Formulas and Tables by Mario F.

Triola
Copyright 2019 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ch. 3: Descriptive Statistics Ch. 7: Confidence Intervals (one population)

Σx pn - E 6 p 6 pn + E Proportion
x = Mean
n pn qn
Σ 1f # x2 where E = za>2
Bn
x = Mean (frequency table)
Σf
x - E 6 m 6 x + E Mean
Σ 1x - x2 2 s
s = Standard deviation where E = ta>2 (s unknown)
B n - 1 1n
n 1Σx2 2 - 1Σx2 2 s
or E = za>2 (s known)
s = Standard deviation (shortcut) 1n
B n 1n - 12

n 3 Σ 1f # x2 2 4 - 3 Σ 1f # x2 4 2 Standard deviation
1n - 12s2 2
1n - 12s2
6 s 6 Variance
s = (frequency table) x2R x2L
B n 1n - 12
variance = s2
Ch. 7: Sample Size Determination
Ch. 4: Probability 3za>2 4 20.25
n = Proportion
P1A or B2 = P1A2 + P1B2 if A, B are mutually exclusive E2
P1A or B2 = P1A2 + P1B2 - P1A and B2 3za>2 4 2pn qn
n = Proportion (pn and qn are known)
  if A, B are not mutually exclusive E2
P1A and B2 = P1A2 # P1B2 if A, B are independent za>2s 2

P1A and B2 = P1A2 # P1B 0 A2 if A, B are dependent

n = J R Mean
E
P1A2 = 1 - P1A2 Rule of complements
n! Ch. 8: Test Statistics (one population)
nPr = Permutations (no elements alike)
1n - r2!
n! pn - p
Permutations (n1 alike, c) z = Proportion—one population
n1! n2! c nk! pq
n! Bn
nCr = Combinations
1n - r2! r! x - m
t = Mean—one population (s unknown)
s
Ch. 5: Probability Distributions 1n
m = Σ 3x # P1x2 4 Mean (prob. dist.) x - m
z = Mean—one population (s known)
s = 2Σ 3x 2 # P1x2 4 - m2 Standard deviation (prob. dist.) s
1n
P1x2 =
n! # px # qn - x Binomial probability
1n - x2! x! 1n - 12s2  tandard deviation or variance—
S
m = n#p Mean (binomial) x2 = one population
s2
s2 = n # p # q Variance (binomial)
s = 1n # p # q Standard deviation (binomial)
mx # e-m Poisson distribution where
P1x2 =
x! e = 2.71828

Ch. 6: Normal Distribution

x - m x - x
z = or Standard score
s s
mx = m Central limit theorem
s
sx = Central limit theorem (Standard error)
2n
 Formulas and Tables by Mario F. Triola
Copyright 2019 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ch. 9: Confidence Intervals (two populations) Ch. 10: Correlation/Regression

1 pn1 - pn2 2 - E 6 1 p1 - p2 2 6 1 pn1 - pn2 2 + E nΣxy - 1Σx2 1Σy2
Correlation r =
2n1Σx2 2 - 1Σx2 2 2n1Σy 2 2 - 1Σy2 2
g 1zx zy 2
pn1qn1 pn2qn2
where E = za>2 +
B n1 n2 where zx = z score for x
or r =   zy = z score for y
n - 1
1x1 - x2 2 - E 6 1m1 - m2 2 6 1x1 - x2 2 + E (Indep.)
nΣxy - 1Σx2 1Σy2 sy
s21 s22 (df = smaller of Slope: b1 = or b1 = r
where E = ta>2 + n - 1, n2 - 1) 2
n 1Σx 2 - 1Σx2 2 sx
B n1 n2 1
(s1 and s2 unknown and not assumed equal) y-Intercept:
1Σy2 1Σx2 2 - 1Σx2 1Σxy2
s2p s2p b0 = y - b1x or b0 =
E = ta>2 + 1df = n1 + n2 - 22 n 1Σx2 2 - 1Σx2 2
B n1 n2
yn = b0 + b1x Estimated eq. of regression line
1n1 - 12s21 + 1n2 - 12s22
s2p = 6Σd 2
1n1 - 12 + 1n2 - 12 rs = 1 - Rank correlation
n1n2 - 12
(s1 and s2 unknown but assumed equal)
{ z
s21 s22 acritical values for n 7 30: b
E = za>2 + 1n - 1
B n1 n2
(s1, s2 known)
Ch. 11: Goodness-of-Fit and Contingency Tables

x2 = g
d - E 6 md 6 d + E (Matched pairs)
sd 1O - E2 2
where E = ta>2 1df = n - 12 Goodness-of-fit (df = k - 1)
1n E

x2 = g
1O - E2 2
Contingency table [df = (r - 1)(c - 1)]
Ch. 9: Test Statistics (two populations) E
1row total2 1column total2
1pn1 - pn2 2 - 1p1 - p2 2 where E =
z = Two proportions 1grand total2
pq pq x1 + x2
+ p =
B n1 n2 n1 + n2 1 0 b - c 0 - 12 2
x2 = McNemar’s test for matched pairs 1df = 12
b + c
1x1 - x2 2 - 1m1 - m2 2 df = smaller of
t =
n1 - 1, n2 - 1
s21 s22 Ch. 11: One-Way Analysis of Variance
+
B n1 n2
Procedure for testing H0: m1 = m2 = m3 = c
  Two means—independent; s1 and s2 unknown and not
1. Use software or calculator to obtain results.
assumed equal.
2. Identify the P-value.
1x1 - x2 2 - 1m1 - m2 2 3. Form conclusion:
t = 1df = n1 + n2 - 22
s2p s2p If P-value … a, reject the null hypothesis
+ 1n1 - 12s21 + 1n2 - 12s22 of equal means.
B n1 n2 s2p =
n1 + n2 - 2 If P-value 7 a, fail to reject the null hypothesis
  Two means—independent; s1 and s2 unknown but of equal means.
assumed equal.

1x1 - x2 2 - 1m1 - m2 2
z =  Two means—independent;
s21 s22
+ s1, s2 known.
B n1 n2

d - md
t = Two means—matched pairs (df = n - 1)
sd
1n
NEGATIVE z Scores
z 0

TABLE A-2 Standard Normal (z) Distribution: Cumulative Area from the LEFT
z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
- 3.50 and
lower .0001
- 3.4 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0002
- 3.3 .0005 .0005 .0005 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0003
- 3.2 .0007 .0007 .0006 .0006 .0006 .0006 .0006 .0005 .0005 .0005
- 3.1 .0010 .0009 .0009 .0009 .0008 .0008 .0008 .0008 .0007 .0007
- 3.0 .0013 .0013 .0013 .0012 .0012 .0011 .0011 .0011 .0010 .0010
- 2.9 .0019 .0018 .0018 .0017 .0016 .0016 .0015 .0015 .0014 .0014
- 2.8 .0026 .0025 .0024 .0023 .0023 .0022 .0021 .0021 .0020 .0019
- 2.7 .0035 .0034 .0033 .0032 .0031 .0030 .0029 .0028 .0027 .0026
- 2.6 .0047 .0045 .0044 .0043 .0041 .0040 .0039 .0038 .0037 .0036
- 2.5 .0062 .0060 .0059 .0057 .0055 .0054 .0052 .0051 * .0049 .0048
- 2.4 .0082 .0080 .0078 .0075 .0073 .0071 .0069 .0068 .0066 .0064
- 2.3 .0107 .0104 .0102 .0099 .0096 .0094 .0091 .0089 .0087 .0084
- 2.2 .0139 .0136 .0132 .0129 .0125 .0122 .0119 .0116 .0113 .0110
- 2.1 .0179 .0174 .0170 .0166 .0162 .0158 .0154 .0150 .0146 .0143
- 2.0 .0228 .0222 .0217 .0212 .0207 .0202 .0197 .0192 .0188 .0183
- 1.9 .0287 .0281 .0274 .0268 .0262 .0256 .0250 .0244 .0239 .0233
- 1.8 .0359 .0351 .0344 .0336 .0329 .0322 .0314 .0307 .0301 .0294
- 1.7 .0446 .0436 .0427 .0418 .0409 .0401 .0392 .0384 .0375 .0367
- 1.6 .0548 .0537 .0526 .0516 .0505 * .0495 .0485 .0475 .0465 .0455
- 1.5 .0668 .0655 .0643 .0630 .0618 .0606 .0594 .0582 .0571 .0559
- 1.4 .0808 .0793 .0778 .0764 .0749 .0735 .0721 .0708 .0694 .0681
- 1.3 .0968 .0951 .0934 .0918 .0901 .0885 .0869 .0853 .0838 .0823
- 1.2 .1151 .1131 .1112 .1093 .1075 .1056 .1038 .1020 .1003 .0985
- 1.1 .1357 .1335 .1314 .1292 .1271 .1251 .1230 .1210 .1190 .1170
- 1.0 .1587 .1562 .1539 .1515 .1492 .1469 .1446 .1423 .1401 .1379
- 0.9 .1841 .1814 .1788 .1762 .1736 .1711 .1685 .1660 .1635 .1611
- 0.8 .2119 .2090 .2061 .2033 .2005 .1977 .1949 .1922 .1894 .1867
- 0.7 .2420 .2389 .2358 .2327 .2296 .2266 .2236 .2206 .2177 .2148
- 0.6 .2743 .2709 .2676 .2643 .2611 .2578 .2546 .2514 .2483 .2451
- 0.5 .3085 .3050 .3015 .2981 .2946 .2912 .2877 .2843 .2810 .2776
- 0.4 .3446 .3409 .3372 .3336 .3300 .3264 .3228 .3192 .3156 .3121
- 0.3 .3821 .3783 .3745 .3707 .3669 .3632 .3594 .3557 .3520 .3483
- 0.2 .4207 .4168 .4129 .4090 .4052 .4013 .3974 .3936 .3897 .3859
- 0.1 .4602 .4562 .4522 .4483 .4443 .4404 .4364 .4325 .4286 .4247
- 0.0 .5000 .4960 .4920 .4880 .4840 .4801 .4761 .4721 .4681 .4641

NOTE: For values of z below - 3.49, use 0.0001 for the area.
(continued)
*Use these common values that result from interpolation:

z Score Area
- 1.645 0.0500
- 2.575 0.0050
 POSITIVE z Scores
0 z

TABLE A-2 (continued) Cumulative Area from the LEFT

z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
0.0 .5000 .5040 .5080 .5120 .5160 .5199 .5239 .5279 .5319 .5359
0.1 .5398 .5438 .5478 .5517 .5557 .5596 .5636 .5675 .5714 .5753
0.2 .5793 .5832 .5871 .5910 .5948 .5987 .6026 .6064 .6103 .6141
0.3 .6179 .6217 .6255 .6293 .6331 .6368 .6406 .6443 .6480 .6517
0.4 .6554 .6591 .6628 .6664 .6700 .6736 .6772 .6808 .6844 .6879
0.5 .6915 .6950 .6985 .7019 .7054 .7088 .7123 .7157 .7190 .7224
0.6 .7257 .7291 .7324 .7357 .7389 .7422 .7454 .7486 .7517 .7549
0.7 .7580 .7611 .7642 .7673 .7704 .7734 .7764 .7794 .7823 .7852
0.8 .7881 .7910 .7939 .7967 .7995 .8023 .8051 .8078 .8106 .8133
0.9 .8159 .8186 .8212 .8238 .8264 .8289 .8315 .8340 .8365 .8389
1.0 .8413 .8438 .8461 .8485 .8508 .8531 .8554 .8577 .8599 .8621
1.1 .8643 .8665 .8686 .8708 .8729 .8749 .8770 .8790 .8810 .8830
1.2 .8849 .8869 .8888 .8907 .8925 .8944 .8962 .8980 .8997 .9015
1.3 .9032 .9049 .9066 .9082 .9099 .9115 .9131 .9147 .9162 .9177
1.4 .9192 .9207 .9222 .9236 .9251 .9265 .9279 .9292 .9306 .9319
1.5 .9332 .9345 .9357 .9370 .9382 .9394 .9406 .9418 .9429 .9441
1.6 .9452 .9463 .9474 .9484 .9495 * .9505 .9515 .9525 .9535 .9545
1.7 .9554 .9564 .9573 .9582 .9591 .9599 .9608 .9616 .9625 .9633
1.8 .9641 .9649 .9656 .9664 .9671 .9678 .9686 .9693 .9699 .9706
1.9 .9713 .9719 .9726 .9732 .9738 .9744 .9750 .9756 .9761 .9767
2.0 .9772 .9778 .9783 .9788 .9793 .9798 .9803 .9808 .9812 .9817
2.1 .9821 .9826 .9830 .9834 .9838 .9842 .9846 .9850 .9854 .9857
2.2 .9861 .9864 .9868 .9871 .9875 .9878 .9881 .9884 .9887 .9890
2.3 .9893 .9896 .9898 .9901 .9904 .9906 .9909 .9911 .9913 .9916
2.4 .9918 .9920 .9922 .9925 .9927 .9929 .9931 .9932 .9934 .9936
2.5 .9938 .9940 .9941 .9943 .9945 .9946 .9948 .9949 * .9951 .9952
2.6 .9953 .9955 .9956 .9957 .9959 .9960 .9961 .9962 .9963 .9964
2.7 .9965 .9966 .9967 .9968 .9969 .9970 .9971 .9972 .9973 .9974
2.8 .9974 .9975 .9976 .9977 .9977 .9978 .9979 .9979 .9980 .9981
2.9 .9981 .9982 .9982 .9983 .9984 .9984 .9985 .9985 .9986 .9986
3.0 .9987 .9987 .9987 .9988 .9988 .9989 .9989 .9989 .9990 .9990
3.1 .9990 .9991 .9991 .9991 .9992 .9992 .9992 .9992 .9993 .9993
3.2 .9993 .9993 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9995 .9995 .9995
3.3 .9995 .9995 .9995 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9997
3.4 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9998
3.50 and up .9999

NOTE: For values of z above 3.49, use 0.9999 for the area. Common Critical Values
*Use these common values that result from interpolation:
Confidence Critical
Level Value
z score Area
0.90 1.645
1.645 0.9500
0.95 1.96
2.575 0.9950
0.99 2.575
TABLE A-3 t Distribution: Critical t Values
Area in One Tail
0.005 0.01 0.025 0.05 0.10
Degrees of Area in Two Tails
Freedom 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.20
1 63.657 31.821 12.706 6.314 3.078
2 9.925 6.965 4.303 2.920 1.886
3 5.841 4.541 3.182 2.353 1.638
4 4.604 3.747 2.776 2.132 1.533
5 4.032 3.365 2.571 2.015 1.476
6 3.707 3.143 2.447 1.943 1.440
7 3.499 2.998 2.365 1.895 1.415
8 3.355 2.896 2.306 1.860 1.397
9 3.250 2.821 2.262 1.833 1.383
10 3.169 2.764 2.228 1.812 1.372
11 3.106 2.718 2.201 1.796 1.363
12 3.055 2.681 2.179 1.782 1.356
13 3.012 2.650 2.160 1.771 1.350
14 2.977 2.624 2.145 1.761 1.345
15 2.947 2.602 2.131 1.753 1.341
16 2.921 2.583 2.120 1.746 1.337
17 2.898 2.567 2.110 1.740 1.333
18 2.878 2.552 2.101 1.734 1.330
19 2.861 2.539 2.093 1.729 1.328
20 2.845 2.528 2.086 1.725 1.325
21 2.831 2.518 2.080 1.721 1.323
22 2.819 2.508 2.074 1.717 1.321
23 2.807 2.500 2.069 1.714 1.319
24 2.797 2.492 2.064 1.711 1.318
25 2.787 2.485 2.060 1.708 1.316
26 2.779 2.479 2.056 1.706 1.315
27 2.771 2.473 2.052 1.703 1.314
28 2.763 2.467 2.048 1.701 1.313
29 2.756 2.462 2.045 1.699 1.311
30 2.750 2.457 2.042 1.697 1.310
31 2.744 2.453 2.040 1.696 1.309
32 2.738 2.449 2.037 1.694 1.309
33 2.733 2.445 2.035 1.692 1.308
34 2.728 2.441 2.032 1.691 1.307
35 2.724 2.438 2.030 1.690 1.306
36 2.719 2.434 2.028 1.688 1.306
37 2.715 2.431 2.026 1.687 1.305
38 2.712 2.429 2.024 1.686 1.304
39 2.708 2.426 2.023 1.685 1.304
40 2.704 2.423 2.021 1.684 1.303
45 2.690 2.412 2.014 1.679 1.301
50 2.678 2.403 2.009 1.676 1.299
60 2.660 2.390 2.000 1.671 1.296
70 2.648 2.381 1.994 1.667 1.294
80 2.639 2.374 1.990 1.664 1.292
90 2.632 2.368 1.987 1.662 1.291
100 2.626 2.364 1.984 1.660 1.290
200 2.601 2.345 1.972 1.653 1.286
300 2.592 2.339 1.968 1.650 1.284
400 2.588 2.336 1.966 1.649 1.284
500 2.586 2.334 1.965 1.648 1.283
1000 2.581 2.330 1.962 1.646 1.282
2000 2.578 2.328 1.961 1.646 1.282
Large 2.576 2.326 1.960 1.645 1.282
 Formulas and Tables by Mario F. Triola
Copyright 2019 Pearson Education, Inc.

TABLE A-4 Chi-Square (x2) Distribution

Area to the Right of the Critical Value
Degrees of
Freedom 0.995 0.99 0.975 0.95 0.90 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005
1 — — 0.001 0.004 0.016 2.706 3.841 5.024 6.635 7.879
2 0.010 0.020 0.051 0.103 0.211 4.605 5.991 7.378 9.210 10.597
3 0.072 0.115 0.216 0.352 0.584 6.251 7.815 9.348 11.345 12.838
4 0.207 0.297 0.484 0.711 1.064 7.779 9.488 11.143 13.277 14.860
5 0.412 0.554 0.831 1.145 1.610 9.236 11.071 12.833 15.086 16.750
6 0.676 0.872 1.237 1.635 2.204 10.645 12.592 14.449 16.812 18.548
7 0.989 1.239 1.690 2.167 2.833 12.017 14.067 16.013 18.475 20.278
8 1.344 1.646 2.180 2.733 3.490 13.362 15.507 17.535 20.090 21.955
9 1.735 2.088 2.700 3.325 4.168 14.684 16.919 19.023 21.666 23.589
10 2.156 2.558 3.247 3.940 4.865 15.987 18.307 20.483 23.209 25.188
11 2.603 3.053 3.816 4.575 5.578 17.275 19.675 21.920 24.725 26.757
12 3.074 3.571 4.404 5.226 6.304 18.549 21.026 23.337 26.217 28.299
13 3.565 4.107 5.009 5.892 7.042 19.812 22.362 24.736 27.688 29.819
14 4.075 4.660 5.629 6.571 7.790 21.064 23.685 26.119 29.141 31.319
15 4.601 5.229 6.262 7.261 8.547 22.307 24.996 27.488 30.578 32.801
16 5.142 5.812 6.908 7.962 9.312 23.542 26.296 28.845 32.000 34.267
17 5.697 6.408 7.564 8.672 10.085 24.769 27.587 30.191 33.409 35.718
18 6.265 7.015 8.231 9.390 10.865 25.989 28.869 31.526 34.805 37.156
19 6.844 7.633 8.907 10.117 11.651 27.204 30.144 32.852 36.191 38.582
20 7.434 8.260 9.591 10.851 12.443 28.412 31.410 34.170 37.566 39.997
21 8.034 8.897 10.283 11.591 13.240 29.615 32.671 35.479 38.932 41.401
22 8.643 9.542 10.982 12.338 14.042 30.813 33.924 36.781 40.289 42.796
23 9.260 10.196 11.689 13.091 14.848 32.007 35.172 38.076 41.638 44.181
24 9.886 10.856 12.401 13.848 15.659 33.196 36.415 39.364 42.980 45.559
25 10.520 11.524 13.120 14.611 16.473 34.382 37.652 40.646 44.314 46.928
26 11.160 12.198 13.844 15.379 17.292 35.563 38.885 41.923 45.642 48.290
27 11.808 12.879 14.573 16.151 18.114 36.741 40.113 43.194 46.963 49.645
28 12.461 13.565 15.308 16.928 18.939 37.916 41.337 44.461 48.278 50.993
29 13.121 14.257 16.047 17.708 19.768 39.087 42.557 45.722 49.588 52.336
30 13.787 14.954 16.791 18.493 20.599 40.256 43.773 46.979 50.892 53.672
40 20.707 22.164 24.433 26.509 29.051 51.805 55.758 59.342 63.691 66.766
50 27.991 29.707 32.357 34.764 37.689 63.167 67.505 71.420 76.154 79.490
60 35.534 37.485 40.482 43.188 46.459 74.397 79.082 83.298 88.379 91.952
70 43.275 45.442 48.758 51.739 55.329 85.527 90.531 95.023 100.425 104.215
80 51.172 53.540 57.153 60.391 64.278 96.578 101.879 106.629 112.329 116.321
90 59.196 61.754 65.647 69.126 73.291 107.565 113.145 118.136 124.116 128.299
100 67.328 70.065 74.222 77.929 82.358 118.498 124.342 129.561 135.807 140.169

Source: From Donald B. Owen, Handbook of Statistical Tables.

Degrees of Freedom
n - 1 Confidence interval or hypothesis test for a standard deviation or variance
k - 1 Goodness-of-fit test with k different categories
(r - 1)(c - 1) Contingency table test with r rows and c columns
 Formulas and Tables by Mario F. Triola
Copyright 2019 Pearson Education, Inc.

TABLE A-5 Critical Values of the Pearson TABLE A-6 Critical Values of Spearman’s
Correlation Coefficient r Rank Correlation Coefficient rs
n a = .05 a = .01 n a = 0.10 a = 0.05 a = 0.02 a = 0.01
4 .950 .990 5 .900 — — —
5 .878 .959 6 .829 .886 .943 —
6 .811 .917 7 .714 .786 .893 .929
7 .754 .875
8 .643 .738 .833 .881
8 .707 .834
9 .600 .700 .783 .833
9 .666 .798
10 .564 .648 .745 .794
10 .632 .765
11 .536 .618 .709 .755
11 .602 .735
12 .503 .587 .678 .727
12 .576 .708
13 .553 .684 13 .484 .560 .648 .703

14 .532 .661 14 .464 .538 .626 .679

15 .514 .641 15 .446 .521 .604 .654
16 .497 .623 16 .429 .503 .582 .635
17 .482 .606 17 .414 .485 .566 .615
18 .468 .590 18 .401 .472 .550 .600
19 .456 .575 19 .391 .460 .535 .584
20 .444 .561
20 .380 .447 .520 .570
25 .396 .505
21 .370 .435 .508 .556
30 .361 .463
22 .361 .425 .496 .544
35 .335 .430
23 .353 .415 .486 .532
40 .312 .402
24 .344 .406 .476 .521
45 .294 .378
50 .279 .361 25 .337 .398 .466 .511

60 .254 .330 26 .331 .390 .457 .501

70 .236 .305 27 .324 .382 .448 .491
80 .220 .286 28 .317 .375 .440 .483
90 .207 .269 29 .312 .368 .433 .475
100 .196 .256 30 .306 .362 .425 .467
NOTE: To test H0: r = 0 (no correlation) against H1: r ≠ 0 (correlation), reject NOTES:
H0 if the absolute value of r is greater than or equal to the critical value in the table. 1. For n 7 30 use rs { z> 1n - 1, where z corresponds to the level of signifi-
cance. For example, if a = 0.05, then z = 1.96.
2. If the absolute value of the test statistic rs is greater than or equal to the posi-
tive critical value, then reject H 0: rs = 0 and conclude that there is sufficient
evidence to support the claim of a correlation.
Based on data from Biostatistical Analysis, 4th edition © 1999, by Jerrold Zar,
Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, and “Distribution of Sums of
Squares of Rank Differences to Small Numbers with Individuals,” The Annals of
Mathematical Statistics, Vol. 9, No. 2.

Inferences about M: choosing between t and normal distributions

t distribution: s not known and normally distributed population
or s not known and n 7 30
Normal distribution: s known and normally distributed population
or s known and n 7 30
Nonparametric method or bootstrapping: Population not normally distributed and n … 30
Procedure for 1. Identify the Claim
Identify the claim to be tested and express it in symbolic form.
Hypothesis
Tests 2. Give Symbolic Form
Give the symbolic form that must be true when the original claim is false.

3. Identify Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Consider the two symbolic expressions obtained so far:
• Alternative hypothesis H1 is the one NOT containing equality, so H1 uses
the symbol . or , or Þ.
• Null hypothesis H0 is the symbolic expression that the parameter equals
the fixed value being considered.

4. Select Significance Level

Select the significance level A based on the seriousness of a type I error.
Make A small if the consequences of rejecting a true H0 are severe.
• The values of 0.05 and 0.01 are very common.

5. Identify the Test Statistic

Identify the test statistic that is relevant to the test and determine its
sampling distribution (such as normal, t, chi-square).

P-Value Method Critical Value Method

6. Find Values 6. Find Values

Find the value of the test statistic and Find the value of the test statistic and
the P-value (see Figure 8-3). Draw a the critical values. Draw a graph
graph and show the test statistic and showing the test statistic, critical
P-value. value(s), and critical region.

7. Make a Decision 7. Make a Decision

• Reject H0 if P-value # a. • Reject H0 if the test statistic is in the
• Fail to reject H0 if P-value . a. critical region.
• Fail to reject H0 if the test statistic is
not in the critical region.

8. Restate Decision in Nontechnical Terms

Restate this previous decision in simple nontechnical terms, and
address the original claim.

Finding P-Values Start

Left-tailed What type Right-tailed

of test?

Is the test
Left statistic to the Right
right or left of
center?

P-value 5 area to the left P-value 5 twice the area to P-value 5 twice the area to P-value 5 area to the right
of the test statistic the left of the test statistic the right of the test statistic of the test statistic
TABLE A-1 Binomial Probabilities

n x .01 .05 .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 .95 .99 x

2 0 .980 .902 .810 .640 .490 .360 .250 .160 .090 .040 .010 .002 0+ 0
1 .020 .095 .180 .320 .420 .480 .500 .480 .420 .320 .180 .095 .020 1
2 0+ .002 .010 .040 .090 .160 .250 .360 .490 .640 .810 .902 .980 2

3 0 .970 .857 .729 .512 .343 .216 .125 .064 .027 .008 .001 0+ 0+ 0
1 .029 .135 .243 .384 .441 .432 .375 .288 .189 .096 .027 .007 0+ 1
2 0+ .007 .027 .096 .189 .288 .375 .432 .441 .384 .243 .135 .029 2
3 0+ 0+ .001 .008 .027 .064 .125 .216 .343 .512 .729 .857 .970 3

4 0 .961 .815 .656 .410 .240 .130 .062 .026 .008 .002 0+ 0+ 0+ 0
1 .039 .171 .292 .410 .412 .346 .250 .154 .076 .026 .004 0+ 0+ 1
2 .001 .014 .049 .154 .265 .346 .375 .346 .265 .154 .049 .014 .001 2
3 0+ 0+ .004 .026 .076 .154 .250 .346 .412 .410 .292 .171 .039 3
4 0+ 0+ 0+ .002 .008 .026 .062 .130 .240 .410 .656 .815 .961 4

5 0 .951 .774 .590 .328 .168 .078 .031 .010 .002 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0

1 .048 .204 .328 .410 .360 .259 .156 .077 .028 .006 0+ 0+ 0+ 1
2 .001 .021 .073 .205 .309 .346 .312 .230 .132 .051 .008 .001 0+ 2
3 0+ .001 .008 .051 .132 .230 .312 .346 .309 .205 .073 .021 .001 3
4 0+ 0+ 0+ .006 .028 .077 .156 .259 .360 .410 .328 .204 .048 4

5 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ .002 .010 .031 .078 .168 .328 .590 .774 .951 5

6 0 .941 .735 .531 .262 .118 .047 .016 .004 .001 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0

1 .057 .232 .354 .393 .303 .187 .094 .037 .010 .002 0+ 0+ 0+ 1
2 .001 .031 .098 .246 .324 .311 .234 .138 .060 .015 .001 0+ 0+ 2
3 0+ .002 .015 .082 .185 .276 .312 .276 .185 .082 .015 .002 0+ 3
4 0+ 0+ .001 .015 .060 .138 .234 .311 .324 .246 .098 .031 .001 4

5 0+ 0+ 0+ .002 .010 .037 .094 .187 .303 .393 .354 .232 .057 5
6 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ .001 .004 .016 .047 .118 .262 .531 .735 .941 6

7 0 .932 .698 .478 .210 .082 .028 .008 .002 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0

1 .066 .257 .372 .367 .247 .131 .055 .017 .004 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 1
2 .002 .041 .124 .275 .318 .261 .164 .077 .025 .004 0+ 0+ 0+ 2
3 0+ .004 .023 .115 .227 .290 .273 .194 .097 .029 .003 0+ 0+ 3
4 0+ 0+ .003 .029 .097 .194 .273 .290 .227 .115 .023 .004 0+ 4

5 0+ 0+ 0+ .004 .025 .077 .164 .261 .318 .275 .124 .041 .002 5
6 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ .004 .017 .055 .131 .247 .367 .372 .257 .066 6
7 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ .002 .008 .028 .082 .210 .478 .698 .932 7

8 0 .923 .663 .430 .168 .058 .017 .004 .001 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0

1 .075 .279 .383 .336 .198 .090 .031 .008 .001 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 1
2 .003 .051 .149 .294 .296 .209 .109 .041 .010 .001 0+ 0+ 0+ 2
3 0+ .005 .033 .147 .254 .279 .219 .124 .047 .009 0+ 0+ 0+ 3
4 0+ 0+ .005 .046 .136 .232 .273 .232 .136 .046 .005 0+ 0+ 4

5 0+ 0+ 0+ .009 .047 .124 .219 .279 .254 .147 .033 .005 0+ 5

6 0+ 0+ 0+ .001 .010 .041 .109 .209 .296 .294 .149 .051 .003 6
7 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ .001 .008 .031 .090 .198 .336 .383 .279 .075 7
8 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0+ .001 .004 .017 .058 .168 .430 .663 .923 8

NOTE: 0+ represents a positive probability less than 0.0005. (continued)

Wording Final Conclusions in Hypothesis Tests
Some key points:
• Never conclude a hypothesis test by saying either “reject the null hypothesis” or “fail to reject the null
hypothesis.” Always make sense of the conclusion by stating it with simple nontechnical wording that
addresses the original claim.
• An original claim can be supported only if it is stated in a way that makes it the alternative hypothesis.
• An original claim can be rejected only if it is stated in a way that makes it the null hypothesis.

Table 8-3 in the textbook lists the four possible circumstances and their corresponding conclusions.

The following diagram depicts the same criteria in Table 8-3.