is referred to as facilitation, and slower processing as inhibition. Address for
correspondence: In auditory priming both the prime and the target are auditory, while in cross-
modal priming the prime is auditory and the target is visual. The advantage of auditory priming
is that it relies on phonological representations, and does not involve any graphic phonological
conversion necessitated by the use of orthography.

You might also like