Detailed Summarized Notes on the 9 Topics

1. Circulatory System

 Main Function: Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste

products throughout the body, maintaining homeostasis.
 Components: Heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood.
o Heart: Pumps blood through rhythmic contractions. Four chambers:
two atria (upper) and two ventricles (lower).
o Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except
pulmonary arteries).
o Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart (except pulmonary
veins).
o Capillaries: Facilitate the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste
products with tissues.
 Blood Composition:
o Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Contain hemoglobin to transport oxygen.
o White Blood Cells (WBCs): Defend against infections.
o Platelets: Aid in blood clotting.
o Plasma: Liquid component that carries nutrients, hormones, and
waste.
 Circulatory Pathways:
o Pulmonary Circulation: Blood flows to the lungs for oxygenation.
o Systemic Circulation: Delivers oxygenated blood to the body.
 Key Processes:
o Blood pressure regulation (systolic and diastolic).
o Oxygen transport by hemoglobin.
o Lymphatic system returns excess fluid to the bloodstream and aids
immunity.

2. Coordination and Control

 Nervous System:
o Function: Rapid communication via electrical signals.
o Components:
 Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
  Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves linking the body to
the CNS.
o Neurons: Sensory, motor, and interneurons.
o Processes:
 Reflex actions: Quick, involuntary responses.
 Synapse: Junction for signal transmission.
 Endocrine System:
o Function: Secretes hormones for long-term regulation.
o Major Glands: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, and gonads.
o Hormones:
 Insulin: Regulates blood sugar.
 Adrenaline: Prepares for "fight or flight."
 Homeostasis:
o Maintains stable internal conditions (temperature, pH, water balance).
o Feedback mechanisms: Positive and negative feedback regulate body
functions.

3. Digestive System

 Function: Breaks down food into nutrients for energy and repair.
 Processes:
o Ingestion, digestion (mechanical and chemical), absorption, and
excretion.
 Key Organs:
o Mouth: Chewing and enzymatic digestion.
o Stomach: Acidic breakdown of food.
o Small Intestine: Absorption of nutrients.
o Large Intestine: Absorption of water and waste excretion.
 Key Nutrients: Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, water, and
fiber.

4. Disease and Its Impact on Humans

 Definition: Diseases disrupt normal body functions.

 Types:
o Infectious: Caused by pathogens.
o Non-infectious: Genetic, lifestyle-based.
  Impacts:
o Physical: Illness and reduced productivity.
o Emotional: Stress and mental health issues.
o Socio-economic: Healthcare costs and economic losses.
 Prevention: Vaccination, proper hygiene, and balanced diets.

5. Excretion and Homeostasis

 Excretory System:
o Removes metabolic waste like urea and carbon dioxide.
o Key Organs: Kidneys (filter blood), liver, skin (sweat), and lungs
(exhale CO2).
 Processes:
o Osmoregulation: Maintains water balance.
o Thermoregulation: Controls body temperature.

6. Nutrition

 Nutrients:
o Macronutrients: Carbohydrates, proteins, fats.
o Micronutrients: Vitamins (A, B, C, D, E, K) and minerals.
 Balanced Diet: Prevents deficiency diseases and malnutrition.
 Tests for Nutrients:
o Benedict’s Test: Detects sugars.
o Biuret Test: Detects proteins.
o Lipid Test: Detects fats.
 Malnutrition: Leads to stunted growth and weakened immunity.

7. Impact of Health Practices on the Environment

 Key Concerns:
o Pollution from improper waste disposal and industrial emissions.
o Health hazards: Respiratory issues and toxic exposure.
 Sustainable Practices:
o Recycling and safe waste disposal.
 o Reducing single-use plastics.

8. Respiratory System

 Function: Facilitates gas exchange (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out).

 Key Structures:
o Nose: Filters air.
o Trachea: Connects throat to lungs.
o Lungs: Contain alveoli for gas exchange.
o Diaphragm: Controls breathing.
 Processes:
o Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, air enters.
o Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes, air exits.
 Key Role: Oxygen binds to hemoglobin for transport to cells.

9. Skeletal System

 Functions:
o Support and structure.
o Protection of organs (e.g., skull protects brain).
o Movement: Bones work with muscles.
o Blood cell production: In bone marrow.
 Types of Bones:
o Long (e.g., femur), short (e.g., carpals), flat (e.g., ribs).
 Maintenance:
o Requires calcium and vitamin D for strength.

1. Circulatory System
 Key Components: Heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and
blood.
  Functions: Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste. Maintains
homeostasis.
 Circulation Types: Pulmonary (lungs) and systemic (rest of the body).
 Blood Components:
o Red Blood Cells: Transport oxygen.
o White Blood Cells: Immunity.
o Platelets: Blood clotting.
o Plasma: Liquid medium for nutrients and waste.

2. Coordination and Control

 Nervous System: Coordinates responses via nerve signals.
 Endocrine System: Regulates body processes using hormones (e.g., insulin,
adrenaline).
 Homeostasis: Maintains stable internal conditions (e.g., temperature, pH).
 Reflex Actions: Quick, automatic responses to stimuli.

3. Digestive System
 Function: Breaks down food into nutrients for energy and cellular repair.
 Processes: Ingestion, digestion (mechanical and chemical), absorption, and
excretion.
 Key Organs: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver,
pancreas.
 Nutrient Absorption: Small intestine absorbs macronutrients; large
intestine absorbs water.

4. Disease and Its Impact on Humans

  Definition: Diseases disrupt normal body functions.
 Types: Infectious (caused by pathogens) and non-infectious (genetic,
lifestyle-based).
 Impacts: Physical, emotional, and socio-economic effects (e.g., reduced
productivity, healthcare costs).
 Prevention: Vaccination, hygiene, balanced diet.

5. Excretion and Homeostasis

 Excretory System: Removes metabolic waste (urea, carbon dioxide).
 Key Organs: Kidneys (filter blood), liver, skin (sweat), lungs (exhale CO2).
 Homeostasis: Maintains water balance and temperature.
 Processes: Osmoregulation (water balance) and thermoregulation
(temperature).

6. Nutrition
 Nutrients:
o Macronutrients: Carbohydrates, proteins, fats.
o Micronutrients: Vitamins (A, B, C, D, E, K) and minerals.
 Balanced Diet: Prevents deficiency diseases and malnutrition.
 Tests for Nutrients: Benedict’s test (sugars), Biuret test (proteins), lipid
test.
 Malnutrition Effects: Stunted growth, weakened immunity.

7. Impact of Health Practices on the Environment

 Pollution: Caused by improper waste disposal, industrial emissions, and
overuse of resources.
  Health Hazards: Respiratory issues, waterborne diseases, and toxic
exposure.
 Sustainable Practices: Recycling, safe waste disposal, reducing plastic use.

8. Respiratory System
 Function: Facilitates gas exchange (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out).
 Key Structures: Nose, trachea, lungs, alveoli.
 Breathing Mechanics: Inhalation (diaphragm contracts), exhalation
(diaphragm relaxes).
 Oxygen Transport: Hemoglobin in red blood cells binds oxygen for
distribution.

9. Skeletal System
 Functions:
o Support and structure.
o Protection of vital organs (e.g., skull protects brain).
o Movement (with muscles).
o Production of blood cells (in bone marrow).
 Bone Types: Long (e.g., femur), short (e.g., carpals), flat (e.g., ribs).
 Maintenance: Calcium and vitamin D are essential for healthy bones.

1. Circulatory System (20+ Flashcards)

Q: What is the circulatory system?
A: A system responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and
waste products across the body.
Q: What are the main components of the circulatory system?
A: Heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood.

Q: What is the function of the heart?

A: Pumps blood through rhythmic contractions to circulate oxygen and
nutrients.

Q: Describe pulmonary circulation.

A: Carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation and returns it to the
heart.

Q: Describe systemic circulation.

A: Delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the body and returns
deoxygenated blood.

Q: What is the role of arteries?

A: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except pulmonary arteries).

Q: What is the role of veins?

A: Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart (except pulmonary veins).

Q: What is the function of capillaries?

A: Exchange oxygen, nutrients, and waste products with tissues.
Q: What are the main components of blood?
A: Red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), platelets, and plasma.

Q: What is the role of RBCs?

A: Transport oxygen using hemoglobin.

Q: What is the role of WBCs?

A: Defend the body against infections.

Q: What are platelets?

A: Cell fragments that aid in blood clotting.

Q: What is plasma?
A: The liquid component of blood, carrying nutrients, hormones, and waste.

Q: What is blood pressure?

A: The force exerted by circulating blood on blood vessel walls.

Q: What are the two main blood pressure measurements?

A: Systolic (heart contraction) and diastolic (heart relaxation).

Q: What are common circulatory system diseases?

A: Hypertension, atherosclerosis, and heart attacks.
Q: How is oxygen transported in the blood?
A: Bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells.

Q: What is the role of the lymphatic system?

A: Returns excess fluid to the bloodstream and supports immunity.

Q: What is the heart's structure?

A: Four chambers: two atria (upper) and two ventricles (lower).

Q: How does blood circulate through the heart?

A: Blood flows from veins to atria, then to ventricles, and out through arteries.

2. Coordination and Control (20+ Flashcards)

Q: What systems are involved in coordination and control?
A: Nervous system and endocrine system.

Q: What is the function of the nervous system?

A: Transmits electrical signals for rapid responses.

Q: What is the function of the endocrine system?

A: Secretes hormones for long-term regulation.

Q: What are neurons?

A: Nerve cells responsible for transmitting signals.
Q: What are the three types of neurons?
A: Sensory, motor, and interneurons.

Q: What is a synapse?
A: A junction between two neurons where signals are transmitted.

Q: What is the central nervous system (CNS)?

A: Brain and spinal cord, coordinating all body activities.

Q: What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

A: Nerves outside the CNS, linking the body to the brain and spinal cord.

Q: What are reflexes?

A: Quick, involuntary responses to stimuli.

Q: What is a hormone?
A: A chemical messenger secreted by glands.

Q: What is the function of insulin?

A: Regulates blood sugar levels.

Q: What is adrenaline?
A: A hormone that prepares the body for "fight or flight" response.
Q: What are the major endocrine glands?
A: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, and gonads.

Q: What is homeostasis?
A: Maintaining a stable internal environment.

Q: How does the body regulate temperature?

A: Sweating, shivering, and blood vessel dilation or constriction.

Q: What is the role of the hypothalamus?

A: Controls the autonomic nervous system and endocrine activity.

Q: What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary actions?

A: Voluntary actions are conscious; involuntary actions are automatic.

Q: What is the role of sensory organs?

A: Detect external stimuli (e.g., eyes, ears, skin).

Q: What is the role of the spinal cord?

A: Transmits messages between the brain and the body.

Q: What is feedback regulation?

A: Mechanisms that maintain homeostasis (positive and negative feedback).
Flashcard 1
Q: What is the main function of the circulatory system?
A: To transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout
the body.

Flashcard 2
Q: What are the main components of the circulatory system?
A: The heart, blood vessels, and blood.

Flashcard 3
Q: How does the heart function in the circulatory system?
A: The heart pumps blood throughout the body via rhythmic contractions.

Flashcard 4
Q: What are the three main types of blood vessels?
A: Arteries, veins, and capillaries.

Flashcard 5
Q: What is the primary role of arteries?
A: To carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body (except
pulmonary arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs).

Flashcard 6
Q: What is the function of veins in the circulatory system?
A: To carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart (except pulmonary veins,
which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs).

Flashcard 7
Q: What is the role of capillaries in circulation?
A: To facilitate the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products between
blood and tissues.

Flashcard 8
Q: What are the two main types of circulation in the body?
A: Pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.

Flashcard 9
Q: What happens in pulmonary circulation?
A: Blood is oxygenated in the lungs and carbon dioxide is removed.

Flashcard 10
Q: What is systemic circulation?
A: It delivers oxygenated blood to the body and returns deoxygenated blood to
the heart.

Flashcard 11
Q: What are the major components of blood?
A: Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.
Flashcard 12
Q: What is the function of red blood cells?
A: To transport oxygen using hemoglobin.

Flashcard 13
Q: What is the role of white blood cells?
A: To fight infections and play a role in immunity.

Flashcard 14
Q: What do platelets do?
A: They help in blood clotting to prevent excessive bleeding.

Flashcard 15
Q: What is plasma?
A: The liquid component of blood that carries cells, nutrients, hormones, and
waste products.

Recurring Questions and Answers for CXC Human and Social Biology (HSB) Paper
2 (2018-2024)

1. Nutrition and Health

Q1: Explain the importance of a balanced diet and list three deficiency diseases,
their causes, and symptoms.
 Answer:
 o Balanced Diet Importance: Provides energy, promotes growth, and
maintains body functions.
o Deficiency Diseases:
 Rickets (Cause: Lack of Vitamin D; Symptoms: Weak, soft
bones).
 Scurvy (Cause: Lack of Vitamin C; Symptoms: Bleeding gums,
joint pain).
 Kwashiorkor (Cause: Protein deficiency; Symptoms: Swollen
abdomen, stunted growth).
Q2: How does malnutrition affect the body? Include examples of overnutrition
and undernutrition.
 Answer:
o Undernutrition: Leads to deficiency diseases like anemia (iron
deficiency).
o Overnutrition: Causes obesity, increasing the risk of diabetes and
heart disease.

2. Diseases and Their Impact on Humans

Q3: Differentiate between infectious and non-infectious diseases, with
examples.
 Answer:
o Infectious Diseases: Caused by pathogens (e.g., Tuberculosis by
bacteria).
o Non-Infectious Diseases: Not caused by pathogens (e.g., Diabetes).
Q4: Outline three methods of controlling the spread of communicable diseases.
 Answer:
o Proper hygiene (e.g., handwashing).
 o Vaccination programs.
o Isolation of infected individuals.
Q5: Describe the role of vectors in the transmission of diseases, with an
example.
 Answer: Vectors are organisms that carry pathogens. Example:
Mosquitoes transmit malaria by carrying the Plasmodium parasite.

3. Human Body Systems

Q6: Describe the structure and function of the heart in the circulatory system.
 Answer:
o Structure: Four chambers (two atria, two ventricles).
o Function: Pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated
blood to the lungs.
Q7: Explain the process of gas exchange in the respiratory system.
 Answer:
o Occurs in alveoli where oxygen diffuses into the blood, and carbon
dioxide diffuses out to be exhaled.
Q8: What are the main excretory products of humans, and which organs excrete
them?
 Answer:
o Kidneys: Urea, water, and salts.
o Lungs: Carbon dioxide.
o Skin: Sweat (water and salts).

4. Homeostasis and Coordination

Q9: Define homeostasis and explain its importance.
  Answer: Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal
environment. It ensures optimal conditions for enzyme function and
cellular activities.
Q10: Describe the role of the pancreas in maintaining blood glucose levels.
 Answer:
o Releases insulin to lower blood sugar.
o Releases glucagon to increase blood sugar.
Q11: How do reflex actions differ from voluntary actions? Provide an example of
each.
 Answer:
o Reflex Action: Automatic response (e.g., withdrawing hand from
heat).
o Voluntary Action: Conscious response (e.g., picking up a book).

5. Impact of Human Activities on the Environment

Q12: List three ways human activities contribute to environmental pollution.
 Answer:
o Improper waste disposal.
o Deforestation.
o Use of fossil fuels leading to air pollution.
Q13: Explain how pollution impacts human health, with examples.
 Answer:
o Air pollution: Causes respiratory diseases like asthma.
o Water pollution: Leads to waterborne diseases like cholera.
Q14: Suggest three measures to reduce pollution and their benefits.
 Answer:
 o Recycling: Reduces waste and conserves resources.
o Planting trees: Improves air quality.
o Using renewable energy: Reduces carbon emissions.

6. Reproduction and Growth

Q15: Compare sexual and asexual reproduction.
 Answer:
o Sexual Reproduction: Involves two parents, genetic variation.
o Asexual Reproduction: Involves one parent, genetically identical
offspring.
Q16: What are the main functions of the placenta during pregnancy?
 Answer:
o Nutrient and oxygen transfer from mother to fetus.
o Waste removal from fetus to mother.
o Hormone production to maintain pregnancy.
Q17: List three methods of contraception and how they work.
 Answer:
o Condom: Prevents sperm from entering the uterus.
o Pill: Suppresses ovulation.
o IUD: Prevents implantation of fertilized egg.

7. Genetics and Inheritance

Q18: Define the terms "gene," "chromosome," and "allele."
 Answer:
o Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a trait.
 o Chromosome: A structure made of DNA containing genes.
o Allele: Different forms of the same gene.
Q19: What is the difference between dominant and recessive traits?
 Answer:
o Dominant: Expressed when at least one dominant allele is present.
o Recessive: Expressed only when two recessive alleles are present.
Q20: Explain the concept of natural selection.
 Answer: Organisms better adapted to their environment are more likely
to survive and reproduce, passing on advantageous traits.

Genetics and Inheritance: Sample Questions and Answers

Q1: Define the terms "gene," "allele," and "chromosome."
 Answer:
o Gene: A unit of heredity made up of DNA that determines a specific
characteristic.
o Allele: Different versions of a gene.
o Chromosome: A thread-like structure made of DNA and protein that
carries genetic information.
Q2: Explain the difference between dominant and recessive alleles, using
examples.
 Answer:
o Dominant Allele: Expressed when present, e.g., "B" for brown eyes.
o Recessive Allele: Only expressed when paired with another
recessive allele, e.g., "b" for blue eyes.
Q3: What is the role of meiosis in genetics and inheritance?
  Answer:
o Meiosis produces gametes (sperm and egg cells) with half the
number of chromosomes, ensuring genetic diversity in offspring.
Q4: What is a Punnett square, and how is it used?
 Answer: A diagram used to predict the outcome of genetic crosses. For
example, crossing Bb x Bb for eye color results in:
o Genotypic Ratio: 1 BB : 2 Bb : 1 bb
o Phenotypic Ratio: 3 Brown : 1 Blue.
Q5: Explain the significance of Mendel’s experiments in genetics.
 Answer: Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance (dominance,
segregation, and independent assortment) using pea plants.
Q6: Define mutation and give two examples of its effects.
 Answer:
o Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence.
o Examples:
 Sickle cell anemia (harmful mutation).
 Evolution of antibiotic resistance (beneficial mutation).
Q7: What is natural selection, and how does it influence genetic traits in a
population?
 Answer:
o Natural selection favors organisms with advantageous traits,
increasing their frequency in the population over time.
Q8: Describe the structure and function of DNA.
 Answer:
o Structure: Double helix made of nucleotides (Adenine, Thymine,
Cytosine, Guanine).
 o Function: Stores and transmits genetic information.

Homeostasis and Coordination: Sample Questions and Answers

Q1: Define homeostasis and explain why it is important.
 Answer: Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal
environment. It ensures optimal functioning of enzymes and cellular
processes, e.g., maintaining body temperature and blood glucose levels.
Q2: How does the body regulate blood glucose levels?
 Answer:
o High Glucose: The pancreas releases insulin, which allows cells to
absorb glucose and store it as glycogen in the liver.
o Low Glucose: The pancreas releases glucagon, which converts
glycogen back to glucose.
Q3: Describe the structure and function of a neuron.
 Answer:
o Structure: Composed of a cell body, dendrites (receive signals), and
an axon (transmits signals).
o Function: Transmits electrical impulses between the brain, spinal
cord, and body.
Q4: Differentiate between voluntary and involuntary actions.
 Answer:
o Voluntary Actions: Conscious control (e.g., writing).
o Involuntary Actions: Automatic responses (e.g., reflexes).
Q5: What are reflexes, and why are they important?
 Answer: Reflexes are automatic, quick responses to stimuli (e.g.,
withdrawing a hand from heat). They protect the body from harm.
Q6: What is the role of the hypothalamus in homeostasis?
  Answer: The hypothalamus regulates temperature, thirst, hunger, and
hormonal activity by controlling the autonomic nervous system and the
endocrine system.
Q7: Explain how the skin helps maintain body temperature.
 Answer:
o Cooling: Sweating and vasodilation (blood vessels widen).
o Warming: Shivering and vasoconstriction (blood vessels narrow).
Q8: How do hormones differ from nerve impulses?
 Answer:
o Hormones: Chemical messengers, slower but longer-lasting effects
(e.g., insulin).
o Nerve Impulses: Electrical signals, faster but short-lived effects.
Q9: Describe how negative feedback works, using an example.
 Answer:
o Negative feedback reverses a change to maintain balance.
o Example: If body temperature rises, sweating cools the body; if it
drops, shivering generates heat.
Q10: Name two disorders related to hormonal imbalance and their symptoms.
 Answer:
o Diabetes Mellitus: High blood sugar levels due to insulin deficiency
(symptoms: frequent urination, fatigue).
o Hyperthyroidism: Overproduction of thyroid hormone (symptoms:
weight loss, increased heart rate).

These questions and answers provide a strong foundation for understanding key
concepts in "Genetics and Inheritance" and "Homeostasis and Coordination."
Let me know if you’d like further refinements or additional practice questions!
Similarities Between Mitosis and Meiosis
1. Cell Division Process: Both involve the division of a parent cell to produce
new cells.
2. Phases: Both have similar stages—prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase.
3. DNA Replication: DNA replicates during the S-phase of interphase before
both mitosis and meiosis begin.
4. Spindle Apparatus: Both processes use spindle fibers to separate
chromosomes.
5. Chromatin Condensation: Chromosomes condense and become visible
during the prophase of both processes.

Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Production of gametes (sperm
Growth, repair, and asexual reproduction
and egg cells)
Two successive divisions (Meiosis
Single division
I and Meiosis II)
Two Four
Daughter cells are genetically identical to
Daughter cells are genetically unique
the parent cell
Maintains the same chromosome
Reduces chromosome number by half
number as the parent cell (diploid to
(diploid to haploid)
diploid)
Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs during prophase I, resulting in
Does not occur
genetic recombination
Do not pair Pair and separate during meiosis I
Somatic (body) cells Gametes (reproductive cells)

In meiosis occurs in sex cells (egg and sperm) and the daughter cells will be half
of 46 chromosomes which is 23 chromosome

Somatic cells are all body cells except sex cells

Type of Sex cell chromosomes is x and y

When the first cell and the last cell is the same it is mitosis is identical

mitosis takes place in all body cells (somatic cells), except sex cells

mitosis - growth, repair and replacement

mitosis- daughter cells are identical to the parent cells

stem cells are unspecialised cells that divide when needed for growth, repair,
and replacemnet
mitosis - diploid number (2n)

Meiosis takes place in Sex cells ONLY

meiosis - haploid number ( n)

meiosis - daughter cells are unidentical to parent cells

parent cells has 46 chromosomes while daughter cells have 23 chromosomes

egg cell - 23 chromosomes/ sperm - 23 chromosomes

sex cells are called gametes

Meiosis maintains chromosome number

meiosis results in 4 unidentical daughter cells while mitosis results in 2 identical

daughter cells