Abstract Algebra

Hechen Hu

August 9, 2018
ii
Contents

1 Groups 1
1.1 Semigroups, Monoids and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Homomorphisms and Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Cosets and Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Normality, Quotient Groups, and Homomorphisms . . . . . . 8
1.6 Symmetric, Alternating, and Dihedral Groups . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Categories: Products, Coproducts, and Free Objects . . . . . 13
1.8 Direct Products and Direct Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9 Free Groups, Free Products, Generators and Relations . . . . 18

2 The Structure of Groups 21

2.1 Free Abelian Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Finitely Generated Abelian Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 The Krull-Schmidt Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 The Action of a Group on a Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 The Sylow Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6 Classification of Finite Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7 Nilpotent and Solvable Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.8 Normal and Subnormal Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3 Rings 23
3.1 Rings and Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Factorization in Commutative Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4 Rings of Quotients and Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.5 Rings of Polynomials and Formal Power Series . . . . . . . . 34
3.6 Factorization in Polynomial Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4 Modules 39
4.1 Modules, Homomorphisms and Exact Sequences . . . . . . . 39
4.2 Free Modules and Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 Projective and Injective Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

iii
iv CONTENTS

4.4 Hom and Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.5 Tensor Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.6 Modules over a Principal Ideal Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.7 Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5 Fields and Galois Theory 41

5.1 Field Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2 The Fundamental Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.3 Splitting Fields, Algebraic Closure and Normality . . . . . . . 42
5.4 The Galois Group of a Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.5 Finite Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.6 Separability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.7 Cyclic Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.8 Cyclotomic Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.9 Radical Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

6 The Structure of Fields 45

6.1 Transcendence Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.2 Linear Disjointness and Separability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

7 Commutative Rings and Modules 47

7.1 Chain Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.2 Prime and Primary Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.3 Primary Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.4 Noetherian Rings and Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.5 Ring Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.6 Dedekind Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.7 The Hilbert Nullstellensatz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

8 The Structure of Rings 49

8.1 Simple and Primitive Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.2 The Jacobson Radical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.3 Semisimple Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.4 The Prime Radical; Prime and Semiprime Rings . . . . . . . 49
8.5 Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.6 Division Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

9 Categories 51
9.1 Functors and Natural Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
9.2 Adjoint Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
9.3 Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
CONTENTS v

10 Applications 53
10.1 Euclidean Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.2 Matrix Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.3 The 2 × 2 Matrix Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
10.4 Rotation of Regular Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
10.5 Finite Rotation Groups and Crystallographic Groups . . . . . 55
10.6 Polya-Burnside Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
vi CONTENTS
1

Groups

1.1 Semigroups, Monoids and Groups

Definition. A semigroup is a nonempty set G together with a binary oper-
ation on G which is associative.

Definition. A monoid is a semigroup G which contains a (two-sided) iden-

tity element e ∈ G such that ae = ea = a for all a ∈ G.

Definition. A group is a monoid G such that there exists a (two-sided) in-

verse element and the operation between the inverse element and the original
element yields the identity element regardless of order of operation.

Definition. A semigroup G is said to be abelian or commutative if its binary

operation is commutative.

Definition. The order of a group G is the cardinal number |G|. G is said

to be finite(resp. infinite) if |G| is finite(resp. infinite).

Theorem 1.1.1. If G is a monoid, then the identity element e is unique.

If G is a group, then

• c ∈ G and (cc = c) ⇒ (c = e);

• for all a, b, c ∈ G we have (ab = ac) ⇒ (b = c) and (ba = ca) ⇒ (b = c)

(left and right cancellation);

• for each element in G its inverse element is unique;

• for each element in G the inverse of its inverse is itself;

• for a, b ∈ G we have (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 ;

• for a, b ∈ G the equation ax = b and ya = b have unique solutions in

G : x = a−1 b and y = ba−1 .

1
2 1. GROUPS

Proposition. Let G be a semigroup. G is a group iff the following condi-

tions hold:

• there exists an element e ∈ G such that ea = a for all a ∈ G (left

identity element);

• for each a ∈ G, there exists an element a−1 ∈ G such that a−1 a = e

(left inverse).

and an analogous result holds for "right inverses" and a "right identity".

Proposition. Let G be a semigroup. G is a group iff for all a, b ∈ G the

equations ax = b and ya = b have solutions in G.

Proof. Left for Exercise

Example 1.1. Let S be a nonempty set and A(S) the set of all bijections
S → S. Under the operation of composition of functions, ◦, A(S) is a group.
The elements of A(S) are called permutations and A(S) is called the group
of permutations on the set S. If S = {1, 2, 3, · · · , n}, then A(S) is called the
symmetric group on n letters and denoted Sn . |Sn | = n!.

Definition. The direct product of two groups G and H with identities eG

and eH is the group whose underlying set is G × H and whose binary oper-
ation is given by:

(a, b)(a0 , b0 ) = (aa0 , bb0 ), where a, a0 ∈ G; b, b0 ∈ H

G × H is abelian if both G and H are; (eG , eH ) is the identity and (a−1 , b−1 )
is the inverse of (a, b). Clearly |G × H| = |G||H|.

Theorem 1.1.2. Let R(∼) be an equivalence relation on a monoid G such

that a1 a2 and b1 b2 imply a1 b1 a2 b2 for all ai , bi ∈ G. Then the set G/R of
all equivalence classes of G under R is a monoid under the binary operation
¯ where x̄ denoted the equivalence class of x ∈ G. If G
defined by (ā)(b̄) = ab,
is an [abelian] group, then so is G/R.

An equivalence relation on a monoid G that satisfies these hypothesis is

called a congruence relation on G.

Example 1.2. The following relation on the additive froup Q is a congru-

ence relation:
a∼b⇔a−b∈Z
The set of equivalence classes (denoted Q/Z) is an infinite abelian group,
¯ b, and called the group of rationals modulo
with addition given by ā+ b̄ = a +
one.
1.2. HOMOMORPHISMS AND SUBGROUPS 3

Definition. The meaningful product on any sequence of elements of a semi-

group G, {a1 , a2 , · · · }, a1 , · · · , an (in this order), is defined inductively as
below: If n = 1, the only meaningful product is a1 . If n > 1, then a meaning-
ful product is defined to be any product of the form (a1 · · · am )(am+1 · · · an )
where m < n and (a1 · · · am ) and (am+1 · · · an ) are meaningful products of
m and n − m elements respectively.
Qn
Definition. The standard n product i=1 ai is defined as follows:

1
Y n
Y n−1
Y
ai = ai ; for n > 1, ai = ( ai )an
i=1 i=1 i=1

Theorem 1.1.3 (Generalized Associative Law). If G is a semigroup and

a1 , · · · , an ∈ G, then any two meaningful products of a1 , · · · , an in this order
are equal.

Theorem 1.1.4 (Generalized Commutative Law). If G is a commuta-

tive semigroup and a1 , · · · , an ∈ G, then for any permutation i1 , · · · , in of
1, 2, · · · , n, a1 a2 · · · an = ai1 ai2 · · · ain .

Definition. Let G be a semigroup, a ∈ G and n ∈ N. The element an ∈ G

is defined to be the standard n product ni=1 ai with ai = a for 1 6 i 6 n.
Q

If G is a monoid, a0 is defined to be the identity element e. If G is a group,

then for each n ∈ N, a−n is defined to be (a−1 )n ∈ G.

Theorem 1.1.5. If G is a group(resp. semigroup, monoid) and a ∈ G, then

for all m, n ∈ Z (resp. N and N ∪ {0}) :

• am an = am+n

• (am )n = amn

1.2 Homomorphisms and Subgroups

Definition. Let G and H be semigroups. A function f : G → H is a
homomorphism provided

f (ab) = f (a)f (b) for all a, b ∈ G

If f is injective as a map of sets, f is said to be a monomorphism. If f

is surjective, f is called an epimorphism. If f is bijective, f is called an
isomorphism. In this case G and H are said to be isomorphic (written
G∼ = H). A homomorphism f : G → G is called an endomorphism of G and
an isomorphism f : G → G is called an automorphism of G.
4 1. GROUPS

Definition. Let f : G → H be a homomorphism of groups. The kernel of

f (denoted Ker f ) is {a ∈ G|f (a) = e ∈ H}. If A is a subset of G, then
f (A) = {b ∈ H|b = f (a) for some a ∈ A} is the image of A. f (G) is called
the image of f and denoted Im f . If B is a subset of H, f −1 (B) = {a ∈
G|f (a) ∈ B} is the inverse image of B.

Theorem 1.2.1. Let f : G → H be a homomorphism of groups. Then

• f is a monomorphism iff Ker f = {e}.

• f is an isomorphism iff there is a homomorphism f −1 : H → G such

that f f −1 = 1H and f −1 f = 1G .

Definition. Let G be a semigroup and H a nonempty subset of it. If for

every a, b ∈ H we have ab ∈ H, we say that H is closed under the product
in G. This is the same as saying that the binary operation on G, when
restricted to H, is a binary operation on H.

Definition. Let G be a group and H a nonempty subset that is closed

under the product in G. If H is itself a group under the product in G, then
H is said to be a subgroup of G, denoted H < G.

Definition. If a subgroup H is not G itself or the trivial subgroup, which

consists only of the identity element, is called a proper subgroup.

Theorem 1.2.2. Let H be a nonempty subset of a group G. Then H is a

subgroup of G iff ab−1 ∈ H for all a, b ∈ H.

Corollary. If G is a group and {Hi |i ∈ I} is a nonempty family of sub-

T
groups, then Hi is a subgroup of G.
i∈I

Definition. Let G be a group and X a subset of G. Let {Hi |i ∈ I} be

T
the family of all subgroups of G which contain X. Then Hi is called the
i∈I
subgroup of G generated by the set X and denoted hXi. The elements of X
are the generators of hXi. If G = ha1 , · · · , an i, (ai ∈ G), G is said to be
finitely generated. If a ∈ G, the subgroup hai is called the cyclic (sub)group
generated by a.

Theorem 1.2.3. If G is a group and X a nonempty subset of G, then the

subgroup hXi generated by X consists of all finite products an1 1 an2 2 · · · ant t (ai ∈
X; ni ∈ Z). In particular for every a ∈ G, hai = {an |n ∈ Z}.

Definition. The subgroup h Hi i generated by the set

T T
Hi is called the
i∈I i∈I
subgroup generated by the groups {Hi |i ∈ I}. If H and K are subgroups,
the subgroup hH ∪ Ki generated by H and K is called the join of H and K
and is denoted H ∨ K.
1.3. CYCLIC GROUPS 5

1.3 Cyclic Groups

Definition. A cyclic group or monogenous group is a group that is generated
by a single element. That is, it consists of a set of elements with a single
invertible associative operation, and it contains an element such that every
other element of the group may be obtained by repeatedly applying the
group operation or its inverse to it.
Theorem 1.3.1. Every subgroup H of the additive group Z is cyclic. Either
H = h0i or H = hmi, where m is the least positive interger in H. If H 6= h0i,
then H is infinite.
Theorem 1.3.2. Every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to the additive
group Z and every finite group of order m is isomorphic to the additive group
Zm .
Definition. Let G be a group and a ∈ G. The order of a is the order of
the cyclic subgroup hai and is denoted |a|.
Theorem 1.3.3. Let G be a group and a ∈ G. If a has infinite order, then
• ak = e iff k = 0;
• the elements ak (k ∈ Z) are all distinct.
If a has inite order m > 0, then
• m is the least positive integer such that am = e;
• ak = e iff m|k;
• ar = as iff r ≡ s(modm);
• hai consists of the distinct elements a, a2 , · · · , am−1 , am = e;
• for each k such that k|m, |ak | = m/k.
Theorem 1.3.4. Every homomorphic image and every subgroup of a cyclic
group G is cyclic. In particular, if H is a nontrivial subgroup of G = hai
and m is the least positive integer such that am ∈ H, then H = ham i.
Theorem 1.3.5. Let G = hai be a cyclic group. If G is infinite, then a and
a−1 are the only generators of G. If G is finite of order m, then ak is a
generator of G iff (k, m) = 1.
Definition. The center C of a group G is defined as C = {a ∈ G|(∀x ∈
G)ax = xa}. In other words, it contains the members of G that are commu-
tative under the binary operation on G. The center of a group is an abelian
subgroup of it.
Definition. The Klein Four Group, defined as the symmetries on rectangle
that preserves distance, is the smallest non-cyclic group(all its elements has
order 2) and is isomorphic to Z2 ⊕ Z2 (which says that the Klein Four Group
is abelian)
6 1. GROUPS

1.4 Cosets and Counting

Definition. Let H be a subgroup of a group G and a, b ∈ G. a is right
congruent to b modulo H, denoted a ≡r b(mod H) if ab−1 ∈ H. a is left
congruent to b modulo H , denoted a ≡l b(mod H) if a−1 b ∈ H.

Theorem 1.4.1. Let H be a subgroup of a group G.

• Right(resp. left) congruence modulo H is an equivalence relation on

G.

• The equivalence class of a ∈ G under right(resp. left) congruence

modolo H is the set Ha = {ha|h ∈ H}(resp. aH = {ah|h ∈ H}).

• |Ha| = |H| = |aH| for all a ∈ G.

Definition. The set Ha above is called a right coset of H in G and aH is

called an left coset of H in G.

Corollary. Let H be a subgroup of a group G.

• G is the union of the right(resp. left) cosets of H in G.

• Two right(resp. left) cosets of H in G are either disjoint or equal.

• For all a, b ∈ G, (Ha = Hb) ⇔ (ab−1 ∈ H) and (aH = bH) ⇔

(a−1 b ∈ H).

• If R is the set of distinct right cosets of H in G and L is the set of

distinct left cosets of H in G, then |R| = |L|.

Proof. The first three statements are consequences of properties of equiv-

alence classes. For (iv) it’s easy to see that the map R → L given by
Ha → a−1 H is a bijection.

Definition. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. The index of H in G,

denoted [G : H], is the cardinal number of the set of distince right(resp.
left) cosets of H in G.

Definition. A complete set of right coset representatives of a subgroup H

in a group G is a set {ai } consisting of precisely one element from each right
coset of H in G and having cardinality [G : H].

Theorem 1.4.2. If K, H, G are groups with K < H < G, then [G : K] =

[G : H][H : K]. If any two of these indices are finite, then so is the third.

Proof. By previous Corollary G = i∈I Hai with ai ∈ G, |I| = [G : H]

S
S
and the cosets Hai are mutually disjoint. Similarly H = j∈J Kbj with
bj ∈ H, |J| = [H : K] and the cosets Kbj are mutually disjoint. Therefore
1.4. COSETS AND COUNTING 7

S S S S
G = i∈I Hai = i∈I ( j∈J Kbj )ai = (i,j)∈I×J Kbj ai . It suffices to show
that the cosets Kbj ai are mutually disjoint, for then we must have [G : K] =
|I × J| = |I||J| = [G : H][H : K]. If Kbj ai = Kbr at , then bj ai = kbr at (k ∈
K) (because Kk = Ke = K). Since bj , br , k ∈ H we have Hai = Hbj ai =
Hkbr at = Hat , hence i = t and bj = kbr . Thus Kbj = Kkbr = Kbr and
j = r. Therefore the cosets Kbj ai are mutually disjoint. The last statement
of the theorem is obvious.

Corollary (Lagrange). If H is a subgroup of a group G, then |G| = [G :

H]|H|. In particular if G is finite, the order |a| of a ∈ G devides |G|.

Proof. Apply the theorem with K = hei for the first statement. The second
is a special case of the first with H = hai.

Theorem 1.4.3. If the set {ab|a ∈ H, b ∈ K} is denoted HK, then for two
finite subgroups H and K of a group G |HK| = |H||K|/|H ∩ K|.

Proof. C = H ∩ K is a subgroup of K of index n = |K|/|H ∩ K| (apply the

Lagrange Corollary) and K is the disjoint union of right cosets Ck1 ∪ Ck2 ∪
· · · ∪ Ckn for some ki ∈ K (because C is a subgroup of K). Since HC = H,
this implies that HK = HCk1 ∪HCk2 ∪· · ·∪HCkn = Hk1 ∪Hk2 ∪· · ·∪Hkn ,
which are disjoint. Therefore, |HK| = |H| · n = |H||K|/|H ∩ K|.

Proposition. If H and K are subgroups of a group G, then [H : H ∩ K] 6

[G : K]. If [G : K] is finite, then [H : H ∩ K] = [G : K] iff G = KH.

Proof. Let A be the set of all right cosets of H ∩ K in H and B the set of all
right cosets of K in G. The map ϕ : A → B given by (H∩K)h 7→ Kh(h ∈ H)
is well defined since (H ∩ K)h0 = (H ∩ K)h implies h0 h−1 ∈ H ∩ K ⊂ K and
hence Kh0 = Kh. To show that ϕ is injective, noted that for Kh0 = Kh(h ∈
H) we have Hh0 = Hh, thus Kh0 ∩Hh0 = Kh∩Hh ⇔ (H ∩K)h0 = (H ∩K)h.
Then [H : H ∩ K] = |A| 6 |B| = [G : K]. If [G : K] is finite, clearly
[H : H ∩ K] = [G : K] iff ϕ is surjective. Suppose that ϕ is surjective but
G 6= KH. Then there exist an element g ∈ G such that g 6= kh for all
k ∈ K, h ∈ H. Then Kg 6= K(kh) ⇔ Kg 6= Kh. Since h is arbitrary, the
non-existence of ϕ−1 (Kg) and that Kg ∈ B contradicts with the fact that
ϕ is a bijection. If G = KH, we have that for any Kg ∈ B(g ∈ G) the
mapping ϕ−1 is defined, thus it must be surjective.

Proposition. Let H and K be subgroups of finite index of a group G.

Then [G : H ∩ K] is finite and [G : H ∩ K] 6 [G : H][G : K]. Furthermore,
[G : H ∩ K] = [G : H][G : K] iff G = HK.

Proof. This proposition is an easy consequence of previous proposition and

theorem.
8 1. GROUPS

1.5 Normality, Quotient Groups, and Homomor-

phisms
Theorem 1.5.1. If N is a subgroup of a group G, then the following con-
ditions are equivalent.

1. Left and right congruence modulo N coincide (that is, define the same
equivalence relation on G);

2. every left coset of N in G is also a right coset of N in G;

3. aN = N a for all a ∈ G;

4. for all a ∈ G, aN a−1 ⊂ N ;

5. for all a ∈ G, aN −1 = N

Definition. A subgroup N of a group G which satisfies the equivalent con-

ditions of the previous theorem is said to be normal in G (or a normal
subgroup in G); we write N C G if N is normal in G.

Theorem 1.5.2. Let K and N be subgroups of a group G with N normal

in G. Then

1. N ∩ K is a normal subgroup of K;

2. N is a normal subgroup of N ∨ K;

3. N K = N ∨ K = KN ;

4. if K is normal in G and K ∩ N = hei, then nk = kn for all k ∈ K

and n ∈ N .

Proof. 1. If n ∈ N ∩ K, then for an element k ∈ K < G knk −1 ∈ N and

knk −1 ∈ K. Thus k(N ∩ K)k −1 ⊂ N ∩ K and N ∩ K C K.

2. It is trivial.

3. All elements of N ∨ K are of the form n1 k1 n2 k2 · · · nr kr , where ni ∈ N

and ki ∈ K. Since N C G, ni kj = kj n0i (because kj n0i kj−1 ∈ N ) and
therefore these elements can be written in the form n(k1 · · · kr ), n ∈ N .
Thus N ∨ K ⊂ N K. Since N K ⊂ N ∨ K, we have N K = N ∨ K.
Similarly KN = N ∨ K.

4. Let k ∈ K and n ∈ N . Then nkn−1 ∈ K and kn−1 k −1 ∈ N . Hence

(nkn−1 ) = n(kn−1 k −1 ) ∈ N ∩ K = hei, which implies nk = kn.
1.5. NORMALITY, QUOTIENT GROUPS, AND HOMOMORPHISMS 9

Theorem 1.5.3. If N C G and G/N is the set of all (left) cosets of N in

G, then G/N is a group of order [G : N ] under the binary operation given
by (aN )(bN ) = abN .
Proof. Since the coset aN is simply the equivalence class of a ∈ G under the
equivalence relation of congruence modulo N , it suffices to show that congru-
ence modulo N is a congruence relation, that is, that a1 ≡ a (mod N ) and
b1 ≡ b (mod N ) imply a1 b1 ≡ ab (mod N ). By assumption a1 a−1 = n1 ∈ N
and b1 b−1 = n2 ∈ N . Hence (a1 b1 )(ab)−1 = a1 b1 b−1 a−1 = (a1 n2 )a−1 . But
since N is normal, a1 N = N a1 which implies that a1 n2 = n3 a1 for some
n3 ∈ N . Consequently (a1 b1 )(ab)−1 = (a1 n2 )a−1 = n3 a1 a−1 = n3 n1 ∈ N ,
whence a1 b1 ≡ ab (mod N ).

Definition. If N is a normal subgroup of a group G, then the group G/N

as defined before is called the quotient group of factor group of G by N .
If G is written additively, then the group operation in G/N is given by
(a + N ) + (b + N ) = (a + b) + N .
Example 1.3. Zm = Z/hmi.
Theorem 1.5.4. If f : G → H is a homomorphism of groups, then the
kernel of f is a normal subgroup of G. Conversely, if N is normal in G,
then the map π : G → G/N given by π(a) = aN is an epimorphism with
kernel N .
Proof. If x ∈ Ker f and a ∈ G, then clearly f (axa−1 ) = e and therefore
ker f C G. The map π is clearly surjective and since π(ab) = abN =
aN bN = π(a)π(b), it is an epimorphism. Ker π = {a ∈ G|π(a) = eN =
N } = {a ∈ G|aN = N } = {a ∈ G|a ∈ N } = N .

Definition. The map π : G → G/N is called the canonical epimorphism or

projection. Unless otherwise stated G → G/N (N C G) always denotes the
canonical epimorphism.
Theorem 1.5.5. If f : G → H is a homomorphism of groups and N is a
normal subgroup of G contained in the kernel of f , then there is a unique
homomorphism f¯ : G/N → H such that f¯(aN ) = f (a) for all a ∈ G.
Im f = Im f¯ and Ker f¯ = (Ker f )/N . f¯ is an isomorphism iff f is an
epimorphism and N = Ker f .
This essential part of the conclusion may be rephrased: there exists a
unique homomorphism f¯ : G/N → H such that the diagram
f
G H

f¯

G/H
10 1. GROUPS

is commutative.

Proof. If b ∈ aN , then b = an, n ∈ N , and f (b) = f (an) = f (a)f (n) = f (a)

since N < Ker f . Therefore, f has the same effect on every element of the
coset aN and the map f¯ : G/N → H given by f¯(aN ) = f (a) is a well-defined
function. Since f¯(aN bN ) = f¯(abN ) = f (ab) = f (a)f (b) = f¯(aN )f¯(bN ), f¯
is a homomorphism. Clearly Im f = Im f¯ and

aN ∈ Ker f¯ ⇔ f (a) = e ⇔ a ∈ Ker f

whence Ker f¯ = {aN |a ∈ Ker f } = (Ker f )/N . f¯ is unique since it is

completely determined by f . It is clear that f¯ is an epimorphism iff f is. f¯
is a monomorphism if its kernel is the trivial subgroup of G/N , which occurs
iff Ker f = N .

Definition. A commutative diagram is a diagram consists of arrows and

objects such that all directed paths that has the same start and endpoints
yield the same result.

Corollary. (First Isomorphism Theorem) If f : G → H is a homomorphism

of groups, then f induces an isomorphism G/(Ker f ) ∼
= Im f .

Proof. Clearly f : G → Im f is an epimorphism. Apply the previous theorem

with N = Ker f yield the desired result.

Corollary. If f : G → H is a homomorphism of groups, N C G, M C H,

and f (N ) < M , then f induces a homomorphism f¯ : G/N → H/M , given
by aN 7→ f (a)M .
f¯ is an isomorphism iff Im f ∨ M = H and f −1 (M ) ⊂ N . In particular
if f is an epimorphism such that f (N ) = M and Ker f ⊂ N , then f¯ is an
isomorphism.
f π
Proof. Consider the composition G → H → H/M . N ⊂ f −1 (M ) because
f (N ) < M . Apparently πf (a) = f (a)M , then the kernel of πf consists
of those elements whose image is in M , which is equivalent to Ker πf =
f −1 (M ). Apply the previous theorem to πf the map G/N → H/M given
by aN 7→ πf (a) = f (a)M is a homomorphism that is an isomorphism iff
πf is an epimorphism and N = Ker πf . But the latter conditions hold iff
Im f ∨ M = H and f −1 (M ) ⊂ N : the second part is trivial; for the first
one, πf is an epimorphism implies that there exists some g ∈ G such that
πf (g) = hM for all distinct cosets in H/M , then H = Im f M = Im f ∨ M ;
conversely, if Im f ∨ M = H, we have Im f M = H, which says that there
exist some elements f (a1 ), f (a2 ), · · · in Im f that are the distinct cosets of
M in H, which says that there must exists some ai for any hM ∈ H/M .
If f is an epimorphism, then H = Im f = Im f ∨ M . If f (N ) = M and
Ker f ⊂ N , then f −1 (M ) ⊂ N , whence f¯ is an isomorphism.
1.6. SYMMETRIC, ALTERNATING, AND DIHEDRAL GROUPS 11

Corollary. (Second Isomorphism Theorem) If K and N are subgroups of a

group G with N C G, then K/(N ∩ K) ∼
= N K/N .
h π
Proof. N C N K = N ∨ K. The composition K → N K → N K/N is
a homomorphism f with kernel K ∩ N , whence f¯ : K/K ∩ N ∼ = Im f .
Every element in N K/N is of the form nkN . The normality of N implies
that nk = kn1 , whence nkN = kn1 N = kN = f (k). Therefore f is an
epimorphism and hence Im f = N K/N .

Corollary. (Third Isomorphism Theorem) If H and K are normal sub-

groups of a group G such that K < H, then H/K is a normal subgroup of
G/K and (G/K)/(H/K) ∼ = G/H.
Proof. The identity map 1G : G → G has 1G (K) < H and therefore induces
an epimorphism I : G/K → G/H, with I(aK) = aH. Since H = I(aK)
iff a ∈ H, Ker I = {aK|a ∈ H} = H/K. Hence H/K C G/K and G/H =
Im I ∼= (G/K)/ Ker I = (G/K)/(H/K).

Theorem 1.5.6. If f : G → H is an epimorphism of groups, then the

assignment K 7→ f (K) defines a bijection between the set Sf (G) of all sub-
groups K of G which contain Ker f and the set S(H) of all subgroups of H.
Under the bijection normal subgroups correspond to normal subgroups.

Proof. The assignment K 7→ f (K) defines a function ϕ : Sf (G) → S(H)

and f −1 (J) is a subgroup of G for every subgroup J of H. Since J < H
implies Ker f < f −1 (J) and f (f −1 (J)) = J, ϕ is surjective (since for any
subgroup J < H we have another subgroup J < H such that it is the im-
age of a subgroup f −1 (J) in G). f −1 (f (K)) = K Ker f since f (K Ker f ) =
f (K)f (Ker f ), f −1 (f (K)) = K iff Ker f < K. It follows that ϕ is injec-
tive. If K C G, then f (K) = f (gKg −1 ) = f (g)f (K)f (g)−1 = f (K). The
argument for J C H and for f −1 (J) is similar.

Corollary. If N is a normal subgroup of a group G, then every subgroup

of G/N is of the form K/N , where K is a subgroup of G that contains N .
Furthermore, K/N is normal in G/N iff K is normal in G.

Proof. Apply the theorem above to the canonical epimorphism π : G →

G/N . If N < K < G, then π(K) = K/N .

1.6 Symmetric, Alternating, and Dihedral Groups

Definition. Let i1 , i2 , · · · , ir , (r < n) be distinct elements of In = {1, 2, · · · , n}.
Then (i1 i2 i3 · · · ir ) denotes the permutation that moves each element to the
element on its right (i1 to i2 , ir to i1 , etc.) and fix elements in In that are
not in i1 , · · · , ir . (i1 i2 · · · ir ) is called a cycle of length r or an r-cycle; a
2-cycle is called a transposition.
12 1. GROUPS

Definition. The permutations σ1 , σ2 , · · · , σr of Sn are said to be disjoint

provided that for each 1 6 i 6 r, and every k ∈ In , σi (k) 6= k implies
σj (k) = k for all j 6= i. In other words, an element of In will only be moved
once if we apply all of σi to it. In this case the composition of disjoint
permutations commutes.

Theorem 1.6.1. Every nonidentity permutation in Sn is uniquely a product

of disjoint cycles, each of which has length at least 2.

Definition. Define an equivalence relation on In with a given permutation

σ as follows: x ∼ y iff y = σ m (x) for some m ∈ Z. The equivalence classes
are called the orbit for σ and form a partition of In . Note that if x ∈ Bi ,
then Bi consists of all elements {x, σ(x), σ 2 (x), · · · , σ d (x)} for some d ∈ Z.

Corollary. The order of a permutation σ ∈ Sn is the least common multi-

plier of the order of its disjoint cycles.

Corollary. Every permutation in Sn can be written as a product of (not

necessarily disjoint) transpositions.

Definition. A permutation τ ∈ Sn is said to be even (resp. odd) if τ can

be written as a product of an even (resp. odd) number of transpositions.

The sign of a permutation τ , denoted sgn τ , is 1 or −1 according as τ is

even or odd.

Theorem 1.6.2. A permutation τ ∈ Sn (n > 2) cannot be both even and

odd.

Theorem 1.6.3. For each n > 2, let An be the set of all even permutations
of Sn . Then An is a normal subgroup of Sn of index 2 and order |Sn |/2 =
n!/2. Furthermore An is the only subgroup of Sn of index 2.

The proof proceeds from the following two lemmas.

Lemma. If H < G and [G : H] = 2, then H contains all squares of elements

in G.

Proof. Let g ∈ G be arbitrary. if gH = H, the lemma is trivial. If gH = aH

/ H, then we have g 2 H = a2 H; if aH 6= a2 H = H, the lemma
for some a ∈
obviously holds. If aH = a2 H, the lemma also holds.

Lemma. If H is a subgroup of index 2 in G, then H contains all elements

of odd order in G.

Proof. Suppose that an element g ∈ G has order 2k + 1(k ∈ N). Then

H = g 2k+1 H = (g k )2 H · gH = gH.
1.7. CATEGORIES: PRODUCTS, COPRODUCTS, AND FREE OBJECTS13

Then it follows that since any permutation of order 3(like all 3-cycles)
is contained in any subgroup of index 2 (which must be normal) of Sn , it
must be An .

Definition. A group is said to be simple if it has no proper normal sub-

groups.

Theorem 1.6.4. The alternating group An is simple iff n 6= 4.

The proof of the theorem proceeds from two lemmas below.

Lemma. Let r, s be distinct elements of {1, 2, · · · , n}. Then An (n > 3) is

generated bu the 3-cycles {(rsk)|1 6 k 6 n, k 6= r, s}.

Lemma. If N / An (n > 3) and N contains a 3-cycle, then N = An .

Definition. The subgroup Dn of Sn (n > 3) generated by a = (123 · · · n)

and
!
1 2 3 ··· i ··· n − 1 n
b=
1 n n − 1 ··· n + 2 − i ··· 3 2
Y
= (i n + 2 − i)
26i<n+2−i

is called the dihedral group of degree n. The group Dn is isomorphic to and

usually identified with the group of all symmetries of a regular polygon with
n sides.

Theorem 1.6.5. For each n > 3 the dihedral group Dn is a group of order
2n whose generators a and b satisfy:

1. an = (1); b2 = (1); ak 6= (1) if 0 < k < n((1) is the identity permuta-

tion);

2. ba = a−1 b

Any group G which is generated by elements a, b ∈ G satisfying both condi-

tions for some n > 3 is isomorphic to Dn .

1.7 Categories: Products, Coproducts, and Free

Objects
Definition. A category is a class C of objects (denoted A, B, C, ...) together
with

1. a class of disjoint sets, denoted hom(A, B), one(set) for each pair of
objects in C; an element of hom(A, B) is called a morphism from A
to B and denoted f : A → B.
14 1. GROUPS

2. for each triple (A, B, C) of objects of C a function

hom(B, C) × hom(A, B) → hom(A, C)
which is the composite of morphisms. The composition must be as-
sociative. An identity morphism 1B : B → B also exists and for any
f : A → B and g : B → C
1B ◦ f = f and g ◦ 1B = g

Definition. In a category C a morphism f : A → B is called an equivalence

if there is in C a morphism g : B → A such that g ◦ f = 1A and f ◦ g = 1B .
The composite of two equivalences, when defined, is an equivalence. If
f : A → B is an equivalence, A and B are said to be equivalent.
Example 1.4. For S, the class of all sets, equipped with functions between
these sets as morphisms, a morphism is an equivalence iff it is bijective.
Example 1.5. For G, the category of all groups, equipped with homomor-
phisms between these groups as morphisms, a morphism is an equivalence
iff it is an isomorphism.
Example 1.6. A (multiplicative) group G can be considered as a category
with one object G. Let hom(G, G) be the set of elements of G(then each mor-
phism is an element of G); composite of morphisms is simply the composition
given by the binary operation in G. Every morphism is an equivalence and
1G is the identity element e of G. This example shows that morphisms
need not to be functions. In this case it is said that the category is not
concrete.
Definition. Let C be a category and {Ai |i ∈ I} a family of objects of C. A
product for the family {Ai |i ∈ I} is an object P of C together with a family
of morphisms {πi : P → Ai |i ∈ I} such that for any object B and family
of morphisms {ϕi : B → Ai |i ∈ I}, there is a unique morphism ϕ : B → P
such that πi ◦ ϕ = ϕi for all i ∈ I. The product of {Ai |i ∈ I} is usually
Q
denoted i∈I Ai .
When I = {1, 2}, the product P expressed using a commutative dia-
B
ϕ2
ϕ
ϕ1

π2
A1 π1 P A2
gram:
Q
In the category of sets the Cartesian product i∈I Ai is a product of the
family of sets {Ai }. The map πi would be the canonical projections onto
the ith components. The map ϕ would be (ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕi ) that takes an
Q
element of B and maps it to an element of i∈I Ai .
1.7. CATEGORIES: PRODUCTS, COPRODUCTS, AND FREE OBJECTS15

Theorem 1.7.1. If (P, {πi }) and (Q, {ψi }) are both products of the family
{Ai |i ∈ I} of objects of a category C, then P and Q are equivalent.

Definition. A coproduct (or sum) for the family {Ai |i ∈ I} of objects

in a category C is an object S of C, together with a family of morphisms
{ιi : Ai → S|i ∈ I} such that for any object B and family of morphisms
{ψi : Ai → B|i ∈ I}, there is a unique morphism ψ : S → B such that
ψ◦ιi = ψi for all i ∈ I. Although no universal notation exists for coproducts,
`
it is usually denoted i∈I Ai .

It’s easy to see that by reversing the arrows in the commutative diagram
above for product we obtain the diagram for coproduct.

Theorem 1.7.2. If (S, {ιi }) and (S0 , {λi }) are both products of the family
{Ai |i ∈ I} of objects of a category C, then S and S0 are equivalent.

Definition. A concrete category is a category C together with a function σ

that assigns to each object A of C a set σ(A)(called the underlying set of
A) in such a way that:

1. every morphism A → B of C is a function on the underlying sets

σ(A) → σ(B);

2. the identity morphism of each object A of C is the identity function

on the underlying set σ(A);

3. composition of morphisms in C agrees with composition of functions

on their underlying sets.

It is worth noticing that in a concrete category morphisms are

also functions on their corresponding underlying sets, but maps,
functions on these underlying sets, might not be morphisms.

Definition. Let F be an object in a concrete category C, X a nonempty

set, and i : X → F a map (of sets). F is free on the set X provided that
for any object A of C and maps (of sets) f : X → A, there exists a unique
morphism of C, f¯ : F → A, such that f¯i = f (as a map of sets X → A).

F
f¯
i

f
X A

The essential fact about a free object F is that in order to define a morphism
with domain F, it suffices to specify the image of the subset i(X).
16 1. GROUPS

Example 1.7. Let G be any group and g ∈ G. Then the map f¯ : Z → G

defined by f¯(n) = g n is the unique homomorphism Z → G such that 1 7→ g.
Consequently, if X = {1} and i : X → Z is the inclusion map, then Z is
free on X in the category of groups. In other words, to determine a unique
homomorphism from Z to G we need only specify the image of 1 ∈ Z (that
is, the image of i(X)).
Theorem 1.7.3. If C is a concrete category, F and F0 are objects of C such
that F is free on the set X and F0 is free on the set X 0 and |X| = |X 0 |, then
F is equivalent to F0 .
We have seen that two products(resp. coproducts) for a given family
of objects are equivalent. Likewise two free objects on the same set are
equivalent. This characteristic is captured via the following definition.
Definition. An object I in a category C is said to be universal (or initial)
if for each object C of C there exists one and only one morphism I → C.
An object T of C is said to be couniversal (or terminal) if for each object C
of C there exists one and only one morphism C → T.
Theorem 1.7.4. Any two universal (resp. couniversal) objects in a category
C are equivalent.
Example 1.8. The trivial group is both universal and couniversal in the
category of groups.
Definition. In the category of sets, the disjoint union of the sets Ai is
defined on a family of sets {Ai |i ∈ I} as Ai = {(a, i) ∈ ( i∈I Ai ) × I|a ∈
S S

Ai }(notice the subscript under the union sign).

1.8 Direct Products and Direct Sums

Definition. We extend the definition of the product G × H of groups G and
H to an arbitrary family {Gi |i ∈ I} of groups, in which the multiplication is
still defined component-wise. It is called the direct product(or complete direct
sum) of the family of groups. If I = {1, 2, · · · , n}, i∈I Gi is usually denoted
Q

G1 ×G2 ×G3 ×· · ·×Gn (or in additive notation, G1 G2 G3 · · · Gn ).

L L L L

Theorem 1.8.1. If {Gi |i ∈ I} is a family of groups, then

1. the direct product is a group;

2. for each k ∈ I, the map πk : i∈I Gi → Gk given by f 7→ f (k)(here

Q

f : I → i∈I Gi and f (i) ∈ Gi for each i)[or {ai } 7→ ak ] is an epimor-

S

phism of groups.
Definition. The mappings πk previously mentioned are called the canonical
projections of the direct product.
1.8. DIRECT PRODUCTS AND DIRECT SUMS 17

Q
Theorem 1.8.2. i=1 Gi is a product in the category of groups.

Definition. The (external) weak direct product of a family of groups {Gi |i ∈

I}, denoted w i∈I Gi , is the set of all f ∈
Q Q
i∈I Gi such that f (i) = ei for all
but a finite number of i ∈ I. In other words {gi }(gi ∈ Gi ) is ei for all but a
finite number of i ∈ I. If all the groups Gi are (additive) abelian, w
Q
P i∈I Gi
is usually called the (external) direct sum and is denoted i∈I Gi .

Theorem 1.8.3. If {Gi |i ∈ I} is a family of groups, then

Qw Q
1. i∈I Gi is a normal subgroup of i∈I Gi ;

2. for each k ∈ I, the map ιk : Gk → w i∈I Gi given by ιk (a) = {ai }i∈I ,

Q

where ai = e for i 6= k and ak = a, is a monomorphism of groups;

3. for each i ∈ I, ιi (Gi ) is a normal subgroup of

Q
i∈I Gi .

Definition. The map ιk mentioned above are called the canonical injections.
P
Theorem 1.8.4. i∈I Ai is a coproduct in the category of abelian groups.

The theorem is false if the word abelian is omitted.

Theorem 1.8.5. Let {Ni |i ∈ I} be a family of normal subgroups of a group

G such that

1. G = h Ni i;
S
i∈I

2. for each k ∈ I, Nk ∩ h Ni i = hei.

S
i6=k

Then G ∼
Qw
= i∈I Ni .

Definition. Let {Ni |i ∈ I} be a family of normal subgroups of a group G

such that G = h i∈I Ni i and for each k ∈ I, Nk ∩ h i6=k Ni i = hei. Then
S S

G is said to be the internal weak direct product of the family {Ni |i ∈ I}

(or the internal direct sum if G is (additive) abelian). Notation-wise G =
Qw
i∈I Ni means that G is the internal weak direct product of the family of
its subgroups {Ni |i ∈ I}.

Theorem 1.8.6. Let {Ni |i ∈ I} be a family of normal subgroups of a group

G. G is the internal weak direct product of the family {Ni |i ∈ I} iff every
nonidentity element of G is a unique product ai1 ai2 · · · ain with i1 , · · · , in
distinct elements of I and e 6= aik ∈ Nik for each k = 1, 2, · · · , n.

Theorem 1.8.7. Let {fi : Gi → Hi |i ∈ I} be a family of homomorphisms

of groups and let f = fi be the map i=1 Gi → i∈I Hi , given by {ai } 7→
Q Q Q

{f (a )}. Then f is a homomorphism of groups such that f ( w i∈I Gi ) ⊂

Q
Qwi i Q Q
i∈I Hi , Ker f = i∈I Ker fi and Im f = i∈I Im fi . Consequently f is a
monomorphism (resp. epimorphism) iff each fi is.
18 1. GROUPS

Corollary. Let {Gi |i ∈ I} and {Ni |i ∈ I} be families of groups such that

Ni is a normal subgroup of Gi for each i ∈ I.
Ni ∼
Q Q Q Q Q
1. i∈I Ni is a normal subgroup of i∈I Gi and i∈I Gi / i∈I = i∈I Gi /Ni .
Ni ∼
Qw Qw Qw Qw
= w
Q
2. i∈I Ni is a normal subgroup of i∈I Gi and i∈I Gi / i∈I i∈I Gi /Ni .

Proof. Use the First Isomorphism Theorem.

Definition. A normal subgroup H of a group G is said to be a direct

factor(direct summand if G is additive abelian) if there exists a (normal)
subgroup K of G such that G = H × K.
Theorem 1.8.8. If GCD(m, n) = 1, then Zmn ∼
= Zm × Zn
Theorem 1.8.9. If in a finite group G all elements(except the identity) are
of order 2, |G| = 2n for some n and
G∼
= Z2 × · · · × Z2

1.9 Free Groups, Free Products, Generators and

Relations
Definition. Given a set X and a group F that is free on X can be con-
structed in the following way: If X = ∅, F is the trivial group; otherwise
let X −1 be a set disjoint from X such that |X| = |X −1 |. Choose a bijection
X → X −1 and denote the image of x ∈ X by x−1 ; finally choose a set that
is disjoint from X ∪ X −1 and has exactly one element, denote this element
by 1. A word on X is a sequence (a1 , a2 , · · · ) with ai ∈ X ∪ X −1 ∪ {1} such
that for some n ∈ N, ak = 1 for all k > n. The constant sequence (1, 1, · · · )
is called the empty word and is denoted 1. A word (a1 , a2 , · · · ) on X is said
to be reduced provided that
1. for all x ∈ X, x and x−1 are not adjacent;
2. ak = 1 implies ai = 1 for all i > k(that is, 1s only "appear at the end“
of the word).
A nonempty reduced word is denoted xλ1 1 xλ2 2 · · · xλnn , where n ∈ N, xi ∈
X and λi = ±1. Two reduced words are equal iff both are the empty
word or they have the same length and their individual components and
exponents are the same. Consequently the map from X into the set F (X)
of all reduced words on X given by x 7→ x1 = x is injective. Now we
define a binary operation on the set F = F (X). The empty word 1 act
as the identity element. The product of nonempty reduced words is given
by juxtaposition(If in the final product an entry xi is adjacent to its image
x−1
i , they are "cancelled“). Thus the definition ensures that the product of
reduced words is a reduced word.
1.9. FREE GROUPS, FREE PRODUCTS, GENERATORS AND RELATIONS19

Theorem 1.9.1. If X is a nonempty set and F = F (X) is the set of all

reduced words on X, then F is a group under the binary operation defined
above and F = hXi.

The group F = F (X) is called the free group on the set X.

Theorem 1.9.2. F is free on the set X in the category of groups.

Corollary. Every group G is the homomorphic image of a free group.

Definition. If G = hXi is a group, F is the free group on X and N is

the kernel of the epimorphism F → G of previous Corollary, the equation
xδ11 · · · xδnn = e ∈ G(where xδ11 · · · xδnn ∈ F is a generator of N ) is called a
relation on the generators xi .

A given group G can be completely described by specifying a set X of

generators of G and a suitable set R of relations on these generators.

Definition. Let X be a set and Y a set of (reduced) words on X. A group

G is said to be the group defined by the generators x ∈ X and relations
w = eG (w ∈ Y ) provided G ∼= F/N , where F is the free group on X and
N the normal subgroup of F generated by Y . One says that (X|Y ) is a
presentation of G.

Example 1.9. A finite cyclic group hai has presentation (a|an = e).

Example 1.10. The presentation of a free group on that set is (F |∅)(that’s

why it’s called "free“: the terminology comes from free of relations ).

Example 1.11. The dihedral group Dn has presentation ({a, b}|an = e, b2 =

e, abab = e(or ba = a−1 b))

Theorem 1.9.3 (Van Dyck). Let X be a set, Y a set of (reduced) words

on X and G the group defined by the generators x ∈ X and relations w =
e(w ∈ Y ). If H is any group such that H = hXi and H satisfies all the
relations w = e(w ∈ Y )(that is, these two groups G and H has the same
presentation), then there is an epimorphism G → H.

Definition. Given a family of groups {Gi |i ∈ I} we may assume (by re-

labeling their elements if necessary) that the Gi are mutually disjoint sets.
Let X = i∈I Gi and let {1} be a one-element set disjoint from X. A word
S

on X is any sequence (a1 , a2 , · · · ) such that ai ∈ X ∪{1} and for some n ∈ N,

ai = 1 for all i > n. A word is reduced provided:

1. no ai ∈ X is the identity element in its group Gj ;

2. for all i, j > 1, ai and ai+1 are not in the same group Gj ;

3. ak = 1 implies ai = 1 for all i > k.

20 1. GROUPS

Let ∗i∈I Gi (or G1 ∗ G2 ∗ · · · ∗ Gn if I is finite) be the set of all reduced

Q
Q∗
words on X. i∈I Gi forms a group, called the free product of the family
{Gi |i ∈ I}, under the binary operation defined as follows. 1 is the identity
element and the product of reduced words to be given by juxtaposition and
necessary cancellation as well as contraction. Finally for each k ∈ I the
map ιk : Gk → ∗i∈I Gi given by e 7→ 1 and a 7→ a = (a, 1, 1, · · · ) is a
Q

monomorphism of groups.
Q∗
Theorem 1.9.4. The free product i∈I Gi with ιi is a coproduct in the
category of groups.
2

The Structure of Groups

2.1 Free Abelian Groups

2.2 Finitely Generated Abelian Groups

2.3 The Krull-Schmidt Theorem

2.4 The Action of a Group on a Set

Definition. An action of a group G on a set S is a function G × S →
S(usually denoted by (g, x) 7→ gx) such that for all x ∈ S and g1 , g2 ∈ G:
1. ex = x;

2. (g1 g2 )x = g1 (g2 x).

When such an action is given, G acts on the set S.
Definition. Let G be a group and H a subgroup. An action of the group
H on the set G is given by (h, x) 7→ hx, where hx is the product in G. The
action of h ∈ H on G is called a (left) translation.
Definition. Let G be a group and H a subgroup. An action of H on the
set G, given by (h, x) 7→ hxh−1 , is called conjugation by h and hxh−1 is said
to be a conjugate of x. H can also act on the set S of all subgroups of G by
conjugation (h, K) 7→ hKh−1 . The group hKh−1 is said to be conjugate to
K.
Theorem 2.4.1. Let G be a group that acts on a set S.
1. The relation on S defined by

x ∼ x0 ⇔ gx = x0 for some g∈G

is an equivalence relation.

21
22 2. THE STRUCTURE OF GROUPS

2. For each x ∈ S, Gx = {g ∈ G|gx = x} is a subgroup of G.

Definition. The equivalence classes of the equivalence relation previously

mentioned are called the orbits of G on S; the orbit of x ∈ S is denoted x̄.
The subgroup Gx is called the subgroup fixing x, the isotropy group of x, or
the stabilizer of x.

Lemma. If G acts on S, then for any x ∈ S

|[G : Stab x]| = | Orb x|

Theorem 2.4.2. If G acts on S, then for any x ∈ S

|G| = | Stab x|| Orb x|

2.5 The Sylow Theorem

2.6 Classification of Finite Groups

2.7 Nilpotent and Solvable Groups

2.8 Normal and Subnormal Series

3

Rings

3.1 Rings and Homomorphisms

Definition. A ring is a nonempty set R together with two binary operations
(usually denoted as addition (+) and multiplication) such that:
1. (R, +) is an abelian group;
2. the multiplication is associative;
3. a(b + c) = ab + ac and (a + b)c = ac + bc (left and right distributive
laws).
If in addition the multiplication is commutative, R is said to be a commu-
tative ring. If R contains an identity element for multiplication, R is said to
be a ring with identity.
The additive identity of the ring is called the zero element and denoted
0.
Theorem 3.1.1. Let R be a ring. Then
1. 0a = a0 = 0 for all a ∈ R;
2. (−a)b = a(−b) = −(ab) for all a, b ∈ R;
3. −(a)(−b) = ab for all a, b ∈ R;
4. (na)b = a(nb) = n(ab) for all n ∈ Z and all a, b ∈ R;
5. n m n X
m
X X X
( ai )( bj ) = ai bj for all ai , bj ∈ R
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=i

Definition. A nonzero element a in a ring R is said to be left (resp. right)

zero divisor if there exists a nonzero b ∈ R such that ab = 0 (resp. ba = 0).
A zero divisor is an element of R which is both a left and a right zero divisor.

23
24 3. RINGS

A ring has no zero divisors iff the right and left cancellation laws hold
in this ring.

Definition. An element a in a ring R with identity is said to be left (resp.

right) invertible if there exists c ∈ R (resp. b ∈ R) such that ca = 1R (resp.
ab = 1R ). The element c (resp. b) is called a left (resp. right) inverse of
a. An element a ∈ R that is both left and right invertible is said to be
invertible or to be a unit.

A unit’s left and right inverses necessarily coincide. The set of units in
a ring R with identity forms a group under multiplication.

Definition. A commutative ring R with identity 1R 6= 0 and no zero divisors

is called an integral domain. A ring D with identity 1D 6= 0 in which every
nonzero element is a unit is called a division ring. A field is a commutative
division ring.

Theorem 3.1.2 (Binomial Theorem). Let R be a ring with identity, n a

positive integer, and a, b, a1 , a2 , · · · , as ∈ R.

1. If ab = ba, then
n
!
n
X n k n−k
(a + b) = a b
k=0
k

2. If ai aj = aj ai for all i and j, then

n!
ai1 ai2 · · · aiss
X
(a1 + a2 + · · · + as )n =
(i1 !) · · · (is !) 1 2

where the sum is over all s-tuples (i1 , i2 , · · · , is ) such that i1 + i2 +

· · · + is = n.

Definition. A homomorphism of rings f : R → S between two rings R and

S is a mapping that preserves the ring structure, that is

f (r1 )f (r2 ) = f (r1 r2 ) and f (r1 + r2 ) = f (r1 ) + f (r2 )

for all r1 , r2 ∈ R. Because of its similarity with respect to the homo-

morphisms of groups, the same terminology (like monomorphisms, epimor-
phisms and isomorphisms for injective, surjective and bijective homomor-
phisms respectively) will also apply. A monomorphism of rings R → S is
sometimes called an embedding of R in S. The kernel and image of homo-
morphisms of rings are defined similar to those of group homomorphisms
– the only difference is that the homomorphism maps the elements in its
kernel to the identity element 0 of the additive abelian group. In fact if
R and S both have identities 1R and 1S it is not required that a
homomorphism maps 1R to 1S .
3.1. RINGS AND HOMOMORPHISMS 25

Example 3.1. The canonical map Z → Zm defined by k 7→ k̄ is an epimor-

phism of rings.

Definition. Let R be a ring. If there is a least positive integer n such that

na = 0 for all a ∈ R, then R is said to have characteristic n. If no such n
exists R is said to have characteristic 0.(Notation: char R = n)

Theorem 3.1.3. Let R be a ring with identity 1R and characteristic n > 0.

1. If ϕ : Z → R is the map given by m 7→ m1R , then ϕ is a homomor-

phism with kernel hni.

2. n is the least positive integer such that n1r = 0.

3. If R has no zero divisors(R is an integral domain), then n is prime.

Theorem 3.1.4. Every ring R may be embedded in a ring S with identity.

The ring S (which is not unique) may be chosen to be either of characteristic
zero or of the same characteristic as R.

Definition. A ring R such that a2 = a for all a ∈ R is called a Boolean

Ring. Every Boolean ring is commutative and a + a = 0 for all a ∈ R.

Theorem 3.1.5 (a.k.a The Freshman’s Dream). If R is a commutative ring

n n n
with identity of prime characteristic p and a, b ∈ R, then (a±b)p = ap ±bp
for all n > 0 ∈ Z (note that b = −b if p = 2).

Definition. An element a of a ring is nilpotent if an = 0 for some integer

n.

Theorem 3.1.6. In a commutative ring a + b is nilpotent if a and b are.

However, the theorem is not necessarily true in a non-commutative ring.

For example, in the ring over all 2 × 2 matrices over R where addition and
multiplication are defined
! respectively
! by matrix addition and multiplication
0 1 0 0
the elements and are nilpotent(their square equals to the
0 0 1 0
additive zero in this ring), but their sum is not.

Theorem 3.1.7. A finite ring with more than one element and no zero
divisors is a division ring.

Proof. For each non-zero element a ∈ R define the map ϕa : R → R given

by x 7→ ax(x ∈ R). Show that the map is a bijection and thus an identity
exists as well as a is invertible.

Definition. The homomorphism R → R defined on a commutative ring

R with identity and prime characteristic p given by r 7→ rp is called the
Frobenius homomorphism.
26 3. RINGS

Definition. If R is a ring, then so is Rop , where Rop is defined as follows:

their underlying set is the same; their addition coincide; the multiplication
in Rop is defined by a ◦ b = ba, where ba is the product in R. The ring Rop
is called the opposite ring of R.

Theorem 3.1.8. If R and S are rings and Rop and S op are their respective
opposite rings, then

1. R has an identity iff Rop does;

2. R is a division ring iff Rop is;

3. (Rop )op = R;

4. If S is a ring, then R ∼
= S iff Rop ∼
= S op .

3.2 Ideals
Definition. Let R be a ring and S a nonempty subset of R that is closed
under addition and multiplication in R. If S is itself a ring under these
operations then S is called a subring of R. A subring I of R is a left
ideal(resp. right ideal) provided for r ∈ R and x ∈ I we have rx ∈ I(resp.
xr ∈ I). I is an ideal if it is both a left and right ideal.

It can be seen that ideal is the analogous definition of a normal subgroup

of a group.

Example 3.2. The center of a ring R is the set C = {c ∈ R|cr = rc for all r ∈
R}. C is a subring of R but it may not be an ideal.

Example 3.3. The cyclic group generated by any integer n is an ideal in Z.

Definition. The ideal of a ring that only contains 0 is called the trivial
ideal(denoted 0). An ideal I of R such that I is not trivial and I 6= R is
called a proper ideal.

If R has an identity 1R and I is an ideal of R, then I = R iff 1R ∈ I.

Consequently a nonzero ideal I is proper iff I contains no units of R. In
particular, a division ring has no proper ideals.

Theorem 3.2.1. A nonempty subset I of R is a left (resp. right) ideal iff

for all a, b ∈ I and r ∈ R:

1. a, b ∈ I ⇒ a − b ∈ I;

2. a ∈ I, r ∈ R ⇒ ra ∈ I(resp. ar ∈ I).

Corollary. Let {Ai |i ∈ I} be a family of [left] ideals in a ring R. Then

T
i∈I Ai is also a [left] ideal.
3.2. IDEALS 27

Definition. Let X be a subset of a ring R. Let {Ai |i ∈ I} be the family of

T
all [left] ideals in R which contain X. Then i∈I Ai is called the [left] ideal
generated by X. This ideal is denoted (X). The elements of X are called
generators of (X). If X is finite, then (X) is said to be finitely generated.
An ideal (x) generated by a single element is called a principal ideal. A
principle ideal ring is a ring in which every ideal is principal. A principal
ideal ring which is an integral domain is called a principal ideal domain.

Theorem 3.2.2. Let R be a ring, a ∈ R and X ⊂ R.

1. The principal ideal a consists of all elements of the form ra + as +

na + m i=1 ri asi (r, s, ri , si ∈ R; m ∈ N; and n ∈ Z).
P

Pn
2. If R has an identity, then (a) = { i=1 ri asi |ri , si ∈ R; n ∈ N}.

3. If a is in the center of R, then (a) = {ra + na|r ∈ R, n ∈ Z}.

4. Ra = {ra|r ∈ R}(resp. aR = {ar|r ∈ R}) is a left(resp. right) ideal

in R(which may not contain a). If R has an identity, then a ∈ Ra and
a ∈ aR.

5. If R has an identity and a is in the center of R, then Ra = (a) = aR.

6. If R has an identity and X is in the center of R, then the ideal (X)

consists of all finite sums r1 a1 + · · · + rn an (n ∈ N; ri ∈ R; ai ∈ X).

Definition. Let A1 , A2 , · · · , An be nonempty subsets of a ring R. Denote

by A1 + A2 + · · · + An the set {a1 + a2 + · · · + an |ai ∈ Ai for all i}. If A
and B are nonempty subsets of R let AB denote the set of all finite sums
{a1 b1 + · · · + an bn |n ∈ N, ai ∈ A, bi ∈ B}. The definition of AB can be
extended to an arbitrary number of factors. If all factors are the same set
A it is denoted by An .

Theorem 3.2.3. Let A, A1 , A2 , · · · , An , B and C be [left] ideals in a ring

R.

1. A1 + A2 + · · · + An and A1 A2 · · · An are [left] ideals;

2. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C);

3. (AB)C = A(BC) = ABC;

4. B(A1 + A2 + · · · + An ) = BA1 + BA2 + · · · + BAn and (A1 + A2 +

· · · + An )C = A1 C + A2 C + · · · + An C(distributivity).

Since R is additively abelian, any ideal of it is also a normal subgroup.

Thus the quotient R/I group can be defined in which addition is given by
(a + I) + (b + I) = (a + b) + I. Moreover, R/I can be made into a ring.
28 3. RINGS

Theorem 3.2.4. Let R be a ring and I an ideal of R. Then the additive

quotient group R/I is a ring with multiplication given by
(a + I)(b + I) = (ab + I)
If R is commutative or has an identity, then the same is true of R/I.
Theorem 3.2.5. If f : R → S is a homomorphism of rings, then the
kernel of f is an ideal in R. Conversely if I is an ideal in R, then the map
π : R → R/I given by r 7→ r + I is an epimorphism of rings with kernel I.
The map π is called the canonical epimorphism(or projection).
Theorem 3.2.6. If f : R → S is a homomorphism of rings and I is an
ideal of R which is contained in the kernel of f , then there is a unique
homomorphism of rings f¯ : R/I → S such that f¯(a + I) = f (a) for all
a ∈ R. Im f¯ = Im f and Ker f¯ = (Ker f )/I. f¯ is an isomorphism iff f is
an epimorphism and I = Ker f .
Corollary (First Isomorphism Theorem). If f : R → S is a homomorphism
of rings, then f induces an isomorphism of rings R/ Ker f ∼
= Im f .
Corollary. If f : R → S is a homomorphism of rings, I is an ideal in R
and J is an ideal in S such that f (I) ⊂ J, then f induces a homomorphism
of rings f¯ : R/I → S/J, given by a + I 7→ f (a) + J. f¯ is an isomorphism iff
Im f + J = S and f −1 (J) ⊂ I. In particular, if f is an epimorphism such
that f (I) = J and Ker f ⊂ I, then f¯ is an isomorphism.
Theorem 3.2.7. Let I and J be ideals in a ring R.
1. (Second Isomorphism Theorem) There is an isomorphisms of rings
I/(I ∩ J) ∼
= (I + J)/J;
2. (Third Isomorphism Theorem) if I ⊂ J, then J/I is an ideal in R/I
and there is an isomorphism of rings (R/I)/(J/I) ∼
= R/J.
Theorem 3.2.8. If I is an ideal in a ring R, then there is a bijection
between the set of all ideals of R which contain I and the set of all ideas of
R/I, given by J 7→ J/I. Hence every ideal in R/I is of the form J/I, where
J is an ideal of R which contains I.
Definition. An ideal P in a ring R is said to be prime if P 6= R and for
any ideals A, B in R
AB ⊂ P ⇒ A⊂P or B⊂P
Theorem 3.2.9. If P is an ideal in a ring R such that P 6= R and for all
a, b ∈ R
ab ∈ P ⇒ a ∈ P or b ∈ P
then P is prime. Conversely if P is prime and R is commutative, then P
satisfies the condition above.
3.2. IDEALS 29

Example 3.4. The zero ideal in any integral domain is prime. If p is a

prime integer, then the principal ideal (p) in Z is prime.

Theorem 3.2.10. In a commutative ring R with identity 1R 6= 0 and ideal

P is prime iff the quotient ring R/P is an integral domain.

Definition. An ideal [resp. left ideal] M in a ring R is said to be maximal

if M 6= R and for every ideal [resp. left ideal] N such that M ⊂ N ⊂ R,
either N = M or N = R.

If R is a ring and S is the set of all ideals I of R such that I 6= R, then

S is partially ordered by set-theoretic inclusion. Consequently the following
theorem can be proved using Zorn’s Lemma.

Theorem 3.2.11. In a nonzero ring R with identity maximal [left] ideals

always exist. In fact every [left] ideal in R except R itself is contained in a
maximal [left] ideal.

Theorem 3.2.12. If R is a commutative ring such that R2 = R(in partic-

ularly if R has an identity), then every maximal ideal M in R is prime.

Theorem 3.2.13. Let M be an ideal in a ring R with identity 1R 6= 0.

1. If M is maximal and R is commutative, then the quotient ring R/M

is a field.

2. If the quotient ring R/M is a division ring, then M is maximal.

Corollary. The following conditions on a commutative ring R with identity

1R 6= 0 are equivalent.

1. R is a field;

2. R has no proper ideals;

3. 0 is a maximal ideal in R;

4. every nonzero homomorphism of rings R → S is a monomorphism.

Theorem 3.2.14. Let {Ri |i ∈ I} be a nonempty family of rings and

Q
i∈I Ri
the direct product of the additive abelian group Ri ;

Ri is a ring with multiplication defined by {ai }i∈I {ai }i∈I = {ai bi }i∈I ;
Q
1. i∈I

2. if Ri has an identity[resp. is commutative] for every i ∈ I, then

Q
i∈I Ri has an identity [resp. is commutative];

3. for each k ∈ I the canonical projection πk : Ri → Rk given by

Q
i∈I
{ai } 7→ ak is an epimorphism of rings;
30 3. RINGS

4. for each k ∈ I the canonical injection ιk : Rk → i∈I Ri given by

Q

ak 7→ {ai }(where ai = 0 for i 6= k) is a monomorphism of rings.

Q
Definition. i∈I Ri is called the (external) direct product of the family of
rings. Its notation is analogous with it of the direct product of groups.
Q
Theorem 3.2.15. i∈I Ri is a product in the category of rings.
Theorem 3.2.16. Let A1 , A2 , · · · , An be ideals in a ring R such that
1. A1 + A2 + · · · + An = R;

2. for each k(1 6 k 6 n), Ak ∩ (A1 + · · · + Ak−1 + Ak+1 + · · · + An ) = 0.

Then there is a ring isomorphism R ∼
= A1 × A2 × · · · × An .
If a ring and a family of its ideals satisfies the conditions in the theorem
above, the ring is said to be the (internal) direct product of this family of
ideals. The notation of (internal) direct product for a ring is analogous to
it of (internal) direct product for a group.
Definition. Let A be an ideal in a ring R and a, b ∈ R. The element a is
said to be congruent to b modulo A(denoted a ≡ b (mod A)) if a − b ∈ A.
Thus
a ≡ b (mod A) ⇔ a − b ∈ A ⇔ a + A = b + A
Theorem 3.2.17 (Chinese Remainder Theorem). Let A1 , · · · , An be ideals
in a ring R such that R2 + Ai = R for all i and Ai + Aj = R for all i 6= j.
If b1 , · · · , bn ∈ R, then there exists b ∈ R such that

b ≡ bi (mod Ai ) (i = 1, 2, · · · , n)

Furthermore b is uniquely determined up to congruence modulo the ideal

A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An

Corollary. Let m1 , · · · , mn be positive integers such that (mi , mj ) = 1 for

i 6= j. If b1 , b2 , · · · , bn are any integers, then the system of congruences

x ≡ b1 (mod m1 ); x ≡ b2 (mod m2 ); · · · ; x ≡ bn (mod mn )

has an integral solution that is uniquely determined up to modulo m =

m1 m2 · · · mn .
Corollary. If A1 , A2 , · · · , An are ideals in a ring R, then there is a monomor-
phism of rings

θ : R/(A1 ∩ · · · ∩ An ) → R/A1 × R/A2 × · · · × R/An

If R2 + Ai = R for all i and Ai + Aj = R for all i 6= j, then θ is an

isomorphism of rings.
3.3. FACTORIZATION IN COMMUTATIVE RINGS 31

Theorem 3.2.18. The equation ax + ny = b has solutions for x, y ∈ Z iff

GCD(a, n)|b.

Theorem 3.2.19. The congruence ax ≡ b mod n has a solution iff GCD(a, n)|b.
Moreover, if this congruence does have at least one solution, the number of
noncongruent solutions modulo n is GCD(a, n); that is, if [a][x] = [b] has a
solution in Zn , then it has GCD(a, n) different solutions in Zn .

Definition. Let m = m1 m2 · · · mr , where the integers mi are coprime in

pairs. The residue representation or modular representation of any number
x in Zm is the r-tuple (a1 , a2 , · · · , ar ) where x ≡ ai mod mi .

3.3 Factorization in Commutative Rings

Definition. A nonzero element a of a commutative ring R is said to divide
an element b in R(written a|b) if there exists x ∈ R such that ax = b.
Elements a, b of R are said to be associates if a|b and b|a.

Theorem 3.3.1. Let a, b and u be elements of a commutative ring R with

identity.

1. a|b iff (b) ⊂ (a).

2. a and b are associates iff (a) = (b).

3. u is a unit iff u|r for all r ∈ R.

4. u is a unit iff (u) = R.

5. The relation “a is an associate of b” is an equivalence relation on R.

6. If a = br with r ∈ R a unit, then a and b are associates. If R is an

integral domain, the converse is true.

Definition. Let R be a commutative ring with identity. An element c of R

is irreducible provided that

1. c is a nonzero element;

2. c = ab implies that a or b is a unit.

An element p of R is prime provided that

1. p is a nonzero nonunit;

2. p|ab implies p|a or p|b.

[Incomplete]
32 3. RINGS

Definition. An integral domain R is a unique factorization domain pro-

vided that every nonzero nonunit element can be written as a unique finite
product of irreducibles up to re arrangements and up to multiplication by
units.

Definition. Let N be the set of natural numbers and R a commutative ring.

R is a Euclidean ring if there is a function ϕ : R − 0 → N such that:

1. If a, b ∈ R and ab 6= 0, then ϕ(a) 6 ϕ(ab);

2. If a, b ∈ R and b 6= 0, then there exist q, r ∈ R such that a = qb + r

6 0 and ϕ(r) < ϕ(b).
with r = 0 or r =

A Euclidean ring which is an integral domain is called a Euclidean domain.

Theorem 3.3.2. Every Euclidean ring R is a principal ideal ring with iden-
tity. Consequently every Euclidean domain is a unique factorization domain.

Example 3.5. Let Z[i] be {a + bi|a, b ∈ Z}. Z[i] is an integral domain

called the domain of Gaussian integers. Clearly Z[i] is an Euclidean domain
provided ϕ(a + bi) = a2 + b2 .

Definition. Let X be a nonempty subset of a commutative ring R. An

element d ∈ R is a greatest common divisor of X provided:

1. d|a for all a ∈ X;

2. c|a for all a ∈ X implies that c|d.

If R has an identity and 1R is the greatest common divisor of X, then

elements of X are said to be relatively prime.

Definition. Let X be a nonempty subset of a commutative ring R. An

element l ∈ R is a least common multiple of X provided:

1. a|l for all a ∈ X;

2. a|f for all a ∈ X implies that l|f .

Theorem 3.3.3. Let R be a Euclidean domain. Any two elements a and b

in R have a greatest common divisor g. Moreover, there exist s, t ∈ R such
that
g = sa + tb

Lemma. If ri−1 = ri qi+1 + ri+1 , then GCD(ri−1 , ri ) = GCD(ri , ri+1 ).

Theorem 3.3.4. Zn is a field iff n is prime.

Theorem 3.3.5. Let a be an element of the Euclidean ring R. The quotient

ring R/(a) is a field iff a is irreducible over R.
3.4. RINGS OF QUOTIENTS AND LOCALIZATION 33

3.4 Rings of Quotients and Localization

Definition. A nonempty subset S of a ring R is multiplicative if a, b ∈ S ⇒
ab ∈ S.

Theorem 3.4.1. Let S be a multiplicative subset of a commutative ring R.

The relation defined on the set R × S by

(r, s) ∼ (r0 , s0 ) ⇔ s1 (rs0 − r0 s) = 0 for some s1 ∈ S

is an equivalence relation. Furthermore if R has no zero divisors and 0 ∈

/ S,
then
(r, s) ∼ (r0 , s0 ) ⇔ rs0 − r0 s = 0

(r, s) will be denoted as r/s from now on.

Theorem 3.4.2. Let S be a multiplicative subset of a commutative ring R

and let S −1 R be the set of equivalence classes of R × S under the equivalence
relation defined previously.

1. S −1 R is a commutative ring with identity, where addition and mul-

tiplication are defined similarly to the addition and multiplication of
rationals.

/ S, then S −1 R is
2. If R is a nonzero ring with no zero divisors and 0 ∈
an integral domain.

3. If R is a nonzero ring with no zero divisors and S is the set of all

nonzero elements in R, then S −1 R is a field.

Definition. S −1 R is called the ring of quotients or ring of fractions or

quotient ring of R by S. If S is the nonzero elements of R, S −1 R is called
the quotient field of the integral domain R(as in the third statement of the
previous theorem). More generally if R is any non-zero commutative ring
and S is the non-empty set of all nonzero elements of R that are not zero
divisors, S −1 R is called the complete(or full) ring of quotients(or fractions)
of the ring R.

Theorem 3.4.3. Let S be a multiplicative subset of a commutative ring R.

1. The map ϕS : R 7→ S −1 R given by r 7→ rs/s(for any s ∈ S) is a well-

defined homomorphism of rings such that ϕS (s) is a unit in S −1 R for
every s ∈ S.

2. If 0 ∈
/ S and S contains no zero divisors, then ϕS is a monomorphism.
In particular, any integral domain may be embedded in its quotient
field.
34 3. RINGS

3. If R has an identity and S consists of units, then ϕS is an isomor-

phism. In particular, the complete ring of quotient, or the quotient
field, of a field F is isomorphic to F .

Theorem 3.4.4. Let S be a multiplicative subset of a commutative ring

R and let T be any commutative ring with identity. If f : R → T is a
homomorphism of rings such that f (s) is a unit in T for all s ∈ S, then
there exists a unique homomorphism of rings f¯ : S −1 R → T such that
f¯ϕS = f . The ring S −1 R is completely determined(up to isomorphism) by
this property.

Corollary. Let R be an integral domain considered as a subring of its quo-

tient field F . If E is a field and f : R → E a monomorphism of rings, then
there is a unique monomorphism of fields f¯ : F → E such that f¯|R = f . In
particular any field E1 containing R contains an isomorphic copy F1 of F
with R ⊂ F1 ⊂ E1 .

Theorem 3.4.5. Let S be a multiplicative subset of a commutative ring R.

1. If I is an ideal in R, then S −1 I = {a/s|a ∈ I; s ∈ S} is an ideal is

S −1 R.

2. If J is another ideal in R, then

S −1 (I + J) = S −1 I + S −1 J
S −1 (IJ) = (S −1 I)(S −1 J)
S −1 (I ∩ J) = S −1 I ∩ S −1 J

Definition. S −1 I is called the extension of I in S −1 R.

Theorem 3.4.6. Let S be a multiplicative subset of a commutative ring R

with identity and let I be an ideal of R. Then S −1 I = S −1 R iff S ∩ I 6= ∅.

Definition. If J is an ideal in a ring of quotients S −1 R, then ϕ−1

S (J) is an
ideal in R and is sometimes called the contraction of J in R.

Incomplete

3.5 Rings of Polynomials and Formal Power Series

Theorem 3.5.1. Let R be a ring and let R[x] denote the set of all sequences
of elements of R (a0 , a1 , · · · ) such that ai = 0 for all but a finite number of
indices i.

1. R[x] is a ring with addition and multiplication defined similarly to the

addition and multiplication of polynomials in R.
3.5. RINGS OF POLYNOMIALS AND FORMAL POWER SERIES 35

2. If R is commutative(resp. a ring with identity or a ring without zero

divisors or an integral domain), then so is R[x].

3. The map R → R[x] given by r 7→ (r, 0, 0, · · · ) is a monomorphism of

rings.

Definition. The ring R[x] is called the ring of polynomials over R.

Theorem 3.5.2. Let R be a ring with identity and denote by x the element
(0, 1R , 0, · · · ) of R[x].

1. xn = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1R , 0, · · · ), where 1R is the (n + 1)st coordinate.

2. If r ∈ R, then for each n > 0, rxn = xn r = (0, · · · , 0, r, 0, · · · ), where

r is the (n + 1)st coordinate.

3. For every nonzero polynomial f ∈ R[x] there exists an integer n and

elements a0 , · · · , an ∈ R such that f = a0 x0 + a1 x1 + · · · + an xn . The
integer n and elements ai are unique.

Definition. If f = ni=0 ai xi ∈ R[x], then ai are called the coefficients of f .

P

a0 is the constant term. Elements of R[x] whose only nonzero coordinates

is the first one are called constant polynomials. an is called the leading
coefficient of f . If R has an identity and the leading coefficient of f is 1R
, f is said to be a monic polynomial. The element x = (0, 1R , · · · ) is called
an indeterminate.

Theorem 3.5.3. Let R be a ring and denote by R[x1 , x · · · , xn ] the set of

all functions f : Nn → R such that f (u) 6= 0 for at most a finite number of
elements u of Nn .

1. R[x1 , · · · , xn ] is a ring with addition and multiplication defined by

X
(f + g)(u) = f (u) + g(u) and (f g)(u) = f (v)g(w)
v+w=n;v,w∈Nn

where f, g ∈ R[x1 , x · · · , xn ] and u ∈ Nn .

2. If R is commutative(resp. a ring with identity or a ring without zero

divisors or an integral domain), then so is R[x1 , · · · , xn ].

3. The map R → R[x1 , · · · , xn ] given by r 7→ fr , where fr (0, 0, · · · , 0) = r

and f (u) = 0 for all other u ∈ Nn , is a monomorphism of rings.

Definition. The ring R[x1 , · · · , xn ] is called the ring of polynomials in n

indeterminates over R.

Incomplete
36 3. RINGS

Proposition. Let R be a ring and denote by R[[x]] the set of all sequences
of elements of R (a0 , a1 , · · · ).
1. R[[x]] is a ring with component-wise addition and multiplication de-
fined by
(a0 , a1 , · · · )(b0 , b1 , · · · ) = (c0 , c1 , · · · )
P
where cn = k+j=n ak bj .

2. R[x] is a subring of R[[x]] .

3. If R is commutative(resp. a ring with identity or a ring without zero
divisors or an integral domain), then so is R[[x]].
Definition. R[[x]] is called the ring of formal power series over the ring R.
Incomplete

3.6 Factorization in Polynomial Rings

Definition. Let R be a ring. The degree of a nonzero monomial axk11 xk22 · · · xknn inR[x1 , · · · , xn ]
is the nonnegative integer k1 + k2 + · · · + kn . The (total) degree of the poly-
nomial f , denoted deg f , is the maximum of the degrees of the monomials
ki ki k
ai x1 1 x2 2 · · · xnin such that ai 6= 0. A polynomial which is a sum of mono-
mials, each of which has degree k, is said to be homogeneous of degree k.
The degree of f in xk is the degree of f considered as a polynomial in one
indeterminate xk over the ring R[x1 , · · · , xk−1 , xk+1 , · · · , xn ].
Theorem 3.6.1. Let R be a ring and f, g ∈ R[x1 , · · · , xn ].
1. deg(f + g) 6 max(deg f, deg g).
2. deg(f g) 6 deg f + deg g.
3. If R has no zero divisors, deg(f g) = deg f + deg g.
4. If n = 1 and the leading coefficient of f or g is not a zero divisor in
R( in particular, if it is a unit), then deg(f g) = deg f + deg g.
Theorem 3.6.2 (The Division Algorithm). If R is a ring with identity and
f, g ∈ R[x] are nonzero polynomials such that the leading coefficient of g is
a unit in R, there exist unique polynomials q, r ∈ R[x] such that
f = qg + r and deg r < deg g
Corollary (Remainder Theorem). Let R be a ring with identity and
n
X
f (x) = ai xi ∈ R[x]
i=0

For any c ∈ R there exists a unique q(x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) = q(x)(x −
c) + f (c).
3.6. FACTORIZATION IN POLYNOMIAL RINGS 37

Corollary. If F is a field, then F [x] is a Euclidean domain, whence F [x] is

a principal ideal domain and a unique factorization domain. The units in
F [x] are precisely the nonzero constant polynomials.

Corollary. (x − α) is a factor of f (x) in F [x] iff f (α) = 0.

Corollary. A polynomial of degree n in F [x] has at most n roots in F .

Theorem 3.6.3 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). If f (x) is a polyno-

mial in C[x] of positive degree, then f (x) has a root in C.

Theorem 3.6.4. 1. If z is a complex root of the real polynomial f (x) ∈

R[x], then its conjugate z is also a root.
√
2. If a, b, c ∈ Q and a+b c is an irrational root of the rational polynomial
√
f (x) ∈ Q[x], then a − b c is also a root.

Theorem 3.6.5. 1. The irreducible polynomials in C[x] are the polyno-

mials of degree one.

2. The irreducible polynomials in R[x] are the polynomials of degree 1

together with the polynomials of degree 2 of the form ax2 + bx + c,
where b2 < 4ac.

Theorem 3.6.6. Let p(x) = a0 +a1 x+· · ·+an xn ∈ Z[x]. If r/s is a rational
root of p(x) and GCD(r, s) = 1, then r|a0 and s|an .

Lemma (Gauss’s Lemma). Let P (x) = a0 +a1 x+· · ·+an xn ∈ Z[x]. If P (x)
can be factored in Q[x] as P (x) = q(x)r(x), then P (x) can also be factored
in Z[x].

Theorem 3.6.7 (Eisenstein’s Criterion). Let D be a unique factorization

domain with quotient field F . If f = ni=0 ai xi ∈ D[x], deg f > 1 and p is
P

an irreducible element of D such that

p - an ; p|ai for i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1; p2 - a0

then f is irreducible in F [x]. If f is primitive, then f is irreducible in D[x].

Pn i
Corollary. Let f (x) = i=0 ai x ∈ Z[x]. If, for some prime p,

1. p|ai , i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1;

2. p - an ;

3. p2 - a0 .

then f (x) is irreducible over Q.

38 3. RINGS

Example 3.6. For any prime p the polynomial ϕ(x) = xp−1 + xp−1 + · · · +
x+1 is irreducible over Q. This polynomial is called a cyclotomic polynomial
p −1)
and can be written ϕ(x) = (xx−1 .

Theorem 3.6.8. Let P be the ideal (p(x)) in the polynomial ring of the
field F [x], in which p(x) has a positive degree. The different elements of
F [x]/(p(x)) are those of the form

P + a0 + a1 x + · · · + an−1 xn−1

where ai ∈ F .
4

Modules

4.1 Modules, Homomorphisms and Exact Sequences

4.2 Free Modules and Vector Spaces

4.3 Projective and Injective Modules

4.4 Hom and Duality

4.5 Tensor Products

4.6 Modules over a Principal Ideal Domain

4.7 Algebras

39
40 4. MODULES
5

Fields and Galois Theory

5.1 Field Extensions

Definition. A field F is said to be an extension field of K(or simply an
extension of k) provided that K is a subfield of F .

If F is an extension field of K, F is a vector space over K. The dimension

of the K-vector space F will be denoted by [F : K]. F is said to be a finite
dimensional extension or infinite dimensional extension of K according as
[F : K] is finite or infinite.

Theorem 5.1.1. Let F be an extension field of E and E an extension field

of K. Then [F : K] = [F : E][E : K]. [F : K] is finite iff [F : E] and
[E : K] are finite.

Example 5.1. [C : R] = 2.

Example 5.2. If p(x) is irreducible over the field F , then K = F [x]/(p(x))

is an extension field of F . Furthermore [K : F ] = deg p(x).

[Incomplete]

Definition. Let F be an extension of K. An element u of F is said to

be algebraic over K if u is a root of some nonzero polynomial f ∈ K[x].
Otherwise u is transcendental over K. F is called an algebraic extension of
K if every element of F is algebraic over K. F is called a transcendental
extension if at least one element of F is transcendental over K.

Example 5.3. If K is a field, then K[x1 , · · · , xn ] is an integral domain. The

quotient field of K[x1 , · · · , xn ] is denoted K(x1 , · · · , xn ), which consists of
all fractions of elements in K[x1 , · · · , xn ]. K(x1 , · · · , xn ) is called the field
of rational fractions in x1 , · · · , xn over K. Every element of K(x1 , · · · , xn )
is transcendental over K.

41
42 5. FIELDS AND GALOIS THEORY

Theorem 5.1.2. If F is an extension field of K and u ∈ F is algebraic

over K, then
1. K(u) = K[u];

2. K(u) ∼ = F [x]/(p(x)), where f ∈ K[x] is an irreducible monic poly-

nomial of degree n > 1 uniquely determined by the conditions that
f (u) = 0 and g(u) = 0(g ∈ K[x]) iff f divides g;

3. [K(u) : K] = n;

4. {1K , u, u2 , · · · , un−1 } is a basis of the vector space K(u) over K;

Lemma. Let p(x) be an irreducible polynomial over the field F . Then F
has a finite extension field K in which p(x) has a root.
Theorem 5.1.3. If f (x) is any polynomial over the field F , there is an
extension field K of F over which f (x) splits into linear factors.
√
Proposition. If [K : F ] = 2 where F ⊂ Q, then K = F ( γ) for some
γ ∈ F.
Proposition. If F is an finite extension of R, then F is isomorphic to R or
C.
Example 5.4. [R : Q] is infinite.

5.2 The Fundamental Theorem

5.3 Splitting Fields, Algebraic Closure and Nor-

mality

5.4 The Galois Group of a Polynomial

5.5 Finite Fields

Proposition. The characteristic of an integral domain is either zero or
prime.
Corollary. If F is a finite field, then char F = p 6= 0 for some prime p and
|F | = pn for some integer n > 1.
Theorem 5.5.1. If F is a field and G is a finite subgroup of the multiplica-
tive group of nonzero elements of F , then G is a cyclic group.
Proposition. If the field F has prime characteristic p, then F contains a
subfield isomorphic to Zp . If the field F has zero characteristic, then F
contains a subfield isomorphic to the rational numbers.
5.6. SEPARABILITY 43

Definition. A finite field with pm elements is called a Galois field of order

pm and is denoted by GF (pm ). It can be shown that for a given prime p
and positive integer m, a Galois field GF (pm ) exists and that all fields of
order pm are isomorphic. Moreover

GF (pm ) = Zp [x]/(q(x))

where q(x) is a degree m polynomial irreducible in Zp [x].

Definition. Elements of a Galois field GF (pm ) can be written as

{a0 + ai α + · · · + am−1 αm−1 |ai ∈ Zp }

where α is a root of a polynomial q(x) of degree m irreducible over Zp . With

judicious choice of α the elements of GF (pm ) can be written as
m −2 m −1
{0, 1, α, α2 , α3 , · · · , αp } where αp =1

The element α is called a primitive element of GF (pm ). Equivalently a

generator of the cyclic group (GF (q)∗ , ·) is called a primitive element of
GF (q) .

Definition. An irreducible polynomial g(x) of degree m over Zp is called a

primitive polynomial if g(x)|xk − 1 for k = pm − 1 and for no smaller k.

Proposition. The irreducible polynomial g(x) ∈ Zp [x] is primitive iff x is

a primitive element in Zp [x]/(g(x)) = GF (pm ).

5.6 Separability

5.7 Cyclic Extensions

5.8 Cyclotomic Extensions

5.9 Radical Extensions

44 5. FIELDS AND GALOIS THEORY
6

The Structure of Fields

6.1 Transcendence Bases

6.2 Linear Disjointness and Separability

45
46 6. THE STRUCTURE OF FIELDS
7

Commutative Rings and

Modules

7.1 Chain Conditions

7.2 Prime and Primary Ideals

7.3 Primary Decomposition

7.4 Noetherian Rings and Modules

7.5 Ring Extensions

7.6 Dedekind Domains

7.7 The Hilbert Nullstellensatz

47
48 7. COMMUTATIVE RINGS AND MODULES
8

The Structure of Rings

8.1 Simple and Primitive Rings

8.2 The Jacobson Radical

8.3 Semisimple Rings

8.4 The Prime Radical; Prime and Semiprime Rings

8.5 Algebras

8.6 Division Algebras

49
50 8. THE STRUCTURE OF RINGS
9

Categories

9.1 Functors and Natural Transformations

9.2 Adjoint Functors

9.3 Morphisms

51
52 9. CATEGORIES
10

Applications

10.1 Euclidean Motions

Definition. An isometry of Rn is a transformation f : Rn → Rn which
is continuous and a symmetry(bijection). An isometry preserves the inner
product(dot product on Rn ), thus preserves length and angle. Isometries
are “Rigid Motions” os Rn . The group of all isometries of Rn is called the
Euclidean Group of Rn and is denoted E(n).
Definition. The orthogonal group, denoted O(n), is a subgroup of E(n)
consisting of all linear transformations that preserves inner products, which
says that it is a group of matrices. The fact that these matrices preserve
length implies that they have orthonormal columns: each column has unit
length and two different columns have their dot product equal to zero.
Lemma. If A ∈ O(n), then A × AT = I.
Proposition. O(n) = {A ∈ E(n), A(0) = (0)}(If an isometry maps 0 to
0, then it is a linear transformation).
Definition. Let T (n), the group of translations, be the subgroup of E(n)
such that if α(v) = v − v0 for some fixed v0 ∈ Rn .
Proposition. There is a epimorphism from E(n) to O(n), defined by ϕ :
E(n) → O(n) and ϕ(α)(v) = α(v) − α(0), whose kernel is T (n).
Corollary. T (n) is a normal subgroup of E(n) and E(n)/T (n) ∼
= O(n).
Proposition. Every finite subgroup G of E(n) fixes at least one point, i.e.
there exists a vector v ∈ Rn such that g(v) = v for all g ∈ G.

10.2 Matrix Groups

Definition. Let GL(n, R) denote the set of all nonsingular matrices with
real entries and GL(n, C) be the set of all nonsingular matrices with com-

53
54 10. APPLICATIONS

plex entries. These groups are called General Linear Groups(and hence the
derivation of the abbreviations).

Proposition. Let G be a finite subgroup of GL(n, R)(or GL(n, C)). Then

det(g) is a root of unity for any g ∈ G.

The function det : O(n) → {1, −1} ∼ = Z2 , mapping a matrix to its

determinant, is an epimorphism between groups.

Definition. SO(n), or the Special Orthogonal Group, is the subgroup of

O(n) such that det(a) = 1 for a ∈ SO(n)(an equivalent way is that SO(n)
is the kernel of det : O(n) → {1, −1} ∼
= Z2 defined above). It is the group
of proper rotations in Rn .

Definition. Let U (n) be the subgroup of GL(n, C) of complex unitary

transformations

U (n) = {A ∈ GL(n, C)|hA(u), A(v)i = hu, vi}

where h(x1 , · · · , xn ), (y1 , · · · , yn )i = x1 y¯1 +· · ·+xn y¯n , ȳ denotes the complex

conjugate of y. A ∈ U (n) iff AAT = I. The length of det(A) is an element
of the circle group S 1 ⊂ C. The function det : U (n) → S 1 is in fact
an epimorphism. The kernel of this epimorphism is those matrices having
determinant 1, which composed of the set of Special Unitary Matrices SU (n),
a subgroup of U (n).

Definition. The representation of a group G is a homomorphism from G

to GL(n, K), where K = R or C. Every g ∈ G is represented as a matrix
acting on Rn or Cn . The homomorphism is called faithful if it is injective.

10.3 The 2 × 2 Matrix Group

Theorem 10.3.1. O(2) consists of matrices of the form
! !
cos θ − sin θ cos θ sin θ
and
sin θ cos θ sin θ − cos θ
!
cos θ − sin θ
where 0 6 θ 6 2π. Moreover SO(2) = , 0 6 θ 6 2π, and
sin θ cos θ
SO(2) ∼
= S1.

Theorem 10.3.2. If G is a finite subgroup of SO(2), then G ∼

= Zn for some
n.

Theorem 10.3.3. If G is a finite subgroup of O(2), then G ∼

= Zn or G ∼
= Dn
for some n.
10.4. ROTATION OF REGULAR SOLIDS 55

10.4 Rotation of Regular Solids

Theorem 10.4.1. If A ∈ SO(3), then A has a fixed axis(a line through the
origin) and A is just rotation about the axis.

Theorem 10.4.2. The group G of proper rotations of the tetrahedron is

isomorphic to A4 .

Theorem 10.4.3. The group of proper rotations of a cube is isomorphic to

S4 .

Example 10.1. The group of proper rotations of a regular dodecahedron and

the group of proper rotations of a regular icosahedron are both isomorphic
to A5 .

Example 10.2. The group of proper rotations of a octahedron is isomorphic

to S4 .

10.5 Finite Rotation Groups and Crystallographic

Groups
Theorem 10.5.1. Any finite subgroup of SO(3) is isomorphic to one of the
following: Zn (n > 1), Dn (n > 2), A4 , S4 , A5 .

Definition. An ideal crystallite lattice L is a subset of R3 of the form

L = {n1 v1 + n2 v2 + n3 v3 |ni ∈ Z}

where vi is a fixed basis of R3 .

Definition. A subgroup of SO(3) or O(3) that leaves a crystallite lattice

invariant is called a crystallographic point group.

10.6 Polya-Burnside Method

Theorem 10.6.1 (Burnside). Let G be a finite group acting on a finite set
X. For g ∈ G let Fix g be the set {x ∈ X|g(x) = x}. If N is the number of
orbits of X under G, then
1 X
N= | Fix g|
|G| g∈G