ADC & DAC

An Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) is an electronic device that converts an analog signal (a
continuous signal, such as voltage or current) into a digital signal (a series of binary numbers) that
can be processed by digital systems like microcontrollers or computers.

Successive Approximation Register (SAR) ADC

How It Works: Utilizes a binary search algorithm to approximate the input signal.

A DAC generates reference voltages.

A comparator determines whether the input signal is higher or lower than the reference voltage.

The process repeats for each bit of resolution.

Pros:

High resolution.

Balanced speed and power consumption.

Cons:

Slower compared to Flash ADCs.

Applications: Microcontrollers, industrial control systems.

Flash ADC
 How It Works: Uses an array of comparators, each comparing the input signal to a
reference voltage.

 The output is encoded directly into a binary value.

 Pros:

 Extremely fast (conversion in nanoseconds).

 Cons:

 expensive and power-hungry.

 Applications: High-speed systems like oscilloscopes, radar, and video processing.

Delta-Sigma (ΔΣ) ADC

 How It Works:
o Oversamples the input signal with a high-frequency clock.
o Uses noise shaping and a digital filter to produce a high-resolution output.
 Pros:
o Very high resolution and accuracy.
o Excellent noise rejection.
 Cons:
o Slower conversion speeds.
 Applications: Audio processing, precision measurement devices.

Dual-Slope ADC
 How It Works:

 Measures the input voltage by charging and discharging a capacitor.

 The time taken for these processes is proportional to the input voltage.

 Pros:

 High accuracy and noise immunity.

 Simple design.

 Cons:

 Slow conversion speed.

 Applications: Digital multimeters, weigh scales.

 DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER
Binary-Weighted Resistor DAC

 How It Works:
o Uses a set of resistors with binary-weighted values (e.g., R,2R,4R,8R,…R, 2R,
4R, 8R, \ldotsR,2R,4R,8R,…) to create currents or voltages proportional to the
digital input.
o A summing amplifier combines these signals into a single output.
 Pros:
o Simple design for low-bit resolutions.
o Fast operation.
 Cons:
o Difficult to implement for high resolutions due to resistor accuracy and size.
o Susceptible to mismatches and noise.
 Applications: Low-resolution, high-speed systems like audio applications.

2. R-2R Ladder DAC

 How It Works:
o Utilizes resistors of only two values (RRR and 2R2R2R), arranged in a ladder
network.
o A summing amplifier combines outputs to generate the analog signal.
 Pros:
o Easier to manufacture and scale than binary-weighted DACs.
o High accuracy for moderate resolutions.
 Cons:
o Limited by resistor tolerance for high-resolution systems.
 Applications: Audio systems, signal generation, and industrial control.

 WORKING PRINCIPLE : The R-2R configuration is a simple

arrangement that consists of parallel and series resistors
connected in cascaded form to an operational amplifier. We
can use an operational amplifier in inverting or non-inverting
form, depending on the polarity of the output voltage that we
want to get from the DAC. R-2R ladder resistors act as voltage
dividers along with the entire network, with the output voltage
 dependent on the input voltages.

The ladder arrangement consists of two resistors, i.e., a base resistor R and a 2R resistor,
which is twice the value of the base resistor. This feature helps to maintain a precise output
analog signal without using a wide range of resistor values.

A pair of R and 2R is used for one input bit. The digital inputs are provided through binary
switches connected to Vref for input 1 and GND for input 0.

3. Delta-Sigma (ΣΔ) DAC

 How It Works:
o Converts a high-resolution digital input into a pulse-density modulated signal.
o Filters this signal to produce a high-precision analog output.
 Pros:
o Very high resolution and accuracy.
o Excellent noise shaping and rejection.
 Cons:
o Slower speed.
o Complexity in design.
 Applications: High-fidelity audio systems, measurement equipment.

4. Current Steering DAC

 How It Works:
o Generates currents proportional to the digital input.
o A current-steering matrix converts the digital values into analog currents that
are summed to produce the output.
 Pros:
 o Very fast, suitable for high-frequency applications.
 Cons:
o Lower accuracy due to process variations.
 Applications: RF communication, video systems.

5. Segmented DAC (Hybrid DAC)

 How It Works:
o Combines features of binary-weighted and thermometer-coded DACs.
o High-order bits use thermometer coding for precision; lower-order bits use
binary coding for compactness.
 Pros:
o Balances speed, resolution, and power consumption.
o Suitable for medium to high resolution.
 Cons:
o Increased design complexity.
 Applications: Mixed-signal systems, data acquisition.

6. Thermometer Code DAC

 How It Works:
o Uses one output level per digital input value, similar to a thermometer's scale.
o Linear and simple implementation for low resolutions.
 Pros:
o High accuracy and monotonicity.
 Cons:
o Requires many components, limiting scalability.
 Applications: Low-resolution applications, calibration systems.

7. PWM-Based DAC (Pulse Width Modulation)

 How It Works:
o Converts the digital input into a pulse width modulated signal.
o A low-pass filter smoothens the PWM signal to create an analog output.
 Pros:
o Simple and inexpensive.
o No need for precision resistors or amplifiers.
 Cons:
o Limited resolution and slower conversion speed.
 Applications: Motor control, LED dimming, low-cost audio systems.
8. Integrated DAC

 How It Works:
o DAC circuits integrated into microcontrollers, FPGAs, or dedicated ICs.
 Pros:
o Compact and cost-effective for embedded systems.
 Cons:
o Limited resolution and flexibility compared to standalone DACs.
 Applications: Embedded systems, portable electronics.