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25
Alternating
Current
Alternating Current
An electric current whose magnitude and direction changes
continuously (periodically) with time is called an alternating current.
The instantaneous value of alternating current at any instant of time
t is given by
I = I 0 sin wt
where, I 0 = peak value of alternating current.
The variation of alternating current with time is shown in graph
given below
y

AC

O x
T T t
—
2

Mean Value and Root-Mean-Square Value of

Alternating Current
(i) Mean Value The mean value of alternating current over half-a
cycle is a finite quantity and infact, it is this quantity which is
defined as the mean value of alternating current.
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Alternating Current 265

It is given by
1 p/ 2
T / 2 ò0
I mean = Idt

Mean or average value of alternating current for first half cycle

2I
I m = 0 = 0.637 I 0
p
Mean or average value of alternating current for next half cycle
2I
I ¢m = - 0 = - 0.637 I 0
p
Mean or average value of alternating current for one complete
cycle = 0.
In the same way, mean value of alternating voltage,
V m = 0.637 V 0
(iii) Root-Mean-Square Value The root-mean-square value of an
alternating current is defined as the square root of the average of
I 2 during a complete cycle.
The average value of I 2 over a complete cycle is given by
1 T
I 2 = ò I 2dt
T 0
Root-mean-square value of alternating current
I
I rms = 0 = 0.707 I 0
2
In the same way, root-mean-square value of alternating voltage
V
V rms = 0 = 0.707 V 0
2
Note Form factor is defined as the ratio of rms value of AC to its average value during
half-cycle.
However, peak factor is the ratio of peak value to the rms value.

Reactance
The opposition offered by an inductor or by a capacitor in the path of
flow of alternating current is called reactance.
Reactance is of two types
(i) Inductive Reactance ( X L ) Inductive
reactance is the resistance offered by an XL
inductor.
O f
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266 Handbook of Physics

L 2p
Inductive reactance ( X L ) = Lw = L 2pf =
T
XL µ f
For direct current, XL = 0 (Q f = 0)
Its unit is ohm.
(ii) Capacitive Reactance ( XC ) Capacitive
reactance is the resistance offered by a
capacitor.
XC
Capacitive reactance,
1 1 T
XC = = = f
Cw C 2pf C 2p
1
XC µ
f
For direct current, XC = ¥ (Q f = 0)
Its unit is ohm.

Impedance
The opposition offered by an AC circuit containing more than one out
of three components L , C and R is called impedance ( Z ) of the circuit.
Impedance of an AC circuit, Z = R 2 + ( X L - XC )2
Its SI unit is ohm.

Power in an AC Circuit
The power is defined as the rate at which work is being done in the
circuit. The average power in an AC circuit,
Pav = V rms I rms cos q
V I VI
= cos q = cos q
2 2 2
Resistance( R )
where, cos q = is called the power factor of AC circuit.
Impedance( Z )

Current and Potential Relations for

Different AC Circuits
Here, we will discuss current and potential relations for different AC
circuits.
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Alternating Current 267

(i) Pure Resistive Circuit (R Circuit)
y
AC Source E0
I0

R wt
x
O
Phasor diagram

(a) Alternating emf, E = E0 sin wt

(b) Alternating current, I = I 0 sin wt
(c) Alternating emf and alternating current both are in the same
phase.
(d) Average power decay, ( P ) = EV × IV
(e) Power factor, cos q = 1
(ii) Pure Inductive Circuit (L Circuit)
y
E0
AC Source

wt
O x

L
y¢ I0
Phasor diagram
(a) Alternating emf, E = E0 sin wt
(b) Alternating current, I = I 0 sin ( wt - p/ 2)
p
(c) Alternating current lags behind alternating emf by .
2
(d) Inductive reactance, X L = Lw = L 2pf
(e) Average power decay, ( P ) = 0
(f) Power factor, cos q = cos 90° = 0
(iii) Pure Capacitive Circuit
y
AC Source E0
I0

C wt
x
O Phasor diagram
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268 Handbook of Physics

(a) Alternating emf, E = E0 sin wt

(b) Alternating current, I = I 0 sin ( wt + p/ 2)
p
(c) Alternating current leads the alternating emf by .
2
(d) Capacitive reactance, XC = Cw = C 2pf
(e) Avearge power decay, ( P ) = 0
(f) Power factor, cos q = cos 90° = 0
(iv) R-C Circuit
VR
R I
f
VC VR
V

AC source VC
Phasor diagram

(a) Alternating emf, E = E0 sin wt

(b) Alternating current, I = I 0 sin ( wt + f)
1
2
æ 1 ö
(c) Impedance, Z = R 2 + ç ÷ and tan f = wC
è wC ø R
(d) Current leads the voltage by f, where
V 2 = V R2 + VC2
(v) L-C Circuit
VL
L C
VL – VC

VC
AC Source Phasor diagram
(a) Alternating emf, E = E0 sin wt ,
(b) Alternating current, I = I 0 sin ( wt - f)
X L - XC
(c) Impedance, Z = X L ~ XC and tan f =
0
p p
● For X L > XC , f = and for X L < XC , f = - .
2 2
1
● If X L = XC at w = , Z = 0.
LC
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Alternating Current 269

(vi) L-C-R Circuit
VL
A B
AC Source E0
VL - VC
p/2
f I0
O
C
C R p/2
L VR

VC
Phasor diagram
(a) Alternating emf, E = E0 sin wt
(b) Alternating current, I = I 0 sin ( wt ± f)
(c) Alternating current lags leads behind alternating emf by f.

(d) Resultant voltage,V = V R2 + (V L - VC )2

(e) Impedance, Z = R 2 + ( X L - XC )2
R R
(f) Power factor, cos q = =
Z R + ( X L - XC )2
2

(g) Average power decay, ( P ) = EV IV cos q

Resonance in AC Circuit
The condition in which current is maximum or impedance is
minimum or vice-versa in an AC circuit is called resonance.
(i) Series Resonance Circuit

Imax

Z
I
Zmin = R

f0 f f0 f

In this circuit components L , C and R are connected in series.

At resonance, X L = XC
1
Resonance frequency, f =
2p LC
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270 Handbook of Physics

At resonance impedance is minimum and equal to the resistance,

i.e. Z = R.
Also, maximum current flows through the circuit.
Q-factor or sharpness at resonance
1 L
Q=
R C
A series resonance circuit is also known as acception circuit.
(ii) Parallel Resonance Circuit

I
Z
Imin

f0 f f0 f
In this circuit, L and C are connected in parallel with each other.
At resonance, X L = XC
Impedance ( Z ) of the circuit is maximum.
Current in the circuit is minimum.

Wattless Current
The current which consumes no power for its maintainance in the
circuit is called wattless current.
So, for an AC circuit if resistance is zero, its power factor will be zero.
Although the current flows in the circuit, yet the average power
remains zero. Such a circuit is called wattless circuit.

L-C Oscillations
When a charged capacitor is allowed to discharge through a
non-resistive inductor, electrical oscillations of constant amplitude
and frequency are produced these oscillations are called L-C
oscillations. The equation of L-C oscillations is given by
d 2q 1
2
+ q =0
dt LC
and the charge oscillates with a frequency
w 1
n= =
2p 2p LC
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Alternating Current 271

Choke Coil
Choke coil is a device having high inductance and negligible
resistance. It is used in AC circuits for the purpose of adjusting
current to any required value in such a way that power loss in a
circuit can be minimised. It is used in fluorescent tubes.
It is based on the principle of wattless current.

Transient Current
An electric current which vary for a small finite time, while growing
from zero to maximum or decaying from maximum to zero is called a
transient current.

Growth and Decay of Current in an Inductor

Growth of current in an inductor at any instant of time t is given by
I = I 0 (1 - e- Rt/ L )
where, I 0 = maximum current, L = self-inductance of the inductor and
R = resistance of the circuit.
R
Here = t is called time constant of a L-R circuit.
L
Time constant of a L-R circuit is the time in which current in the
circuit grows to 63.2% of the maximum value of current.
Decay of current in an inductor at any time t is given by
I = I 0 e- Rt/ L
Time constant of a L-R circuit is the time in which current decays to
36.8% of the maximum value of current.

Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor

The instantaneous charge on a capacitor on charging at any instant of
time t is given by
q = q0 [1 - e- t/ RC ]
where RC = t, is called time constant of a R-C circuit.
The instantaneous charge on a capacitor in discharging at any
instant of time t is given by q = q0e- t/ RC .
Time constant of a R-C circuit is the time in which charge in the
capacitor grows to 63.8% or decay to 36.8% of the maximum charge on
capacitor.
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272 Handbook of Physics

AC Generator or Dynamo
It is a device which converts mechanical energy into alternating
current energy. Its working is based on electromagnetic induction.
The induced emf produced by the AC generator is given by
e = NBAw sin wt = e0 sin wt
There are four main parts of an AC generator

B C C B

N S N S

A D D A
B1 B1
C1 C1
B2 B2
C2 C2

Working of AC dynamo

(i) Armature It is rectangular coil of insulated copper wire having

a large number of turns.
(ii) Field Magnets These are two pole pieces of a strong electromagnet.
(iii) Slip Rings These are two hollow metallic rings.
(iv) Brushes These are two flexible metals or carbon rods, which
remains slightly in contact with slip rings.

DC Motor
It is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Its working is based on the fact that when a current carrying coil is
placed in uniform magnetic field a torque acts on it.
Axis

Axis

B C C B
F F
N S N S
F F
A D D A

B1 B2 B1 B2

s1 s2 s1 s2

B B
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Alternating Current 273

Torque acting on a current carrying coil placed in uniform magnetic
field
t = NBIA sin q
When armature coil rotates a back emf is produced in the coil.
Back emf E
Efficiency of a motor, h= =
Applied emf V

Transformer
It is a device which can change a low voltage of high current into a
high voltage of low current and vice-versa.
Its working is based on mutual induction.
There are two types of transformers
(i) Step-up Transformers It converts a low voltage of high
current into a high voltage of low current.

~ Primary coil ~ Primary coil

P P P P

Core
Core

S S S S
Secondary coil Secondary coil
(a) Step-up transformer (b) Step-down transformer

In this transformer,
N S > N P , ES > EP
and IP > IS
(ii) Step-down Transformer It converts a high voltage of low
current into a low voltage of high current.
In this transformer,
N P > N S , EP > ES and I P < I S

Transformation Ratio
N S ES I P
Transformation ratio, K = = =
N P EP I S
For step-up transformer, K > 1
For step-down transformer, K < 1
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274 Handbook of Physics

Energy Losses in Transformers

In actual transformers, small energy losses do occur due to the
following reasons.
(i) Flux leakage There is always some leakage of flux i.e., not all
of the flux due to primary passes through the secondary due to
poor design of the core or the air gaps in the core. It can be
reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils one over
the other.
(ii) Resistance of the windings The wire used for the windings
has some resistance and so, energy is lost due to heat produced
in the wire ( I 2R ). In high current, low voltage windings, these
are minimised by using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy
currents in the iron core and causes heating. The effect is
reduced by having a laminated core.
(iv) Hysteresis The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly
reversed by an alternating magnetic field. The resulting
expenditure of energy in the core appears as heat and is kept to
a minimum by using a magnetic material which has a low
hysteresis loss.
(v) Magnetostriction It is the humming noise of a transformer.

Important Points
● Transformer does not operate on direct current. It operates only on
alternating voltages at input as well as at output.
● Transformer does not amplify power as vacuum tube.
● Transformer, a device based on mutual induction converts magnetic energy
into electrical energy.
Output power
● Efficiency, h =
Input power
Generally efficiency ranges from 70% to 90%.