Chapter 3

LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL

CONTEXTS

Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the learners should be able to:

1. Define globalization;
2. Discuss the origins and development of globalization;
3. Describe the effects of globalization on communication;
4. Explain the cultural and global issues in communication; and,
5. Expound on the tools used in local and global communication

Definition, Origins, and Development of Globalization

WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION?

Perhaps you have heard of the word “Globalization” before, but what exactly is
globalization? We experience globalization knowingly and unknowingly every day of our lives.
This is not a new phenomenon. Of course, many have attempted to define what globalization is.
According to Gamble et al., (2013), Globalization is a term that implies the growth of economic,
political, and cultural assimilation and interconnectedness of different cultures which result in the
integration of people across the globe.

When we talk of globalization, we think of the interconnectedness and the

interdependence of integration of economic, social, cultural, and political aspects of our lives. So,
this is the movement of people, ideas, money, and of culture globally that is multi-directional, so
that movement can be to the north, to the south, to the east, to the west, and so on, in a way that
is making our roads, our seas, and our air space as international highways. And because of
globalization, the world is becoming a global village.

There is a word that is related to globalization called “Diversity” which means the concept
that endures respect, acceptance, and understanding. Diversity recognizes that people are
unique from each other with respect to their age, gender, race, ethnicity, culture, socio-economic
status, educational background, and ideologies.

Globalization is a reality and there is no stopping it. It has been here for a long while and
we should expect it to continue in the future. My question is, are you ready for a highly globalized
world? are you ready to be a global citizen of the world? do you speak the global language? do
you have the skills that will make yourself economically marketable to companies?

THE HISTORICAL ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF GLOBALIZATION

Thomas L. Friedman, a scholar, categorized Globalization into three (3) periods:

1. Archaic Globalization – a phase in the history of globalization, and conventionally refers

to globalizing events and developments from the time of the earliest civilizations until
roughly the 1600s.
2. Proto-globalization – this is first introduced by historians A.G. Hopkins and Christopher
Bayly. This term describes the phase of increasing trade links and cultural exchange that
characterized the period roughly spanning the years between 1600 and 1800.
3. Modern Globalization – this is the period of globalization of individuals (lifestyles). The
19th century witnessed the advent of globalization approaching its modern form.
Industrialization allowed cheap production of household items using economies of scale,
while rapid population growth created sustained demand for commodities.

1800-1899. TECHNOLOGICAL BREAKTHROUGHS AND INDUSTRIALIZATION

Steamships, railroads, and the telegraph accelerate global commerce, along with
industrialization and mass production. Rapid population growth increases the demand for goods
and services. England becomes the first country to formally adopt the gold standard-- meaning
currencies are convertible to a specific amount of gold—creating stability in exchange rates and
facilitating trade and investment. Most developed nations follow suit. Western nations capitalize
on natural resources provided by colonies and foreign markets, using force and economic
pressure to open China and Japan.

1900-1950. RISE OF AUTOMOBILES AND AIRPLANES

New modes of transportation further link economies. The first transatlantic flight, from
Berlin to New York, landed in 1938.

1914-1918. WORLD WAR I IGNITED BY NATIONALIST CONFLICT

The war wreaks havoc on global economies and trade. Defeated Germany is forced to
make massive reparation payments to Britain and France.

1920-1929. GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC BOOM

 The United States and other countries adopt the gold standard along with protectionist
policies. The US economy booms, spurred by a stock market bubble and mass production.
Germany struggles to pay war debts, igniting hyperinflation. Countries retaliate against German
manufacturing for delayed reparation payments.

1929-1939. GREAT DEPRESSION AND PROTECTIONISM

The 1929 US stock market crash ushered in the Great Depression. Many countries leave
the gold standard and devalue their currencies to try to gain a trade advantage. The United States
adopts Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act in 1930; other countries retaliated with their own tariffs on US
goods, deepening the global economic downturn. The deteriorating German economy fueled the
rise of the Nazi party. Regional trade blocs form, excluding Germany, Italy, and Japan. Axis
powers launch imperialist conquests in Manchuria, Ethiopia, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, and
Britain and France declare war against Germany.

1939-1945. WORLD WAR II MOBILIZES ALLIES AGAINST AXIS POWERS

The United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, China, and others wage war against fascism
and Nazism.

1948. GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)

The first worldwide multilateral trade agreement ushers in postwar era of more open trade.

1970-1979. END OF FIXED EXCHANGE RATES

Energy prices spike, set by the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC), triggering high inflation and unemployment throughout global economy. US inflation and
trade imbalances compel Nixon administration to end dollar convertibility to gold foreign
governments. Most currencies eventually float in value.

1989-1991. END OF THE COLD WAR

The collapse of the Soviet Union produces greater cooperation in international institutions,
increasing trade and financial integration.

1993—EUROPEAN UNION LINKS CONTINENT

The formation of the European Union solidifies the single market that began developing in
the 1950’s leading to the creating of the euro currency in 1999.

1995 – WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO)

The modern trading system governed by the rules is established, replacing the GATT.
1999 – EAST ASIA FINANCIAL CRISIS

Declines in Asian currencies spark crisis in the region, forcing austerity measures that
revive hostility toward the IMF.

2008 – GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS IGNITES BACKLASH

An international banking crash along with a European debt crisis results in the worst global
recession since the Great Depression. The Group of Twenty (G-20) nations serve as a steering
committee for efforts to counter crisis effects, but their role produces backlash against
globalization and US leadership.

2017-2020 – TRUMP PRESIDENCY UPENDS US TRADE WITH ALLIES

US President Donald J. Trump disrupts the world trading supply chain system by
withdrawing from the Trans-Pacific Partnership, forcing a more restrictive rewrite of NATA,
hampering the WTO’s ability to settle trade disputes, and threatening or imposing allies like
Canada, and South Korea, and the European Union over dubious national security concerns.

2020 – COVID-19 PANDEMIC

The COVID-19 virus spreads worldwide, costing an estimated 4 million lives by mis-2021,
disrupting global supply chains, and triggering a global recession. By the end of 2020, several
vaccines are developed, but global vaccination efforts falter, with less than 30 percent of the world
receiving at least one dose by July 2021. More transmissible variants spur additional outbreaks.
Checkpoint

Look for a tag on your clothing (one only), and try to identify where it was made. Do some
research about the object. Then, write an essay guided by the following questions:

1. What do you know about the country where the object was made?
2. For those not made in the Philippines, why do you think these objects were made
overseas?
3. Who profits from the objects being made in another country but sold here?
4. Who suffers or is exploited?
5. Why do you think our economy is set up this way?

Impact of Globalization on Communication

Creation of a Global Village

 You’ve likely heard of the phrase “global village,” coined by the theorist Marshall McLuhan.
Affected both by globalization and global communication, the global village is created when
distance and isolation no longer matter because people are connected by technology. Wide-
spread telephone and internet access have been life-changing for many people across the world,
especially those in developing countries.

The impact of globalization on communication and education

Another wonderful benefit of globalization is that the world becomes more accessible and
equitable in general. Search engines, eBooks, online courses, and other virtual education give
more people the ability to learn about subjects that use to require a certain level of income or
social positioning. Information is not as restricted and it allows us the opportunity not only to
receive information but enter into academic spaces and contribute.

The Impact of Globalization on Cross-Cultural Communication

Communication is vital for businesses to effectively explain how their products differ from
their competitors. Companies that are successfully able to communicate cross-culturally have a
competitive advantage because they can devote time and resources to conducting business and
less time to internal and external communication issues. Communication is necessary for
individuals to express themselves and fulfill basic needs. The same holds true for businesses,
governments, and countries. Without the ability to communicate and understand each other,
there would be chaos. Communication that is based on cultural understanding is more apt to
prevent misunderstanding caused by personal biases and prejudices.

The Globalization of Communication

Globalization has brought in its wake a profound change in the technologies used to
communicate and its effects have been felt across the planet. In a nutshell, communicating
globally means sending and receiving information all over the Earth, a process that has been
underway for hundreds of years (Lubbers & Koorevaar, 2000, p. 7-24). Ekeanyanwu observed
how communicating worldwide entails collecting, spreading, and examining analytically the news
and knowledge produced across the globe.

Checkpoint
1. How does communication play a vital role in globalization?

2. With the use of technology, the world becomes a “global village,” do you think there are
other ways where a “global village” can be achieved? Expound.
 3. How does globalization enhance the cultural understanding of people?

Communication in Intercultural Domains

According to Bennett, “Intercultural communication is the study and practice of

communication across cultural contexts.” It is also the study, research, awareness, training, skills,
and practicalities of communicating across cultures.
On a personal level, Intercultural Communication can help us understand our own
preferences, strengths, and weaknesses when it comes to communicating and how these can
help or hinder us when communicating across cultures.

On a wider level, Intercultural Communication can help us understand all manner of things
about ourselves as human beings from how we create meaning to the mechanics of the brain
(neuroscience) to the use of language(s) for social cohesion.

Importance of Intercultural Communication

a. Intercultural Communication and Teamwork

Many of today’s companies and organizations are multicultural. Employees come from
around the world. This is not only the case with global and international brands but also with
domestic companies and organizations which have culturally diverse employees. Learning to
communicate and work with people from different cultures is essential if these organizations want
to be successful.

b. Intercultural Communication and the Military

Many militaries spend a lot of money on teaching their troops Intercultural Communication
because when they spend time in foreign countries, they must learn to adapt their communication
style in order to ingratiate themselves with the locals, or at least, in order to gain intelligence. In
the USA, for example, the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps offer training in Intercultural
Communication or similar.

c. Intercultural Communication and Healthcare

Intercultural Communication can mean life or death in healthcare. Doctors, nurses, and
medical professionals are now given training in Cultural Competence in order to improve
healthcare for all patients. An ignorance of someone’s culture and how they communicate can
lead to poor care, misdiagnosis, and potential damage to health.
d. Intercultural Communication and Teaching

For teaching professionals working in multicultural schools, learning about Intercultural

Communication is essential as it otherwise can lead to discrimination, bias, and alienation of
children from different backgrounds. Some cultures teach their kids to be quiet and respect
authority, and others to be expressive and challenge ideas. Some cultures wait to be asked to
speak, others speak when they have something to say.

e. Intercultural Communication and Marketing/Advertising

Another example of the importance of Intercultural Communication is the marketing and

advertising industry. A failure to understand differences in communication around the world can
lead to all sorts of marketing fails and PR disasters. A lack of awareness over cultural issues can
even lead to claims of cultural appropriation and similar. Industries today are more culture-savvy,
understanding that to run a successful ad or marketing campaign, it has to be in tune with the
target audience and their values.

Characteristics of Competent Intercultural Communicators

a. Self-Awareness

The key to understanding how other cultures communicate is to understand how you,
yourself communicate and how your culture has shaped you. Once you are more aware of your
own preferences, habits, and possible biases and stereotypes, it’s much easier to understand
how you may influence or impact a conversation or communication.

b. Empathy

Appreciating that you have been shaped by your culture and other influences, helps create
understanding, compassion, mindfulness, and empathy. Empathy is critical to Intercultural
Communication as it helps you put yourself in someone else’s shoes and understand what they
may be going through.

c. Respect

With understanding and empathy, respect should be the natural logical progression.
Respect means that you may not agree or like everything about someone else or their culture,
but that you acknowledge their right to express themselves, their culture, or values. Remember,
respect begets respect.
d. Emotional Intelligence

Working across cultures means learning to tune yourself into many of the unseen and
subtle aspects of communication. It’s about using all your senses and engaging your self-
awareness and empathy to understand what’s being communicated, or not. The Japanese have
a term for this, ‘Reading the air’ (kuuki o yomu in Japanese) which brilliantly captures the mindset
needed for this.

e. Adaptability

The essence of Intercultural Communication is to help people adjust their communication

styles to promote clarity, harmony, and collaboration in exchange for confusion, weak
relationships, and competition. We need to be adaptable not only in how we talk and listen and
use body language but in how we think, react and communicate with people.

f. Patience

Things work slightly differently around the world; this means things might take more time
than you’re used to, or less. Whichever end of the stick you’re dealing with, patience is necessary
for effective Intercultural Communication as it regulates expectations and emotions.

g. Positivity

When dealing with people from different cultures, it’s always important to keep things
positive. Ninety-nine percent of the time when miscommunication happens it’s not because
anyone purposefully tried to confuse someone else. Most people are just trying to do what’s right.
Sometimes, if we lack cultural awareness, we misinterpret what’s being communicated.

Tools for Local and Global Communication

If you want to improve your Intercultural Communication skills, there are several
things you can do to start. When travelling abroad or to other places, learning a language
and mixing with people from different cultures are all excellent ways of improving your
Intercultural Communication skills, however, these aren’t very easy for some and it takes
a lot of time.
Here are some more simple and tangible things you can do:

a. Learn about Culture

Learning about other cultures, their values and their communication

preferences will offer a lot of insight into differences around the world. There are
plenty of websites that offer cultural overviews which you can find online, including
our award-winning culture guides.

b. Watch TV Shows

Most of us like to watch TV shows, so why not watch TV and learn about
different cultures at the same time? Rather than listen to a poorly dubbed foreign
movie in English, listen to it in its native language so you can hear how people
from that country communicate. Streaming services today such as Netflix have TV
series from around the world, so if you want to learn about Indian culture, Turkish
culture or Chinese culture, everything is there.

c. Ask People

If you work with people from different countries or have neighbors from
abroad, you have excellent untapped resources. Speaking to people about their
cultures and about any ‘culture shock’ they may have experienced living in your
country, can give you all sorts of rich information and insights.

d. Listen & Observe

When it comes to actual communication, there are all sorts of tips to help
you improve your Intercultural Skills. For example, learning to ask open and closed
questions where needed or avoiding humor. The key is to listen and observe first
your surroundings, the people and their behavior, ways of living, and so on before
you react.

e. Take a Course

There are plenty of courses available online which looks at various aspects
of intercultural communication. It’s a fantastic introduction to the topic of cultural
 differences, communicating across cultures, and working with cultural diversity.
Taking this course, purposive communication is a good start.

According to Gepila et. al. here are some examples of ways of communication in certain
countries:

Communicating in China

Greg Rodgers (2017) wrote an article on how to work around the language barrier
in China. According to him, communicating in China is often a challenge for first-time
visitors who are traveling independently without an interpreter. If you do not know how to
speak Mandarin, the language barrier can be maddening. Charades sometimes fail and
when you move your hands for chopsticks, your waiter might bring you a pencil.
Mclaughlin (2013) gave tips on communicating with the Chinese. According to him, at
formal business meetings, one must be aware of the Chinese’s desire to preserve
harmony. Hierarchy is also a very important factor in how the Chinese communicate.
When speaking to a superior, workers must generally phrase their words carefully.
Speaking without asking for permission might lead to poor treatment as well as reprisals.
Most importantly, the concept of the face must always be considered when
communicating with the Chinese. They prefer to avoid the negative and emphasize the
positive. When dining together, Chinese businessmen routinely praise one another with
compliments and toasts. Gifts are also given on many social and business occasions in
China. These are accompanied by words of goodwill. In conversing with the Chinese, it
is important to have a clear understanding of the context.

Communicating in Korea

When going to South Korea, there are things that one must be aware of in terms
of communicating verbally and nonverbally. Their communication pattern is generally
indirect and at times, verbose. They have the tendency to rely less on words and are
very keen on a speaker’s posture, expression, and tone of voice to catch the message.
Just like the Chinese, they are particular about maintaining harmony throughout the
conversation. Their speech style may be described as indirect. They also use fewer
gestures and silence is an important and useful tool for them. Pausing before giving a
response is an indication that someone has applied appropriate thought and
consideration to the question. This is one way of showing politeness and respect. Smiling
could mean that one is feeling ashamed or embarrassed. They are generally not very
tactile with one another. However, girls may walk hand-in-hand and male friends tend to
touch each other. South Koreans do not point with their index fingers; they rather use
their entire hand to point to someone or something. During a discussion or friendly
conversation, eye contact is necessary for the person you are communicating with. When
receiving something, use two hands or your right hand. In terms of gestures, it is
considered rude to make a fist with your hand while placing the thumb between the middle
and index finger.

Communicating in America

Americans address each other informally and address each other on a first-name
basis. No academic or job titles are used unless one is formally introduced. Americans
are energetic and positive in terms of communication. Americans usually speak in the
present or imperative tense with lots of action-oriented words. They often use
expressions such as: “Make it work” or “Instant solution”. Meetings are usually informal.
People also shake hands or just say “hello” when entering a meeting room. One usually
sticks to the agenda and one must be time conscious. Meetings are only held to discuss
topics that are usually outlined to obtain information and different opinions as well as
communicate decisions taken at the top. Americans hate it when their time is wasted and
so, you have to be at least thirty minutes ahead of the call time when meeting an
American. Americans expect a speaker with a loud voice.

Communicating in Japan

When communicating in Japan, avoid pointing. Use a wedged hand aimed in a

direction. You also have to keep your voice down. When requesting, you have to use a
gentle voice and tone. Whenever you see an error, you have to present it carefully so as
not to appear that you are pointing out an omission that someone committed. When
communicating with the Japanese, you also need to avoid pressing for an answer. This
means that if a question remains unanswered twice, one has to respect the silence.
Finally, be reminded that bowing is an important communication ritual. Traditionally, a
person coming from a lesser social status bow lower, but even a small bow is enough to
show respect for the person and the Japanese culture.
 5 COMMUNICATION DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EASTERN AND WESTERN
CULTURES

It is common for Eastern and Western cultures to communicate differently in

everyday settings. Between these two cultures, there are different patterns in speech,
languages used, articulation techniques, and emotional cues expressed.

At times stereotypical Eastern societies and Western societies express

themselves in conflicting ways. Sometimes this can make doing business or socializing
together challenging. There’s much to be observed and learned from Eastern vs Western
communication styles. That way you can understand cultural differences and minimize
miscommunication, improving cross-cultural relationships.

Here are some key differences between Eastern and Western communication
styles.

1. High-context vs low-context

In high-context cultures (a term coined by anthropologist Edward T. Hall),

communication is often indirect and some things aren’t openly said. Low-context cultures
involve direct communication and thoughts are clearly articulated.

Eastern cultures are often high-context cultures. Collectivism and ‘saving face is a
big part of Asian cultures. Before speaking some Asians might choose their words
carefully to avoid pointing out flaws, upsetting or offending others – protecting their image
at the same time. On the other hand, Western cultures are low-context cultures.
Westerners tend to be more individualistic, say things upfront, and want to succinctly get
their point across.

This can explain why some Asians are stereotypically seen as quiet and
submissive while Westerners are loud and assertive. At times there is a hidden meaning
behind words. For instance, in some Asian workplaces, employees usually say ‘Yes’ to
tasks they are unsure of and keep quiet, which can lead to miscommunication down the
line.

2. Speaking up

Westerners are more likely to speak up and say their minds. On the other hand,
those in Asian countries instinctively listen more. When there are people in a team who
exhibit both these traits, that can get in the way of teamwork. Some people might
dominate over others, carrying the team or showing off.

A study by the University of New South Wales on a class of Singapore university

students found the class was mainly silent. It also found the students feared being wrong
when asking questions but ask targeted questions. Often East-Asian international
students often adopt the silent strategy to deal with the English language barrier in classes
and are eager to learn just like European students. Again, this communicating behavior
can be attributed to ‘saving face. In Asian cultures listening and letting others speak is a
sign of respect.

3. Non-verbal communication

Eastern and Western cultures interpret non-verbal communication differently. Not

all emotions are expressed universally across both cultures. Maintaining eye contact
means confidence and paying attention in Western cultures. In Asian cultures that is a
sign of aggression and rudeness. A study on eye contact perception found that Japanese
cultures perceive others’ faces as angrier and more unapproachable compared to Finnish
cultures.

Beckoning with hands is considered friendly in the West. Gesturing with the left
hand is considered dirty and offensive in Middle Eastern cultures. Pointing is seen as
rude in Malaysia. Smiling at strangers in public is seen as friendly in Australia and the
UK. In Asia, it’s strange to smile at strangers and a smile could be a cover-up for negative
emotions. Emotions are nuanced. Sometimes silence is consent, but other times silence
is also not consent.

4. Leadership

Hierarchical structures in Asian workplaces are common and obeying authority is

key. In China, Guanxi is important for developing good business relationships within
various industries. On the other hand, there is more of a flatter level-playing field in the
western corporate world. Sharing ideas openly is encouraged. Friday after-work drinks
with colleagues and bosses are pretty common in Australia.

An academic review of Western and Chinese leadership models found over time
there is a convergence of workplace styles in both cultures. Education and efficiency is
valued across both cultures.
5. Time

Both Eastern and Western cultures tend to regard punctuality with respect to
different degrees. Asian cultures have more of a stickler for things being on time. Showing
up on time to work or an appointment is expected in Asia. In 2018 a Japanese railway
company made a public apology when a train left its station 25 seconds early.

While in Germany things run on clockwork, Spain and France are more relaxed
about a time where deadlines are more flexible and there is time for nice wine and dining.
Sometimes someone’s communication style might rub off you all the time, making you
annoyed.

While you might not always agree with someone’s cultural values, you can respect
these values and different communication styles. You can always try to listen, let others
speak, and genuinely ask questions. You can avoid raising your voice, attacking opinions,
and asserting your opinion over others. When managing conflict arising from different
communication styles, sometimes you have to agree to disagree with different
approaches and opinions and walk away.

As Plato said, ‘Wise men speak because they have something to say; Fools
because they have to say something.’ How you communicate leaves an impression on
others. More importantly, how you communicate is a reflection of yourself.

Checkpoint:

1. Where else can intercultural communication play a vital role, aside from the ideas
given above?
2. What other characteristics should intercultural communicators possess and why?
3. As for your observation, what are the other cultural differences between easterners
and westerners?
4. What is the essence of studying intercultural communication?

REFERENCES:

Anam Ahmed The Effects of Globalization on Global Communication

Published on 21 Nov 2018

Blake Baxter. Jul 31, 2018 The Impact of Globalization on Communication & Education
Friedman, Thomas L. The Lexus and Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization. St. Martin‘s
Press. 2000.

Gepila, Emejidio et.al. Purposive Communication in English The FACE Model Approach. Jenher
Publishing House, 2017.

https://www.piie.com/microsites/globalization/what-is-globalization
Peterson Institute for International Economics
Originally published October 29, 2018
Updated August 24, 2021

https://www.commisceo-global.com/blog/what-is-intercultural-communication-and-why-is-it-
important

https://online.uhv.edu/articles/undergraduate-studies/does-culture-affect-communication.aspx

Iletisimin Kuresellesmesi and Dr. Can Cemal Cingi. The Globlalization of Communication
Anadolu Universitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi Anadolu University Journal of Social
Sciences Basvuru Tarihi: 16.03.2018 Kabul Tarihi: 16.08.2018

Lowell C. Matthews and Bharat Thakkar The Impact of Globalization on Cross-Cultural

Communication. December 21st, 2011 Published August 17th 2012 DOI: 10.5772/45816

Prepared by:

Marissa L. Mayrena, PhD.

Associate Professor