MODULE 5

Communication Systems

Analog and Digital Communication

Modern communication system scheme
Information source and input transducer
Transmitter
Channel or Medium – Hardwired and Softwired
Noise
Receiver
Multiplexing
Types of communication systems

Types of modulation
AM
FM
Phase Modulation
Pulse Modulation
PAM
PWM
PPM
PCM

Concept of Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky)

Concepts of Sampling theorem
Nyquist rate

Digital Modulation Schemes – ASK, FSK, PSK

Radio signal transmission
Multiple access techniques
Multipath and fading

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 Communication?

 Transfer of information from one point to

other (or) Exchange of Information between
two points.
 Electronic Communication: Sending data or
Information using electronic devices. This
allows rapid transfer of goods, money and
ideas

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Need for Communication

 Speedy transmission: Requires only few seconds to communicate through electronic media due the
technology available for quick transmission
 Wide Coverage: The whole world has become a global village and communication around the globe
requires just a second
 Low Cost: Cost of an SMS is cheaper than sending a letter by post
 Exchange of feedback: Instant exchange of feedback
 24/7 accessibility: Can be accessed anytime

Message signal: The signal that consists information is called modulating signal. The modulating signal is
usually of low-frequency signal. (20 Hz – 20 KHz)

Carrier signal:
The signal which carries the information is called carrier signal. Carrier signal is a high frequency signal
which does not contains any information. The purpose of this signal is just to carry the message signal. The
range is in terms of Mega Hertz.

4.1.1 Modern Communication System scheme

General form of a basic communication system is shown in the fig.1.

Fig.1 Illustration of Basic Communication System

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 Elements of Communication System
 Information source and transducer
 Transmitter
 Channel or medium
 Noise
 Receiver
 Output transducer and final destination
A communication system transmits information from an information source (message) to a destination.
 Examples: Voice, Live scenes (video), music, written text, and e-mail.
A transducer is a device that converts a physical signal into its corresponding electrical signal and vice
versa.
Examples of input transducers: Sound - Microphone
Picture - Camera
Text - Keyboard
Temperature/Pressure - Sensor with transducer

(i) Information Source and Transducer

Message or information originates in the information source may be in the form of sound (human speech),
picture (image source), words (text). However, out of these messages, only the desired message is selected
and communicated.
Type of Signals

Signals are functions that carry information. We use signals to convey information from place to place. In
electronics, signals are mainly in the form of varying voltages. There are two types of signals.

Analog Signals Digital Signals

Analog signal is continuous and time varying Digital signal have two or more states (binary
form)
Troubleshooting is difficult. Troubleshooting is easy.
Easily affected by the noise. These are stable and less prone to noise.
Analog signals use continuous values to represent the Digital signals use discrete values to represent the
data, usually in the form of sine wave. data, usually in the form of square wave.
Accuracy may be affected by noise. Accuracy is immune from the noise.
Analog signals may be corrupted during data Digital signals are not corrupted during data
transmission. transmission.
Analog signals use more power. Digital signals use less power.
Examples: Temperature, Pressure, Flow measurements, Examples: Motor Start, Trip, etc.
etc.
Components like resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Diodes Components like transistors, logic gates, and
are used in analog circuits. micro-controllers are used in digital circuits.

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A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form. Generally, the input transducer
converts the non-electrical signal (Ex: sound signal or light signal) into an electrical signal.

For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or massage which is in the
form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.

(ii) Transmitter
The base band signal (electrical form), output from the input transducer is applied to the input of the
transmitter. The transmitter section processes the signal prior to transmission. The nature of processing
depends on the type of communication system.
There are two options for processing signals prior transmission
(i) The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is translated to a higher frequency
spectrum --- carrier communication system
In this process, modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message signal is
superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal. As the original message signal cannot be transmitted
over a longer distance because of their low frequency and amplitude, they are superimposed with high
frequency carrier signal.
(ii) The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher frequency spectrum --- baseband
communication system.

If the signal is to be transmitted through the space, then the transmitter will convert the electrical signals into
radio waves. If the signal is to be transmitted through the fiber optic cable then the transmitter will convert the
electrical signal into light or optical signal.

Typical Analog transmitter

Let s(t) be the baseband signal applied to the modulated stage as shown in the fig1a, to translate (modulate) it
from low to high frequency spectrum. That means, s(t) is superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal
c(t), which is generated by a high frequency carrier oscillator. The output of the modulated stage is called the
modulated signal, and is designated as x(t). This signal is then applied to amplifier stage. The voltage of the
modulated signal is amplified to drive the power amplifier stage. The power amplifier that amplifies the

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power of the modulated signal x(t) and thus it carries enough power to reach the receiver stage of the
communication system. Finally, the signal is passed to the transmission medium or channel.

Fig.1a Block diagram of analog transmitter section

For example, in radio broadcasting the sound signal (message signal) is converted into the electrical signal
(baseband signal), by the input transducer. Then, it is modulated with the radio frequency range carrier signals
to produce radio signals. These radio signals are transmitted through electromagnetic waves (open space),
referred to as radio waves.
Radio Frequency (RF) bands spread in the range between 30 kHz and 300 GHz. Transmission systems are
operated in the RF spectrum range and its application in communication systems is tabulated in the table-1.

Table 1: Frequency ranges and its application in communication systems

Frequency Name Frequency Range Application

Super high frequencies 3GHz-30GHz RADAR

Ultra high frequencies 300MHz-3GHz Satellite communication, cellular phones

Very high frequencies 30MHz-300MHz TV and FM

High frequencies 3MHz-30MHz Commercial short wave broadcast

Medium frequencies 300kHz-3MHz AM broadcast

Low frequencies 30kHz-300kHz Navigation, submarine communication

Very low frequencies 3kHz-30kHz Navigation, submarine communication

Voice frequencies 300Hz-3kHz Navigation ,submarine, audio

Extremely low frequencies 30Hz-300Hz Power transmission

(iii) Channel or medium

The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to the
receiver. The transmitted signal should have adequate power to withstand the channel noise. The channel
characteristics also impose constraints on the bandwidth.
Depending on the physical implementations, one can classify the channels in the following two groups:

a) Hardwired channels (Manmade structure)

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 Transmission lines: It is a conductive medium consisting of two or more conductors through which
electrical signal are transmitted from transmitting point to receiver point.
Example: i) Twisted pair cables used in telephony, in which two conductors are twisted together for the
purposes of improving electromagnetic compatibility.
ii) Coaxial cable used in TV transmission, to carry high-frequency electrical signals with low losses.
Waveguide: consisting of a hollow, metal tube of uniform cross-section used for transmitting electro-
magnetic waves. When signals entered the waveguides are reflected at the metallic walls and propagate at
the other end. The energy is in the form of electric field and magnetic field which are perpendicular to
each other.
Optical Fibre: consist of very thin hollow glass fibre through which signal is transmitted in the form of
light energy.
b) Soft-wired channels (no physical link between transmitter and receiver)
Natural resources which can be used as the transmission medium for signals.
Example: Air or Open space and Sea water.
The signals are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic (EM) waves also called radio waves. Radio
waves travel through open space at a speed equal to that of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s)
(iv) Noise
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signal which do not have any useful information. Noise is a highly
undesirable part of a communication system, and has to be minimized. When noise is mixed with the
transmitted signal, it rides over it and deteriorates its waveform.

Noise calculation:
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and Noise figure (F)
SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power (S) to the noise power (N), often expressed in decibels (dB).

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(v) Typical Analog Receiver
The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the original message signal. This reproduction of the
original signal is accomplished by a process known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the
reverse process of modulation carried out in transmitter. Typical analog receiver section is shown in the fig.2.
The signal received by the receiver is r(t). Due to attenuation this received signal r(t) is a weak signal. A
voltage amplifier amplifies to make strong enough for further processing.

Fig.2 Block diagram of analog receiver section

Next, this signal is applied to the demodulator. In demodulation, the baseband signal is separated from the
high-frequency carrier signal. After recovering the original baseband signal s’(t), its voltage and power is
amplified before send to the final destination block.

(vi) Destination

Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its original form. For
example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a transducer that converts the
electrical signal to original sound signal.

4.1.2 Types of Communication Systems

 Communication Systems based on Physical Infrastructure

Based on physical infrastructure there are two types of communication systems:
Line communication systems: Uses power lines to transfer data from one point to another point. There is a
physical link, called a hardwire channel between the transmitter and the receiver inline communication
systems. Ex: Land line telephony, Cable TV
 Communication systems based on Signal specifications

A. Based on Nature of baseband or information signal

i) Analog communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through analog
signals.
Ex: Audio, video and pictures between two points using the analog signals.

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 ii) Digital communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through digital
signals.
Ex: Audio, HDTV

B. Based on Nature of the transmitted signal

i) Baseband communication system: Baseband signals are transmitted without translating (or
amplified) to higher frequencies. Ex: Land line, fax, etc
ii) Carrier communication system: The baseband signal (low frequency) is mixed with high frequency
carrier signal. Ex: Radio, voice messages and calls.

4.1.3 Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a process which allows more than one signal to be transmitted through a single channel.

In multiplexing, each baseband signals are modulated with different carrier frequencies. At the transmitter
they can be mixes and transmitted. At the receiver end, all different transmitted signals can be easily separated
by the known carrier frequencies.

Due to multiplexing it is possible to increase the number of communication channels so that more information
can be transmitted where it makes the communication system economical. The typical applications of
multiplexing are telephone, satellite communication etc.
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4.1.4 Types of Modulation

Modulation is the process in which any one of the parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase) of the high
frequency carrier signal is varied according to the instantaneous values of the low frequency message signal,
keeping other parameters constant.

Analog modulation is typically used for AM, FM radio, and short-wave broadcasting. Digital modulation
involves transmission of binary signals (0 and 1).

Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the process in which the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied according to
the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the frequency and phase are kept constant. It is as
shown in the fig.2.

The first figure is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. Denoted as
c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct)
The next one is the modulating wave, which is the message signal; (low frequency signal) contains
information. Denoted as m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt)
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The last one is the resultant amplitude modulated wave. Mathematically, AM is denoted as
VAM = Vc sin ωc t + cos (ωc - ωm) t - cos (ωc + ωm) t

In AM, most of the transmitted power is wasted in carrier, but used for longer distance communication.
Frequency Modulation is defined as a process in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the amplitude and phase are kept constant.

Δ f (frequency deviation)

Mathematically, FM wave is denoted as S (t) = A sin [2πfct + mf )]

Modulation index (depth of modulation) mf =
Carrier Swing = f(max) - f(min) = 2f
In FM, all the transmitted power is useful, but used for short distance communication.
Phase Modulation is defined as a process in which the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the amplitude and frequency are kept constant.

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Mathematical equation of PM wave will be
s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct+βcos(2πfmt))
Where, β = modulation index = Δϕ = kpAm and Δϕ is phase deviation.
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems.

4.1.5 Pulse Modulation

In pulse modulation, the signal is transmitted in the form of pulses. In analog pulse modulation, the
continuous signals are sampled at regular intervals. Pulse modulation can be classified as follows.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude of the carrier
pulse varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.

Message signal is sampled at regular intervals using carrier pulse train. The amplitude of each pulse is directly
proportional to the instantaneous values of amplitude of the modulating signal at the time of pulse occurrence.
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Advantages:
 PAM is the simplest form of pulse modulation.
 Its implementation is quite easy.
Disadvantages:
 The transmission bandwidth required is very large
 Due to the variation in amplitude, transmission power also varies
 Less immune to noise due to amplitude variation
Applications: used in LED lighting, in the Ethernet communication system, etc

Pulse width or Pulse duration modulation (PWM or PDM)

PWM is a modulation technique in which each pulse duration is made proportional to instantaneous values of
the modulating signal. That means, starting time and amplitude of PWM signal is constant as carrier pulses,
but the width is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

Advantages:
 Noise is less, since in PWM, amplitude is held constant.
 Signal and noise separation is very easy.
Disadvantage: Variable pulse width causes variation in the transmission power. Large bandwidth is required.
Application: used in telecommunications, brightness controlling of light, speed control of DC motors.

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

In PPM, the amplitude and width of the pulses are kept constant and only the position of the pulses is varied
in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.

PPM signal is generated in reference to a PWM signal. Thus, the trailing edge of the PWM signal acts as the
beginning point of the pulses of PPM signal.
Advantages:
 Recovering a PPM signal from distorted PPM is quite easy.
 Transmission power is constant.
 Noise is less than PAM and PWM, since in PPM signal amplitude and width is held constant.
Disadvantage: Large bandwidth is required
Applications: used in an optical communication system, in radio control and in military applications.

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4.1.6 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

PCM is a modulation technique in which analog signal gets converted into digital form in order to have signal
transmission through a digital network.

PCM system allows the representation of the analog

message signal as a sequence of binary coded pulses
(logic states 0’s and 1’s). The major steps involved
in PCM is sampling, quantizing and encoding. It is
shown in the above fig.
Sampling: Converting an analog signal to a discrete
time signal by multiplying the analog signal with
periodic impulse train.

Quantization: ADC unit rounded off the samples to

the nearest value of a finite set of allowable values.
Encoding: The rounded off values are binary coded.

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Advantages:
1. Immune to channel induced noise
2. Secured data transmission
3. Ensures uniform transmission quality
Disadvantages:
Requires large transmission bandwidth and more complex than other systems.

4.1.7 Sampling theorem and Nyquist Rate

Sampling theorem: A band limited analog signal can be sampled and perfectly reconstructed from its samples
if the sampling frequency is at least twice the maximum frequency of the base band signal.
i.e, fs ≥ 2fmax
Nyquist Rate
To discretize the analog signals, the gap between the samples
should be fixed. That gap can be termed as a sampling period Ts.
Sampling Frequency, fs = 1/Ts (sampling rate)

Sampling
Where, Ts = the sampling period
The sampling rate denotes the number of samples taken
per second, or for a finite set of values.

Quantization

Aliasing is an effect of the sampling that causes different

signals to become indistinguishable. Due to aliasing, the
Sampling

signal reconstructed from samples may become different

than the original analog signal.

Aliasing occurred when fs < 2fmax.

Aliasing is avoided by:

i) The analog low pass (anti aliasing) filter processes the analog
input to obtain the band-limited signal.
ii) Sampling the signal at a higher rate than the Nyquist rate
(fs ≥ 2fmax).

4.2 Radio Wave Propagation

Radio waves exhibit the properties of light with the velocity 3x108 m/s. These are electromagnetic (EM)
waves that consist of electric and magnetic field components. It is traversed in nature. Radio signals can travel

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from one end to another over vast distances. Since these are EM waves, they exhibit properties (like light
waves) such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization and scattering.

Radio propagation is the way of transmitting radio signals in different ways:

i) Ground or surface wave
Ground waves can be used for radio communication. Ground wave transmission is very reliable
irrespective of the atmospheric conditions.

Frequency range: 30 kHz to 3 MHz

Transmission distance: 100 to 1000 km
Example: AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local areas.

ii) Space or tropo-spheric wave

In space wave (or line of sight propagation), radio waves move in the earth’s troposphere within about
12 KM over the surface of the earth. Frequency range: 3MHz to 30 MHz. Example, TV Transmission.
The space wave is made up of two components:
(a) a direct or line-of- sight wave from the transmitting to the receiving antenna and
(b) an indirect or ground-reflected wave traversing form the transmitting antenna to ground and
reflected to the receiving antenna.

iii) Sky wave

Radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna after reflection
from the ionosphere (the earth’s upper atmosphere).
Sky wave is responsible for short wave transmission around the globe via successive reflections at the
ionosphere and the earth’s surface.
Ionosphere - The ionized region extending about 80 KM above the earth’s surface. In ionosphere
radiation from the sun ionizes atoms and molecules that liberate electrons and ions from molecules.
The propagation of radio wave through the ionosphere is affected by the electrons and ions. The effect
of the electrons on the propagation is much greater than that of the ions since the electronic mass is
much less than the ionic mass.

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 Fig.4 Radio wave propagation

Advantages of sky wave propagation

1. It supports large distance propagation.
2. The frequency range of operation is considerably high.
3. Attenuation due to atmospheric conditions is less.
Disadvantages of sky wave propagation
1. Long-distance propagation requires large-sized antennas.
2. Due to the presence of the ionosphere near and far during night and day respectively there exist
variation in signal transmission in day and night.
Applications
Sky wave propagation is widely used in mobile and satellite communications.

4.3 Digital Modulation Schemes

In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data. When it is required to transmit
digital signals, the amplitude, frequency or phase of the sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance with the
incoming digital data.
Digital modulation schemes are classified as
i) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
ii) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
iii) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)

ASK represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. ASK signal can generated when
the incoming binary data and the sinusoidal carrier are applied a product modulator as inputs.

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FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
In this technique digital signal is transmitted by switching between low frequency and high frequency in order
to represent 0’s and 1’s. The simplest FSK is Binary FSK (BFSK). It uses a pair of discrete frequencies to
transmit binary (0s and 1s) information.

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

The simplest form of PSK is binary phase shift keying (BPSK). In this case, the carrier phase is shifted
between two different phases (typically 0° and 180°) depending on whether 0-bit or 1-bit is being transmitted.

For example:
0-bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t)
1-bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t +180°) = − Vc cos(2πfc t)

4.4 Radio signal Transmission

From the fig.5 the wireless transmitter accepts four different binary streams of bits (00, 10, 11 and 01) from
the application software. Further, these bits encoded on to a radio wave, known as a carrier by adjusting its
amplitude or phase. Transmitter operates in two stages. In the first stage, quadrature phase shift keying
(QPSK) modulator accepts the incoming binary bits and convert it to symbols that represents the amplitude
and the phase. Then, the symbols are passed over the analog transmitter, which generates the radio wave.

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 Fig.5 Wireless communication transmitter

QPSK modulator takes two bits at a time and transmits them using a radio wave. Four different binary states
have phases of 45o, 135o, 225o, and 315o as shown in the fig.6.

Fig.6 (a) QPSK representation (b) QPSK constellation diagram

The distance of each state from the origin represents the amplitude of the transmitted wave, while angle
measured anti-clockwise from x-axis represents the phase.
Each symbol is conveniently represented by two components: in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q).
I = a cos Φ (real part)
and Q = a sin Φ (imaginary part)

Note: Radio works by transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves. Radio signal uses specific radio frequency
AM is expressed in kilo Hertz, while FM radio is expressed in mega Hertz.

LTE Modulation scheme

LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a standard for wireless broadband communication for mobile devices
(marketed as 4G). LTE uses four modulation schemes together as given below.
i) Binary Phase Shift Keying – BPSK
ii) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying - QPSK
iii) 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation -16 QAM
iv) 64 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation – 64 QAM

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i) BPSK sends one bit at a time using two states (0 and 1) representing phases of 0 o and 180o or signal
amplitudes of +1 and -1

ii) QPSK sends two bits at a time iii) 16 - QAM sends four bits at a iv) 64 - QAM sends six bits at a
using 4 states (00, 01, 10 and 11) time using 16 states to represent time using 64 states to represent
to represent amplitude and phase amplitude and phase. amplitude and phase.
by 45o, 135o, 225o, and 315o

4.5 Multiple Access Techniques

Multiple access is a technique to provide communication service to multiple users over a single channel. It
allows multiple mobile users share the allotted spectrum in the most effective manner.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Available frequency band is split into smaller frequency channels, and different channels are assigned to
different users. The carriers are separated by guard bands, which avoid the interference between the users.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Various users can transmit at the same frequency band at different times. Every user is permitted to transmit
only in specific time slots using a common frequency band.
GSM uses a combination of both TDMA and FDMA techniques.LTE uses orthogonal FDMA techniques.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Mobiles receive signals on the same carrier frequency and at the same time. But the signals are labeled by the
use of codes, which allows a mobile to separate its own signal from the others.
CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built.

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FDD and TDD Modes

Duplexing: Allows users to send information simultaneously to the base station, while receiving information
from the base station. The wireless telephony applies duplexing technique where talking and listening is
enabled at a time.
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD): Base station and mobile will transmit and receive at the same time, but
using different carrier frequencies. FDD uses two separate frequency bands for every user. A sufficient guard
band needs to separate the transmitting and receiving channels, so they do not interfere with one another. FDD
is suitable for radio communication systems. It uses frequency for uplink and down link.

[Down link: Base Station to mobile; Uplink: Mobile to Base Station]

Time Division Duplexing (TDD)- Base station and mobile will transmit and receive on the same carrier
frequency but at different times. Time slots could be dynamically allocated separated by a guard band. A
guard period ensures that UL and DL transmissions do not collide. TDD is more suitable for fixed wireless
systems. It uses time for uplink and down link.

4.6 Multipath and Fading

As a result of reflections and diffractions the

signals can take several different paths from the
transmitter to the receiver. This phenomenon is
known as multipath.

At the receiver end, the incoming rays can add

together in different ways, which are classified
as constructive interference and destructive
interference.

If the peaks of the incoming rays coincide, then

they reinforce each other, a situation known as
constructive interference.

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If the peaks of one ray coincide with the troughs of another, the result is destructive interference, in which the
rays cancel. Destructive interference can make the received signal power drop to a very low level, a situation
known as fading.

If the mobile moves from one place to another, then the ray geometry changes, so the interference pattern
changes between constructive and destructive. Fading is therefore a function of time.
The amplitude and phase of the received signal vary over a time scale called the coherence time, Tc that can be
estimated as

Where, fD is mobile Doppler frequency, given by

Where, fc is carrier frequency, v is speed of mobile and c is speed of light (3x10-8m/s)

If the carrier frequency changes, wavelength of the radio signal also changes. This makes the pattern change
between constructive and destructive interference. The amplitude and phase of the received signal vary over a
scale called the coherence bandwidth, Bc that can be estimated as

Where, r is delay speed of radio channel.

4.7 Error Management

Noise and interference lead to errors in wireless communication.

Forward error correction – It is a technique used for controlling errors in data transmission over unreliable
or noisy communication channels. The transmitted information is represented using a codeword that is
typically two or three times as long. The extra bits supply additional, redundant data that allow the receiver to
recover the original information sequence.
For example, a transmitter might represent the information sequence 101 (3-bits) using the codeword
110010111 (9-bits). After an error in the second bit, the receiver might recover the codeword 100010111. If
the coding scheme has been well designed, then the receiver can conclude that this is not a valid codeword,
and that the most likely transmitted codeword was 110010111.

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The coding rate –is the number of information bits divided by the number of transmitted bits (1/3 in the
example above).
Forward error correction algorithms operate with a fixed coding rate. Despite this, a wireless transmitter can
still adjust the coding rate using the two- stage process shown in the below fig.

Automatic Repeat Request

Automatic repeat request (ARQ) is another error management technique, which is illustrated in fig.

Transmitter takes a block of information bits and uses them to compute some extra bits that are known as a
cyclic redundancy check (CRC).
It appends these to the information block and then transmits the two sets of data in the usual way. Receiver
separates the two fields and uses the information bits to compute the expected CRC bits.
If the observed and the expected CRC bits are the same, then it concludes that the information has been
received correctly and sends positive acknowledge back to the transmitter.
If CRC bits are the different, then it concludes that the error has occurred and sends negative acknowledge
back to the transmitter to request retransmission. Positive and negative acknowledgements are often
abbreviated to ACK and NACK respectively.
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Patch Array Antennas
It is an arrangement of multiple patch antennas commonly driven by the
same source. It consists of patches arranged in the order of rows and
columns. Mainly this arrangement is made to achieve higher gain.
Yagi antenna

A Yagi antenna is a directional antenna that radiates signals in one main

direction. It consists of a long transmission line with a single driven element
consisting of two rods connected on either side of the transmission line. A
typical Yagi antenna has one reflector and one or more directors. Patch array antenna

Review Questions

1. Describe the blocks of the basic communication system.

2. Define the following terms: i) Carrier communication system ii) Baseband communication system
with neat and suitable waveforms.
3. Define and explain SNR, Noise Figure, channel types.
4. What is modulation? Explain types of analog modulation with the help of waveforms.
5. Explain the following with the help of waveforms
a) PAM b) PWM c) PPM d) PCM
6. Define sampling theorem and explain when aliasing can happen. Also mention the different ways in
which aliasing can be avoided.
7. With suitable waveforms explain digital modulation schemes.
8. Present the architecture of a wireless communication transmitter and its modulation scheme QPSK
with waveforms and constellation diagrams.
9. Discuss the transmission modes used in mobile communication system.
10. Discuss the various Multiple Access Techniques used in cellular network.
11. Briefly explain the concept of radio propagation methods.
12. Describe the classification of RF (Radio Frequency) spectrum with applications in communications
systems

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