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 River Publishers Series in Mathematical, Statistical and
Elementary Vector Calculus Computational Modelling for Engineering

and its Applications with

MATLAB Programming Elementary Vector Calculus

Elementary Vector Calculus and its Applications with

Nita H. Shah and its Applications with
Jitendra Panchal
MATLAB Programming

MATLAB Programming
Sir Isaac Newton, one of the greatest scientists and mathematicians
of all time, introduced the notion of a vector to define the existence of
gravitational forces, the motion of the planets around the sun, and the
motion of the moon around the earth. Vector calculus is a fundamental
scientific tool that allows us to investigate the origins and evolution of
space and time, as well as the origins of gravity, electromagnetism, and
nuclear forces. Vector calculus is an essential language of mathemati-
cal physics, and plays a vital role in differential geometry and studies
related to partial differential equations widely used in physics, engi-
neering, fluid flow, electromagnetic fields, and other disciplines. ­Vector
calculus represents physical quantities in two or three-­dimensional
space, as well as the variations in these quantities.
The machinery of differential geometry, of which vector calculus
is a subset, is used to understand most of the analytic results in a more
general form. Many topics in the physical sciences can be mathemati-
cally studied using vector calculus techniques.
This book is designed under the assumption that the readers have
no prior knowledge of vector calculus. It begins with an introduction to
vectors and scalars, and also covers scalar and vector products, vector
differentiation and integrals, Gauss’s theorem, Stokes’s theorem, and
Green’s theorem. The MATLAB programming is given in the last chapter.
This book includes many illustrations, solved examples, practice
examples, and multiple-choice questions.

Jitendra Pancha
Nita H. Shah
Nita H. Shah
River Publishers River Jitendra Panchal
Elementary Vector Calculus
and its Applications with
MATLAB Programming
RIVER PUBLISHERS SERIES IN MATHEMATICAL,
STATISTICAL AND COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING
FOR ENGINEERING
Series Editors:

MANGEY RAM
Graphic Era University, India
TADASHI DOHI
Hiroshima University, Japan
ALIAKBAR MONTAZER HAGHIGHI
Prairie View Texas A&M University, USA
Applied mathematical techniques along with statistical and computational data analysis has
become vital skills across the physical sciences. The purpose of this book series is to present
novel applications of numerical and computational modelling and data analysis across the
applied sciences. We encourage applied mathematicians, statisticians, data scientists and
computing engineers working in a comprehensive range of research fields to showcase dif-
ferent techniques and skills, such as differential equations, finite element method, algorithms,
discrete mathematics, numerical simulation, machine learning, probability and statistics, fuzzy
theory, etc
Books published in the series include professional research monographs, edited vol-
umes, conference proceedings, handbooks and textbooks, which provide new insights for
researchers, specialists in industry, and graduate students.
Topics included in this series are as follows:-
• Discrete mathematics and computation
• Fault diagnosis and fault tolerance
• Finite element method (FEM) modeling/simulation
• Fuzzy and possibility theory
• Fuzzy logic and neuro-fuzzy systems for relevant engineering applications
• Game Theory
• Mathematical concepts and applications
• Modelling in engineering applications
• Numerical simulations
• Optimization and algorithms
• Queueing systems
• Resilience
• Stochastic modelling and statistical inference
• Stochastic Processes
• Structural Mechanics
• Theoretical and applied mechanics
For a list of other books in this series, visit www.riverpublishers.com
Elementary Vector Calculus
and its Applications with
MATLAB Programming

Nita H. Shah
Gujarat University, India

Jitendra Panchal
Parul University, India
Published, sold and distributed by:
River Publishers
Alsbjergvej 10
9260 Gistrup
Denmark

www.riverpublishers.com

ISBN: 978-87-7022-387-4 (Hardback)

978-87-7022-386-7 (Ebook)


c 2022 River Publishers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of
the publishers.
 Contents

Preface ix

List of Figures xi

1 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars 1

1.1 Introduction and Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Representation of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Position Vector and Vector Components . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Modulus or Absolute Value of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Zero Vector and Unit Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Unit Vectors in the Direction of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Representation of a Vector in terms of Unit Vectors . . . . . 5
1.8 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9 Product of a Vector with a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.10 Direction of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.11 Collinear and Coplanar Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.11.1 Collinear Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.11.2 Coplanar Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.12 Geometric Representation of a Vector Sum . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.12.1 Law of Parallelogram of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.12.2 Law of Triangle of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.12.3 Properties of Addition of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.12.4 Properties of Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.12.5 Expression of Any Vector in Terms of the Vectors
Associated with its Initial Point and Terminal Point . 10
1.12.6 Expression of Any Vector in Terms of Position
Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.14 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

v
vi Contents

2 Scalar and Vector Products 29

2.1 Scalar Product, or Dot Product, or Inner Product . . . . . . . 29
2.2 The Measure of Angle Between two Vectors and
Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.1 Properties of a Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 Vector Product or Cross Product or Outer Product of Two
Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Geometric Interpretation of a Vector Product . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.1 Properties of a Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5 Application of Scalar and Vector Products . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5.1 Work Done by a Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.2 Moment of a Force About a Point . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3 Vector Differential Calculus 55

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2 Vector and Scalar Functions and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.1 Scalar Function and Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.2 Vector Function and Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.3 Level Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 Curve and Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.1 Parametric Representation of Curves . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.2 Curves with Tangent Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3.2.1 Tangent Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3.2.2 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3.3 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.3.1 Unit Tangent Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4 Curvature and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4.1 Formulas for Curvature and Torsion . . . . . . . . . 67
3.5 Vector Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.6 Gradient of a Scalar Field and Directional Derivative . . . . 73
3.6.1 Gradient of a Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.6.1.1 Properties of Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.6.2 Directional Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.6.2.1 Properties of Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.6.3 Equations of Tangent and Normal to the Level
Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6.4 Equation of the Tangent Planes and Normal Lines
to the Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
 Contents vii

3.7 Divergence and Curl of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.7.1 Divergence of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.7.1.1 Physical Interpretation of Divergence . . . 86
3.7.2 Curl of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.7.2.1 Physical Interpretation of Curl . . . . . . . 89
3.7.3 Formulae for grad, div, curl Involving Operator ∇ . 96
3.7.3.1 Formulae for grad, div, curl Involving
Operator ∇ Once . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.7.3.2 Formulae for grad, div, curl Involving
Operator ∇ Twice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.8 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

4 Vector Integral Calculus 111

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2 Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2.1 Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.2.2 Work Done by a Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3 Path Independence of Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.3.1 Theorem: Independent of Path . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.4 Surface Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.1 Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.4.2 Evaluation of Surface Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.4.2.1 Component form of Surface Integral . . . 124
4.5 Volume Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.5.1 Component Form of Volume Integral . . . . . . . . 129
4.6 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

5 Green’s Theorem, Stokes’ Theorem, and Gauss’ Theorem 135

5.1 Green’s Theorem (in the Plane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.1.1 Area of the Plane Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.2 Stokes’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3 Gauss’ Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

6 MATLAB Programming 167

6.1 Basic of MATLAB Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.1.1 Basic of MATLAB Programming . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.1.1.1 Introductory MATLAB programmes . . . 168
6.1.1.2 Representation of a Vector in MATLAB . 183
viii Contents

6.1.1.3 Representation of a Matrix in MATLAB . 186

6.2 Some Miscellaneous Examples using MATLAB
Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Index 207

About the Authors 213

 Preface

Vector calculus is an essential language of mathematical physics. Vector

calculus plays a vital role in differential geometry, and the study related to
partial differential equations is widely used in physics, engineering, fluid
flow, electromagnetic fields, and other disciplines. Vector calculus represents
physical quantities in two or three-dimensional space, as well as the variations
in these quantities.
The machinery of differential geometry, of which vector calculus is a
subset, is used to understand most of the analytic results in a more general
form. Many topics in the physical sciences can be mathematically studied
using vector calculus techniques.
Description of the book:
This book is meant for readers who have a basic understanding of vector
calculus. This book is designed to provide accurate information to readers.
The language in the book is kept simple so that all readers can easily
understand each concept.
This book begins with the introduction of vectors and scalars in chapter 1.
Chapter 1 contains essential basic definitions and concepts, vector in terms of
unit vectors, geometric representation of vector sum, and direction cosines.
The scalar and vector products, measurement of angle and projections, geo-
metric interpretation of a vector product, and their applications are given in
chapter 2. In chapter 3, vector and scalar functions and fields, curves, arc
length, formulae for curvature and torsion, and its derivation, curl, diver-
gence, and gradient with important properties and physical interpretation, and
important results are given in vector differential calculus. Chapter 4 vector
integral calculus includes line integrals, circulation, path independence, sur-
face integrals, volume integrals, and its applications like flux and work done
by a force are given. In chapter 5, derivation of Green’s theorem, Stokes’s
theorem, and Gauss’ divergence theorem are given with various solve exam-
ples. MATLAB programming is given in the last chapter 6 includes basic
information about MATLAB. Initially, basic examples are given with proper

ix
x Preface

explanation wherever possible that helps readers to understand basic input

and output, arithmetic operations, functions, plotting commands available
in MATLAB. Variety of solved programs with MATLAB codes along with
compiles and debug outputs. So, the reader can run the program using given
codes and observe results.

For MATLAB product information, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Represents the geometrical representation

of a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Figure 1.2 Represents a position vector . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 1.3 Represents equal and negative vectors . . . . . . . 3
Figure 1.4 Represents unit vectors in xy-plane . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 1.5 Represents unit vectors in the direction of x-axis,
y-axis, and z-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 1.6 Represents a vector OP in terms of unit vectors . . 6
Figure 1.7 Represents the product of a vector with a scalar . . 7
Figure 1.8 Represents the law of parallelogram of vectors . . . 9
Figure 1.9 Represents the law of the triangle of vectors . . . . 9
Figure 1.10 Represents any vector in terms of various vectors
associated with its endpoints. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1.11 Represents any vector in terms of the position
vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1.12 Represents direction cosines of a vector . . . . . . 12
Figure 1.13 Represents a parallelogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 1.14 Represents a regular hexagon . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 1.15 Represents a triangle ΔABC . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 1.16 A space shuttle of 1000 tons weight hangs from two
skyscrapers using steel cables . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 2.1 Represents a scalar or dot product . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 2.2 Represents a vector or cross product . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 2.3 Represents the geometric interpretation of a vector
or cross product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 2.4 Represents work done by a force F on a particle . . 46
Figure 2.5 Represents the moment of a force about a point . . 47
Figure 3.1 Represents a curve with a tangent vector . . . . . . 59
Figure 3.2 Represents the plane of curvature of the curve . . . 60
Figure 3.3 Represents the arc rate of rotation of binormal . . . 65
Figure 3.4 Represents B̂, T̂ , and N̂ orthogonal unit vectors . 66

xi
xii List of Figures

Figure 3.5 Represents the derivative of the vector v (t) . . . . 71

Figure 3.6 Represents the directional derivative . . . . . . . . 74
Figure 3.7 Represents the parallelopiped . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 4.1 Representation of a vector function defined at every
point of a curve C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 4.2 Representation of a closed curve C . . . . . . . . . 114
Figure 4.3 Representation of parabola x = y 2 . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 4.4 Representation of the rectangle in xy-plane
bounded by lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 4.5 Representation of curved surface S and a plane
region R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Figure 4.6 Representation of the projection of the plane in the
first octant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Figure 4.7 Representation of the positive octant of the sphere . 126
Figure 4.8 Representation of the sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 4.9 Representation of the cylinder in positive octant . . 129
Figure 5.1 Represents the region R bounded by the curve C . 135
Figure 5.2 Represents the region R bounded two parabolas . . 138
Figure 5.3 Represents the plane triangle enclosed by given
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 5.4 Represents the rectangle in the xy-plane bounded
by lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 5.5 Represents the triangle in the xy-plane bounded by
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure 5.6 Represents the region bounded by the parabola and
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Figure 5.7 Represents an open surface bounded by a closed
curve C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Figure 5.8 Represents the rectangle bounded by the lines . . . 149
Figure 5.9 Represents the surface of a rectangular lamina
bounded by the lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Figure 5.10 Represents the boundary of the triangle . . . . . . 153
Figure 5.11 Represents the region bounded by a closed
surface S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Figure 5.12 Represents the cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 5.13 Represents the cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure 5.14 Represents the circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
 1
Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

1.1 Introduction and Importance

The word “Vector” was first given by W. R. Hamilton. In the nineteenth cen-
tury, Hamilton and Grassmann have formed vector analysis independently.
Today, all physical quantities are classified into two different quantities. The
physical quantities can be measured directly or indirectly. Some physical
quantities are independent of each other or dependent. A quantity that has
its value or a magnitude but no direction then it is called scalar quantity or
scalar. For example, time, temperature, density, mass, length, power, distance,
area, volume, speed, work, energy, electric charge, frequency, gravitational
potential, etc., in this list of examples all quantities are having magnitudes but
are independent of the direction. Whereas a quantity that has magnitude, as
well as direction, is known as vector quantity or vector. Velocity, acceleration,
magnetic field, force, momentum, lift, drag, thrust, displacement, fluid flow,
the intensity of an electrical field, centrifugal force, etc., are examples of
vector quantities. Vectors are generally denoted by capital bold letters or
→
−
letters with an arrow-like A , A, or a.

1.2 Representation of Vectors

A geometrical representation of a vector is given in Figure 1.1.
Let O be any arbitrary point in the space and let M be any point in
the space. A directed line segment joining
−−→both the points is known as the
−−→  
vector OM . The length of the vector OM  is the magnitude of the vector

Figure 1.1 Represents the geometrical representation of a vector

1
2 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars
−−→ −−−→
OM and is denoted by |OM | or|OM |. The point O is called the initial point
−−−→
and the point M is called the terminal point of the vector |OM |.

1.3 Position Vector and Vector Components

Consider the cartesian coordinate system shown in Figure 1.2. Let P be any
−−→
point in the three-dimensional system and let O be the origin then OP is
−−→
the position vector of the point P . If the vector OP is denoted by − →
a then
→
−
the point is denoted by P ( a). All three axis are perpendicular to each other.
The position vector can be obtained by taking perpendiculars on each axis. In
the cartesian coordinate system, AN (= OB) represents x-coordinate of P ,
BN (= OA) represents y-coordinate of P , and P N represents Z-coordinate
of P . Thus, the point P is denoted by P (x, y, z). Where x, y, and z are also
known as components in the direction of the X-axis, Y -axis, and Z-axis
respectively.
Equal Vectors: Two vectors with the same direction and magnitude are called
equal vectors irrespective of the position of their initial points. In Figure 1.3,
→
− →
−
a and b are equal vectors.
Negative Vectors: Two vectors with the same magnitude but opposite in
direction are called negative vectors. In Figure 1.3, −
→
c is a negative vector
→
− →
−
for both a and b .

Figure 1.2 Represents a position vector

 1.4 Modulus or Absolute Value of a Vector 3

Figure 1.3 Represents equal and negative vectors

1.4 Modulus or Absolute Value of a Vector

−−→
In Figure 1.2, OP is the position vector of the point P (x, y, z). The modulus
−−→ −−→
or absolute value of a vector OP is the length of the vector OP .
i.e., OP 2 = BM 2 + M A2 + P M 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
−−→ 
 
∴ OP  = OP = x2 + y 2 + z 2

Illustration 1.1: Find the modulus of the vector (−3, 4, −5).

Solution: Let −→
a = (−3, 4, −5) be a given vector. It is a three-dimensional
vector. Here, x = −3, y = 4, and z = −5 then the modulus of the vector −→a
is given by
 
|→
−
a|= x + y + z = (−3)2 + (4)2 + (−5)2
2 2 2

√ √
= 9 + 16 + 25 = 50
√
=5 2
√
Thus, the modulus of a vector −
→
a is 5 2.
Illustration 1.2: Find the modulus of the vector (6, 8).
Solution: Let −→
a = (6, 8) be a given vector. It is a two-dimensional vector.
Here, x = 6 and y = 8 then the modulus of the vector − →a is given by
 
|−
→
a | = x2 + y 2 = (6)2 + (8)2
√ √
= 36 + 64 = 100
= 10
Thus, the modulus of a vector −
→
a is 10.
4 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

1.5 Zero Vector and Unit Vector

Zero Vector: A vector with modulus zero is called a√zero vector. It is denoted
by 0 or θ. Here, θ = 0 = (0, 0, 0). So, |θ| = |0| = 02 + 02 + 02 = 0. Note
−→ −−→
that |θ| = 0. AA, BB etc. are zero vectors.
Unit Vector: A vector with modulus unity (i.e., 1) is called a unit vector.
Illustration 1.3: (−1, 0, 0) is a unit vector as its modulus is

(−1)2 + 02 + 02 = 1.
  
Illustration 1.4: √13 , 0, − 23 is a unit vector as its modulus is
 2

 1 2
2 1 2 1+2 3
√ + 02 + − = +0+ = = = 1.
3 3 3 3 3 3

1.6 Unit Vectors in the Direction of Axes

Figure 1.4 represents a two-dimensional cartesian coordinate system (i.e., xy-
plane), in which (1, 0) and (0, 1) are called unit vectors in the direction of
x and y axis respectively. The unit vector in the direction of x-coordinate
is denoted by i = (1, 0) and in the direction of y-coordinate is denoted by
j = (0, 1).

Figure 1.4 Represents unit vectors in xy-plane

 1.7 Representation of a Vector in terms of Unit Vectors 5

Figure 1.5 Represents unit vectors in the direction of x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis

Figure 1.5 represents a three-dimensional cartesian coordinate system

(i.e., xyz-axes), in which (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), and (0, 0, 1) are called unit
vectors in the direction of x, y, and z axes respectively. The unit vector in
the direction of x-coordinate is denoted by i = (1, 0, 0), in the direction of
y-coordinate is denoted by j = (1, 0, 0), and in the direction of z-coordinate
is denoted by k = (1, 0, 0). Note that the modulus of each unit vector in the
direction of each axis is unity.

1.7 Representation of a Vector in terms of Unit Vectors

Let P (x, y, z) be a vector and i, j, and k be the unit vectors in the direction
−−→ −−→ −→
of OX, OY and OZ respectively in the given Figure 1.6.
Consider a perpendicular P M to the plane XOY . From Figure 1.6, we
can observe that M L⊥OX and M N ⊥OY . Then OL = x, ON = y, and
P M = z.
−→ −−→ −−→
∴ OL = xi, ON = yj, and OM = zk
The vectors xi, yj, and zk are called the rectangular components of
−−→ −−→
−−→ −−→  we can write OP = xi + yj + zk.
the vector OP and
−−→
The magnitude of
2 2 2
OP = |OP | = x + y + z . Thus, P (x, y, z) and OP = xi + yj + zk
represent the same vector.
6 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

 in terms of unit vectors

Figure 1.6 Represents a vector OP

1.8 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

If −
→
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and −
→
y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), then the sum vector →
−
x +−
→
y is
given by
→
−
x +− →
y = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 ) .
And the subtraction of vector −
→
x −− →y is given by
→
−
x −−
→
y = (x1 − y1 , x2 − y2 , x3 − y3 ) .

−
→
Illustration 1.5: If →
−
a = (4, −3, 2) and b = (−2, 5, 3).then
−
→ →
−
a + b = (4 − 2, −3 + 5, 2 + 3) = (2, 2, 5) .

Illustration 1.6: If →
−
x = (4, 10, −2) and →
−
y = (0, 1, −3).then
−
→
x −−→y = (4 − 0, 10 − 1, −2 − 3)
= (4 − 0, 10 − 1, −2 + 3)
= (4, 9, 1) .

1.9 Product of a Vector with a Scalar

Definition: Let k be a scalar and − →a be a vector. Then k −→
a is defined as
a vector whose modulus is k times the modulus of the vector − →
a and whose
→
− →
−
direction is the same as that of a or opposite to that of a according to k is
positive or negative (See Figure 1.7).
 1.10 Direction of a Vector 7

Figure 1.7 Represents the product of a vector with a scalar

→ → −
− → → →
−
Note: −→
a  b ⇔− a =k b or b =k − a , k∈R
Illustration 1.7: If −
→a = (5, −3, 2), then

3−
→
a = 3 (5, −3, 2) = (15, −9, 6) .

Here 3−
→
a is a vector whose modulus is three times the modulus of →
−
a and
whose direction is the same as that of −
→
a.

1.10 Direction of a Vector

In this section, we try to understand the concept of the direction of a vector.
The direction of a vector in the direction from its initial point to its
terminal point. Two vectors can be of the same direction, opposite direction,
or different directions.
→
−
Definition: If − →
a and b are two non-null vectors and
−
→ →
−
(1) if there exists −
→a k > 0 such that −→a = k b . then −→a and b are of the
same direction.
→
− →
−
(2) if there exists −→
a k < 0 such that − →
a = k b . then − →a and b are of
opposite direction,
→
−
(3) if there does not exist −→
a k ∈ R − {0} such that − →a = k b , then the
→
−
directions of →−
a and b are different.

Illustration 1.8: Compare the directions of the vectors −

→
a = (2, −5, 3) and
→
−
b = (4, −10, 6).
Solution: Here −→a = (2, −5, 3) = 12 (4, −10, 6)
→
−
= 12 b and 12 > 0.
→
−
∴−→a and b are of the same direction.
8 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

Illustration 1.9: Compare the direction of the vectors →

−
p = (3, −2, 1) and
→
−q = (−9, 6, −3)
Solution: Here −→q = (−9, 6, −3) = −3 (3, −2, 1)
→
−
= −3 p and −3 < 0.
∴−→p and −
→q are of opposite direction.
−
→
Illustration 1.10: Compare the directions of →
−
g = (2, 5, 7) and h =
(3, 1, 6).
Solution: Here 23 = 51 = 76 i.e., there does not exist the same ratio between
→
−
the elements of − →g and h .
→
− →
−
. . . We cannot express − →
g and h in the form −→
g = k h . (k = 0)
→
−
. . . The directions of −
→
g and h are different.

1.11 Collinear and Coplanar Vectors

1.11.1 Collinear Vectors
→
− →
− →
−
If two vectors −
→
a and b are such that −
→
a = k b , or b = k −→
a , where k ∈ R−
→
−
→
− →
−
{0}, then a and b are called collinear vectors. Thus a , →
1−
a , 3−
2
→a , −5−
→a are
2
collinear vectors.
Collinear vectors can be represented by parallel lines or line segments of
the same line.

1.11.2 Coplanar Vectors

Any number of vectors, which are parallel to the same plane, are called
coplanar vectors.
→
− →
−
If two non-linear vectors −
→
a and b are coplanar, then vector R given by
→
− →
− →
−
R = x− →a + y b is coplanar with the vectors −
→
a and b for any x, y ∈ R.

1.12 Geometric Representation of a Vector Sum

1.12.1 Law of Parallelogram of Vectors
−−→ →
− −−→
If −
→
a is a vector represented by AB and b is a vector represented by AD
→
−
(the two vectors →−
a and b have a common initial point), then their sum
→
− →
− −→
a + b is represented in magnitude and direction by AC, where ABCD is
 1.12 Geometric Representation of a Vector Sum 9

Figure 1.8 Represents the law of parallelogram of vectors

a parallelogram (See Figure 1.8). This method of addition is called the law of
the parallelogram of vectors.

1.12.2 Law of Triangle of Vectors

If two vectors −
→
u and −
→
v are represented by the sides P Q and QR of ΔP QR,
then the sum u + v is represented by P R. The direction of −
→
− →
− →
u +−→
v is from
P to R and its modulus is the length of the side P R of ΔP QR.
This method of addition is called the law of the triangle of vectors.
Here the terminal point of the vector −
→u should be the initial point of the
vector v . The resultant (sum) vector u + −
→
− →
− →v can be obtained by joining the
initial point of the vector u and the terminal point of the vector −
→
− →
v as shown
in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 Represents the law of the triangle of vectors

1.12.3 Properties of Addition of Vectors

→
−
Let −
→
a , b , and −
→
c be vectors then
10 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars
→ −
− → →
(1) Commutative law: −→
a + b = b +−a
 →
−  −
→ →
(2) Associative law: −→
a + b +−→c =−
→a + b +−
c
→
−
(3) Identity vector for addition: θ = (0, 0, 0) is identity vector for addition.
→
− → → −
− → →
a + θ =− a = θ +− a

(4) Opposite vector or negative of a vector: For a vector, there exists a

→ →
−
vector (−−→a ) such that −
→
a + (−−
→a ) = θ . −− a is called the opposite
or negative of −
→a.

Note: If −
→
a = (x, y, z), then −−→a = (−x, −y, −z). And −− →a = −1 · −→a.
→
− →
−
The moduli of a and (− a ) are equal but their directions are opposite to
→
− →
−
 −
each other.→We can define the
→ →
− 
difference
→
− 
of vectors a and b as the sum of
→
−a and − b i.e. − →a − b =− a + −b .

1.12.4 Properties of Scalar Product

→ →
−
Let −
→
a , b ,−
c be vectors and m, n ∈ R be scalars.

(1) m−
→
a =−
→
am

(2) m (n−
→
a ) = n (m−
→
a ) = (mn−
→
a)

(3) Distributive law: (m + n) −

→
a = m−
→
a + n−
→
a
 →
−  →
−
(4) m − →a + b = m− →a +mb
→
−
(5) θ→
−
a =−
→
aθ= θ

1.12.5 Expression of Any Vector in Terms of the Vectors

Associated with its Initial Point and Terminal Point
−−→ ←→
Let BC be a vector. Take a point A which is not on BC join AB and AC.
−−→ −→ −−→
We now have three different vectors AB, AC, and BC (See Figure 1.10).
By the law of the triangle of vectors, we have
−−→ −−→ −→
AB+BC=AC
−−→ −→ −−→
∴ BC=AC−AB
 1.12 Geometric Representation of a Vector Sum 11

Figure 1.10 Represents any vector in terms of various vectors associated with its endpoints.

−−→
In other words, BC= vector of point C− vector of point B.
In general, any vector=vector of its terminal point-vector of its initial
point.

1.12.6 Expression of Any Vector in Terms of Position Vectors

The method of expression of a vector discussed above is true for any point A.
We can take the origin O in place of the point A.
As shown in Figure 1.11,
−→ −−→ −−→
OA+AB=OB

Figure 1.11 Represents any vector in terms of the position vector

12 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars
−−→ −−→ −→
∴ AB=OB−OA
In other words, any vector=position vector of its terminal point –position
vector of its terminal point –position vector of its initial point.
Illustration 1.11: Let the position vectors of the points A and B are (2, 5, -3)
and (3, -2, 5) respectively. Then
AB= position vector of B− position vector of A

= (3, −2, 5) − (2, 5, −3) = (1, −7, 8)

1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector

In two dimensions, a vector makes angles with only two axes, namely X-
axis and Y-axis. Hence it is easier to understand. But in three-dimensional
space, a vector makes angles with three axes, and to understand the position
of the vector, direction cosines of the vector are useful. In Figure 1.12, three
important angles are shown considering OP .

(i) Angle formed by OP with the X-axis is ∠P OX. It is denoted by α.

(ii) Angle formed by OP with the Y-axis is ∠P OY . It is denoted by β.

(iii) Angle formed by OP with the Z-axis is ∠P OZ. It is denoted by γ.

The cosines of these angles are called direction cosines. Thus, we get
three direction cosines.

Figure 1.12 Represents direction cosines of a vector

 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 13

x
(1) l = cos α = OP . Taking OP = r, we have cos a = xr .
Now, r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

∴ OP = r = x2 + y 2 + z 2

x
∴ l = cos α =  (1.1)
x2 + y 2 + z 2
(2) cos β is denoted by m. It is connected with the Y-axis. As explained
above.
y
m = cos β =  (1.2)
x2 + y 2 + z 2
(3) cos γ is denoted by m. It is connected with the Z-axis.
z
n = cos γ =  (1.3)
x + y2 + z2
2

Relation among l, m and n,

Squaring and adding (1.1), (1.2), and (1.3), we get
x2 + y 2 + z 2
l 2 + m2 + n 2 = = 1.
x2 + y 2 + z 2
Thus l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
i.e., cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1.
Note that the direction cosines of a vector are the components of its unit
vector.
Illustration 1.12: If the position vectors of the vertices A, B, and Cof the
→
−
parallelogram ABCD are − →a , b and −
→c respectively, find the position vector
of the vertex D.
→
−
Solution: Here OA = − →a , OB = b, and OC = − →c . ABCD is a
parallelogram (See Figure 1.13).
→
−
∴ AD = BC = OC − OB = −
→
c − b

Now,
∴ AD = OD − OA
 → →
−
∴ OD = AD + OA = − →
c − b +−
a
14 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

Figure 1.13 Represents a parallelogram

→ →
−
=−
→
a − b +−
c

Illustration 1.13: If the position vectors of the points A, B, C, D

→ →
− → →
− →
−
are respectively −
→
a , b , 3−
a − b , −− a + 3 b , then express the vectors
−
→
AB, AC, BC, BD, and CD in terms of − →a and b .
→
− →
− →
−
Solution: Here OA = − →
a , OB = b , OC = 3− →
a − b, and OD = −− →a +3 b .
→ →
−
Now, AB = OB − OA = b − − a
→ →
− →
−
AC = OC − OA = 3−
→
a − b −−a = 2−
→
a − b
→ →
− →
−
AD = OD − OA = −−→
a +3b −− a = 3 b − 2−
→
a
→ −
− → →
−
BC = OC − OB = 3−→a − b − b = 3− →
a −2b
→ −
− → → →
−
BD = OD − OB = −− →a +3b − b =2b −− a
→
−  →
− 
CD = OD − OC = −− →a + 3 b − 3− →
a − b
→
− →
−  → →
−
= −−
→a + 3 b − 3−
→
a + b =4 b −− a

Illustration 1.14: If ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, prove that

AB + AC + AD + AE + AF = 3AD.
→
−
Solution: Suppose AB = −
→
a , BC = b , and CD = −
→
c.
As ABCDEF is a regular hexagon,
CD = AF = − →
c,
→
−
AB = ED = −
→
a and BC = F E = b .
 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 15

Figure 1.14 Represents a regular hexagon

→
−
Now AB = →
−
a , AC = AB + BC = →
−
a + b , AD = AC + CD =
→
− →
−
a + b +−
→
c

AE = AD + DC = AD − ED
→ → −
− → →
−
=−→
a + b +−c −→a = b +−c
→
−
AF = CD = c
∴ LHS = AB + AC + AD + AE + AF
→ → −
− → → − → → −
=−→a +−→a + b +−a + b +−
c + b +−
c +→
c
 →
− 
=3 − →
a + b +−→
c = 3AD = RHS

Another method: From Figure 1.14, we have

LHS = AB + AC + AD + AE + AF
= ED + AC + AD + AE + CD
(∵ AB = ED and CD = AF )
= (AC + CD) + (AE + ED) + AD
= AD + AD + AD = 3AD = RHS

Illustration 1.15: If the sides AB and AC of ΔABC (See Figure 1.15)

represent two vectors and M is the mid-point of the side BC, then prove
that
AB + AC = 2AM
16 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

Figure 1.15 Represents a triangle ΔABC

Solution:
Here
AB + BM = AM (1.4)
and
AC + CM = AM (1.5)
Adding (1.4) and (1.5), we have

AB + BM + AC + CM = 2AM (1.6)

But BM and CM are opposite vectors.

∴ BM + CM = 0 (1.7)

Using (1.7) in (1.6), we get

AB + AC = 2AM

Illustration 1.16: Find position vectors, moduli, unit vectors, and direction
cosines for vectors represented by the following points:
(i) P (3, −4) (ii) Q (6, 2) (iii) R (−4, −6)
 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 17

Solution:

(i) OP = −
→r = (3, −4) = 3î − 4ĵ

Modulus = |OP | = |−
→
r | = (3)2 + (−4)2
√ √
= 9 + 16 = 25 = 5
→
−
r 3î − 4ĵ 3 4
Unit vector r̂ = →− = = î − ĵ
|r| 5 5 5
Direction cosines: l = 35 , m = − 45

(ii) OQ = −
→r = (6, 2) = 6î + 2ĵ
√ √ √ √
Modulus = |−
→
r | = 62 + 22 = 36 + 4 = 40 = 2 10
→
−
r 6î − 2ĵ 3 1
Unit vector r̂ = →− = √ = √ î + √ ĵ
|r| 2 10 10 10

Direction cosines: l = √3 , m = √1 .
10 10

(iii) OR = −
→r = (−4, −6) = 4î − 6ĵ
 √ √ √
→
−
Modulus = | r | = (−4)2 + (6)2 = 16 + 36 = 52 = 2 13

→
−
r −4î − 6ĵ 2 3
Unit vector r̂ = →− = √ = √ î − √ ĵ
|r| 2 13 13 13

Direction cosines: l = − √213 , m = − √313

  →  1 1   
Illustration 1.17: If −
→ y = √2 , √2 and −
x = 1, 12 , − →
z = −2, − 32 then

(i) Find a unit vector in the direction of −

→
x +−→
z,
√ →
x − 2−
(ii) Find a unit vector in the direction of 2−
→ y + 2−
→
z.

Solution:
   
(i) Here −
→
x +−
→
z = 1, 12 + −2, − 32
18 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

1 3
= 1 − 2, −
2 2

= (−1, −1) = −î − ĵ

 √ √
∴ |−
→x +− →z | = (−1)2 + (−1)2 = 1 + 1 = 2
. . . The unit vector in the direction of −
→
x +−
→
z
→
−
x +−
→z 1   1 1
= →− →
− = √ −î − ĵ = − √ î − √ ĵ
|x + z | 2 2 2
1 1
= −√ , −√
2 2
√ →
x − 2−
(ii) 2→
− y + 2−
→
z
1 √ 1 1 3
= 2 1, − 2 √ ,√ + 2 −2, −
2 2 2 2

= (2, 1) − (1, 1) + (−4, −3)

= (2 − 1 − 4, 1 − 1 − 3) = (−3, −3)
 √ −  
 −→ → →
−  2 2
 2 x − 2 y + 2 z  = (−3) + (−3)
√ √ √
= 9 + 9 = 18 = 3 2
√ →
. x − 2−
2−
→ y + 2−→
z
. . Required unit vector =  − √ 
2→ →
−
x − 2y +2z →
−

1 1 1
= √ (−3, −3) = −√ , −√
3 2 2 2

Illustration 1.18: Let −

→
a = (2, −1, 2) be a given vector.

(i) Find the unit vector in the direction of −

→
a.

(ii) Find a direction cosine of −

→
a.

(iii) Find a vector of magnitude 6 in the direction of −

→
a.

(iv) Find a vector of magnitude 4 in the opposite direction of −

→
a.
 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 19

Solution: Here −
→
a = (2, −1, 2) = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂.

(i) Unit vector in the direction of a

→
−
a 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ 1 
â = →− = √ = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂
|a| 4+1+4 3
2 1 2
= î − ĵ + k̂
3 3 3
(ii) Direction cosines: l = 23 , m = − 13 , n = 2
3

(iii) Vector of magnitude 6 in the direction of −→

a
6 
= 6â = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ = 4î − 2ĵ + 4k̂
3

(iv) Vector of magnitude 4 in the opposite direction of −

→
a
4  8 4 8
= −4â = − 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ = − î + ĵ − k̂
3 3 3 3

Illustration 1.19: Answer the followings:

→
−
(i) If −→
a = 3î − ĵ − 4k̂, b = −2î + 4ĵ − 3k̂ and −
→
c = î + 2ĵ − k̂, then find
−
→
the direction cosines of the vector 3 a − 2 b + 4−
→
− →c.
→
−
(ii) If −→
a = 2î + ĵ − k̂, b = î − ĵ + 2k̂ and −
→
c = î − 2ĵ + k̂, then find the
→
− →
− →
−
direction cosines of a + b − 2 c .
→
−
(iii) If −
→
a = (3, −1, −4)  , b = (−2, 4, −3) and − →c = (−1, 2, −1) then find
 − → →
− →
− 
3 a − 2 b + 4 c .
→
−  →
− 
 → 
(iv) If −
→
a = î + ĵ, b = ĵ + k̂, and −
→
c = k̂ + î, then find 2−
a − 3 b − 5−
→
c .
→
−
(v) If −
→
a = 5î −3ĵ + 2k̂, b = 2î + →
−
 3ĵ − k̂ and c = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂, then find
 → →
− 
the value of 2−
a − 3 b + 4− →c .

→
− →
−  and −
→
 a = 3−
(vi) If î − 2ĵ +k̂, b = 2î − 4ĵ − 3k, c = −î + 2ĵ + 2k̂, find
 −→ → →
− 
2 a − 3 b − 5 c .
20 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

→
− →
−
 a =
(vii) If 2î + ĵ − k̂, b = î − ĵ + 2k̂ and →
−c = î − 2ĵ + k̂ then find
− →
− 
→a + b − 2− →
c .
→
−
(viii) If −
→
a = (1, 2, 1), b = (2, 1, 1) and −
→
c = (3, 4, 1) then find
−→ → −
− → 
 a + 2 b + c .
→
−  →
−
 →
a = ĵ + k̂ − iand b = 2î + ĵ − 3k̂ then find 2−
(ix) If −
→ a + 3 b .
→
−
(x) If −
→a = (1, 2, 1),
 b = (1, −1, 2) and →
−c = (3, 2, −1) then find
 − →
− 
3→ a + b − 2−
→c .

Solution:
→
−
(i) Here −
→a = (3, −1, −4), b = (−2, 4, −3) and −
→
c = (1, 2, −1).
→
−
Let −
→
x = 3−→
a − 2 b + 4− →
c.

∴−
→
x = 3 (3, −1, −4) − 2 (−2, 4, −3) + (1, 2, −1)

= (9, −3, −12) − (−2, 4, −3) + (4, 8, −4)

= (9 + 4 + 4, −3 − 8 + 8, −12 + 6 − 4)
= (17, −3, −10)

→
−
∴ | x | = 172 + (−3)2 + (−10)2
√ √
= 289 + 9 + 100 = 398
If l, m, n are the direction cosines of −
→
x , then
x1 17 x2 −3 x3 −10
l= =√ ,m = =√ ,n = =√
|x| 398 |x| 398 |x| 398
17 −8 −10
∴ cosα = √ , cosβ = √ , cosγ = √
398 398 398
→
−  
(ii) −
→
a + b − 2→
−c = 2î + ĵ − k̂ + î − ĵ + 2k̂ − 2 î − 2ĵ + k̂

= 3î + k̂ − 2î + 4ĵ − 2k̂

 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 21

= î + 4ĵ − k̂ = (1, 4, −1)

  
→ − → 
∴ |−
→r | = −a + b − 2− →c  = 12 + 42 + (−1)2
√ √ √
= 1 + 16 + 1 = 18 = 3 2
−
→
If l, m, n are the direction cosines of − →a + b − 2− →
c , then
x1 1 x2 4
l = cosα = →− = √ , m = cosβ = →− = √ ,
|r| 3 2 |r| 3 2
x3 −1
n = cosγ = →− = √
|r| 3 2
→
−
(iii) 3→
−
a − 2 b + 4−
→
c

= 3 (3, −1, −4) − 2 (−2, 4, −3) + (−1, 2, −1)

= (9, −3, −12) + (4, −8, 6) + (−4, 8, −4)
= (9 + 4 − 4, −3 − 8 + 8, −12 + 6 − 4)
= (9, −3, −10)
 →
−  
 −
→ →
− 
∴ 3 a − 2 b + 4 c  = (9)2 + (−3)2 + (−10)2
√ √
= 81 + 9 + 100 = 190

→
−
(iv) Here −
→
a = î + ĵ, b = ĵ + k̂, −
→
c = k̂ + î = î + k̂
→
−
∴−→
a = (1, 1, 0) , b = (0, 1, 1) , −
→
c = (1, 0, 1)
→
−
∴ 2→
−
a = (2, 2, 0) , 3 b = (0, 3, 3) , 5−
→
c = (5, 0, 5)
→
−
∴ 2−→
a − 3 b − 5−→c = (2, 2, 0) − (0, 3, 3) − (5, 0, 5)
= (2 − 0 − 5, 2 − 3 − 0, 0 − 3 − 5)
→
−
∴ 2→−
a − 3 b − 5−→c = (−3, −1, −8)
 →
−  
 → 
∴ 2−a − 3 b − 5−→c  = (−3)2 + (−1)2 + (−8)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √
= 9 + 1 + 64 = 74
22 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars
→
−
(v) Here −
→
a = (5, −3, 2) , b = (2, 3, −1) , −
→
c = (1, 2, 3).
→
−
Let−→
x = 2− →a − 3 b + 4−→c
→
−
∴ x = 2 (5, −3, 2) − 3 (2, 3, −1) + 4 (1, 2, 3)
= (10, −6, 4) − (6, 9, −3) + (4, 8, 12)
= (10 − 6 + 4, −6 − 9 + 8, 4 + 3 + 12)
∴− →
x = (8, −7, 19)

∴ |−→
x | = 82 + (−72 ) + 192
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √
= 64 + 49 + 361 = 474
→
−
(vi) Here −
→
a = (3, −2, 1) , b = (2, −4, −3) , −→
c = (−1, 2, 2)
→
−
∴ 2−→
a − 3 b − 5−→c = 2 (3, −2, 1) − 3 (2, −4, −3) − 5 (−1, 2, 2)
= (6, −4, 2) + (−6, 12, 9) + (5, −10, −10)
= (6 − 6 + 5, −4, 12, 10, 2 + 9 − 10)
→
−
∴ 2−→
a − 3 b − 5−→c = (5, −2, 1)
 →
−  
 → 
∴ 2−a − 3 b − 5−→c  = (5)2 + (−2)2 + (1)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √
= 25 + 4 + 1 = 30
→
−
(vii) Given that −
→
a = (3, −1, −4) , b = (−2, 4, −3) , −
→c = (−1, 2, −5)
→
− →
∴−→a +2b −− c = 2 (3, −1, 4) + 2 (−2, 4, −3) − (−1, 2, −5)
= (3, −1, −4) + (−4, 8, −6) + (1, −2, 5)
= (3 − 4 + 1, −1 + 8 − 2, −4 − 6 + 5)
→
− →
∴−→a +2b −− c = (0, 5, −5)
 →
−  
→ 
∴ −a +2b −− →
c  = 0 + 52 + (−5)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √
= 25 + 25 = 50
 → →
− √
→
∴ −a +2b −− c=5 2
 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 23

(viii) Here −
→
a = 2î + ĵ − k̂,
∴− →
a = (2, 1, −1) ,
−
→
b = î − ĵ + 2k̂
→
−
∴ b = (1, −1, 2) and−
→
c = î − 2ĵ + k̂
→
−
∴ c = (1, −2, 1)
→
−
Now, −
→
a + b − 2−
→
c
= (2, 1, −1) + (1, −1, 2) − 2 (1, −2, 1)
= (2, 1, −1) + (1, −1, 2) + (−2, 4, −2)
= (2 + 1 − 2, 1 − 1 + 4, −1 + 2 − 1)
→
−
∴−→a + b − 2− →c = (1, 4, −1)
 
→ − → 
∴ −a + b − 2− →c  = |(1, 4, −1)|

= (1)2 + (4)2 + (−1)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√
= 1 + 16 + 1
√
= 18

= 9 (2)
√
=3 2
→
−
(ix) Here −
→
a = (1, 2, 1) , b = (2, 1, 1) , −
→
c = (3, 4, 1) are given
→ →
−
∴− →a +2b +− c
= (1, 2, 1) + 2 (2, 1, 1) + (3, 4, 1)
= (1, 2, 1) + (4, 2, 2) + (3, 4, 1)
= (1 + 4 + 3, 2 + 2 + 4, 1 + 2 + 1)
→ →
−
∴− →a +2b −− c = (8, 8, 4)
 → −
−  
−→ → 
∴  a + 2 b + c  = (8)2 + (8)2 + (4)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √ 
= 64 + 64 + 16 = 144 = (12)2
24 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars
 → →
−
→
∴ −a +2b +−
c  = 12

(x) Given that −

→
a = ĵ + k̂ − î = −î + ĵ + k̂
→
−
∴−→
a = −î + ĵ + k̂ = (−1, 1, 1) and b = 2î + ĵ − 3k̂ = (2, 1, −3)
→
−
∴ 2−
→
a +3b
= 2 (−1, 1, 1) + 3 (2, 1, −3)
= (−2 + 6, 2 + 3, 2 − 9)
→
−
∴ 2−→
a + 3 b = (4, 5, −7)
 →
−
 →
∴ 2−a + 3 b  = (4, 5, −7)

= (4)2 + (5)2 + (−7)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √ √
= 16 + 25 + 49 = 90 = 9 × 10
 − 
→ √
 →
∴ 2−
a + 3 b  = 3 10

→
−
(xi) Given that −
→
a = (1, 2, 1) , b = (1, −1, 2) , −
→
c = (3, 2, −1)then find
 →
− 
 − 
3→a + b − 2− →
c
→
−
∴ 3−
→a + b − 2− →
c
= 3 (1, 2, 1) + (1, −1, 2) − 2 (3, 2, −1)
= (3, 6, 3) + (1, −1, 2) − (6, 4, −2)
= (3 + 1 − 6, 6 − 1 − 4, 3 + 2 + 2)
= (−2, 1, 7)
 →
−  √ √
 −
→ →
− 
Hence, 3 a + b − 2 c  = 4 + 1 + 49 = 54

Illustration 1.20: If a (1, 0, 0) + b (0, 1, 0) + c (2, −3, −7) = (0, 0, 0), where
a, b, c ∈ R, then find the values of a, b, and c.
Solution: Here

a (1, 0, 0) + b (0, 1, 0) + c (2, −3, −7) = (0, 0, 0)

 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 25

∴ a (a, 0, 0) + b (0, b, 0) + c (2c, −3c, −7c) = (0, 0, 0)

∴ (a + 0 + 2c, 0 + b − 3c, 0 + 0 − 7c) = (0, 0, 0)
∴ (a + 2c, b − 3c, −7c) = (0, 0, 0)
∴ a + 2c = 0, b − 3c = 0, −7c = 0
∴ c = 0, a = 0, b = 0 or a = 0, b = 0, c = 0.
Illustration 1.21: A space shuttle of 1000 tons hangs from two skyscrapers
using steel cables as shown in Figure 1.16. Find the forces or tensions in both
the cables attached with skyscrapers and also find their magnitude.

Figure 1.16 A space shuttle of 1000 tons weight hangs from two skyscrapers using steel
cables

Solution:
−
→ −
→
Let F1 and F2 be two forces or tensions on the steel cables respectively. First,
−
→ −
→
we represent F1 and F2 in terms of vertical and horizontal components.
−
→ −  − 
 →  →
F1 = − F1  cos50o î + F1  sin50o ĵ

→ −
− → −
 →

F2 = F2  cos32o î + F2  sin32o ĵ
→
−
The gravity force acting on the space shuttle is F = −mg ĵ =
→
− −
→
− (1000) (9.8) ĵ = −9800ĵ. Therefore, the counterbalance of F with F1
−
→
and F2 is given as
→ −
− → − → −
→ − → →
−
∴ F1 + F2 + F = 0 ⇒ F1 + F2 = − F = − (−9800) ĵ = 9800ĵ
26 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

Thus,
 −  −  
 →  →
− F1  cos50o î + F1  sin50o ĵ +
−  −  
 →  →
F2  cos32o î + F2  sin32o ĵ = 9800ĵ
 −  −  
 →  →
∴ − F1  cos50o + F2  cos32o î+
−  −  
 →  →
F1  sin50o + F2  sin32o ĵ = 9800ĵ

Now, equation the components

−  −  −  − 
 →  →  →  →
− F1  cos50o + F2  cos32o = 0 ⇒ F1  cos50o = F2  cos32o
−  − 
 →  →
F1  sin50 + F2  sin32o = 9800
o

−
→
Solving for |F2 |, we get
− 
−   →
 →  1  cos50o
F
o
F1  sin50 + sin32o = 9800
cos32o
− 
 → 9800
∴ F1  = ≈ 8392 N
sin50o + tan32o cos50o
And − 
−   →
 → F1  cos50
o
 2
F = ≈ 6361 N
cos32o
Thus, the force vectors are
−
→ −
→
F1 ≈ −5394 î + 6429 ĵ and F2 ≈ 5394î + 3371ĵ.

1.14 Exercise
1. If −
→
x = (2, 1) and − →
y = (1, 3), then (i) find a unit vector in the direction
of 3 x − 2 y , (ii) find direction cosines of 3−
→
− →
− →x − 2− →
y.
 
Answer : (i) 45 î − 35 ĵ, (ii) 45 , − 35

2. If x (3, 2) + y (2, 3) = (17, 13), find the real values of x and y.

(Answer : (x, y) = (5, 1))
 1.14 Exercise 27

3. Find a, b ∈ R such that (i) (4, 7) + (a, b) = (17, 13) (ii) (a, −8) −
2 (3, b) = (−4, 6).
(Answer : (i) (a, b) = (13, 20) , (ii) (a, b) = (2, −7))

4. If x̂ = (4, 7, 2) and ŷ = (−1, 3, 4), find the vectors 2x̂ + 4ŷ and 3x̂ − ŷ.
(Answer : (i) 2−→x + 4− →
y = (4, 26, 20) , (ii) 3−
→
x −− →y = (13, 18, 21))

5. If for real values of x, y, z, x (1, 2, 0) + y (0, 3, 1) + z (−1, 0, 1) =

(2, 1, 0), then find x, y, z.
(Answer : (x, y, z) = (5, −3, 3))

6. Find the vectors x, y ∈ R2 such that |x| = |y| = 1and |x − y| = 2.

(Answer : (1, 0) and (−1, 0))

7. If P (2, 4, −5) , and Q (1, 2, 3) are points in R2 , find the direction

cosines of P Q.
 
Answer : − √169 , − √269 , √869

8. If â = (3, −1, −4) , b̂ = (−2, 4, −3) , ĉ = (−1, 2, −1), then find the
direction cosines of the vector 3â − 2b̂ + 4ĉ.
 
9 3
Answer : √190 , − √190 , √−10
190

9. If â = (1,2, 3) , b̂ = (2, −2, −5) , ĉ = (3, −2, −1), then find (i) â +
 
2b̂ − ĉ (ii) â + b̂ + ĉ.
 √ √ 
Answer : (i) 68 (ii) 41
 
10. Show that â = (2, −3, 2) , b̂ = 1, − 32 , 1 are parallel vectors
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
oxen, the many fountains. Now, he said, the blight of the Turks was
on the place: his fruit-trees were wasted, his palms chopped down.
Even the great well, which had sounded with the creak of the wheel
for six hundred years, had fallen silent; the garden, cracked with
heat, was becoming as waste as the hills over which he now rode.
The baggage-camels went slowly, weak with the mange that was
the curse of Wejh, grazing all the way. The riders were tempted to
hurry them but Auda said no; because of the long ride before them
they must go slowly and spare their beasts. This was a country of
white sand which dazzled the eyes cruelly, and they were glad when
they came to a small oasis in a valley where an old man, his wife
and daughters, the only inhabitants, had a garden among the palm-
trees. They grew tobacco, beans, melons, cucumbers, egg-plants,
and worked day and night without much thought of the world
outside. The old man laughed at his visitors, asking what more to
eat and drink all this fighting and suffering would bring; he could not
understand their talk of Arab liberty. He only lived for his garden.
Every new year he sold his tobacco and bought a shirt for himself,
and one each for his household; his felt cap, his only other garment,
had been his grandfather’s a century before.
 THE RIDE TO AKABA
May 9–July 6: 1917

At this place they met Rasim, Feisal’s chief gunner, Maulud his
A.D.C., and others, who said that Sherif Sharraf, Feisal’s cousin,
whom they were to meet at the next stopping-place, was away
raiding. So they all rested for a day or two. The old man sold them
vegetables, Rasim and Maulud provided tinned meat, and they had
music each evening round the camp-fire. This was not the
monotonous roaring ballad-music of the desert, or the exciting
melodies of the Central Oases which the Ageyl sang, but the falsetto
quarter-tones and trills of Damascus love-songs given bashfully on
guitars by Maulud’s soldier-musicians. Nesib and Zeki, too, would
sing passionate songs of Arab freedom, and all the camp would
listen dead silent until each stanza ended, then give a sighing
longing echo of the last note. The old man went on splashing out his
water into the clay channels of his garden, laughing at such
foolishness.
Auda hated the luxuriance of the garden and longed for the
desert again. So on the second night they pushed forward again,
Auda riding ahead and singing an endless ballad of the Howeitat.
‘Ho! Ho! Ho!’ he boomed on three bass-notes; and his voice guided
the party through the dark valleys; Lawrence did not understand
many words of the dialect, which was a very ancient form of Arabic.
On this journey Nasir and Auda’s cousin Mohammed el Dheilan took
pains with Lawrence’s Arabic, giving him alternate lessons in the
classical Medina tongue and the vivid desert language. He had
originally spoken, rather haltingly, the dialects of the country about
Carchemish. Now, from mixing with so many tribes, he used a fluent
ungrammatical mixture of every possible Arabic dialect, so that new-
comers imagined that he came from some unknown illiterate district,
the shot-rubbish ground of the whole Arabic speaking continent. Of
Lawrence’s knowledge of Arabic he has written to me in a recent
letter:
 ‘In Oxford I picked up a little colloquial grammar, before
I first went out. In the next four years I added a
considerable (4,000 word) vocabulary to this skeleton of
grammar; words useful in archæological research mainly.
‘Then for the first two years of the War I spoke hardly a
word of it and as I had never learned the letters to read or
write—and have not yet—naturally it almost all passed
from me. So when I joined Feisal I had to take it all up
again from the beginning in a fresh and very different
dialect. As the campaign grew it carried me from dialect to
dialect, so that I never settled down to learn one properly.
Also I learned by ear (not knowing the written language)
and therefore incorrectly; and my teachers were my
servants who were too respectful to go on reporting my
mistakes to me. They found it easier to learn my Arabic
than to teach me theirs.
‘In the end I had control of some 12,000 words; a good
vocabulary for English, but not enough for Arabic, which is
a very wide language; and I used to fit these words
together with a grammar and syntax of my own invention.
Feisal called my Arabic “a perpetual adventure” and used
to provoke me to speak to him so that he might enjoy it....
‘I’ve never heard an Englishman speak Arabic well
enough to be taken for a native of any part of the Arabic-
speaking world, for five minutes.’

The march was difficult, over rocky country; at last the track
became a goat-path zigzagging up a hill too steep to climb except on
all fours. The party dismounted and led the camels. Soon they had
great difficulty in coaxing them along, and had to push and pull
them, adjusting the loads to ease them. Two of the weaker camels
broke down and had to be killed: they were at once cut up for meat
and their loads repacked on the others. Lawrence was glad when
they came to a plateau at the top: he was ill again with fever and
boils. They rode over lava, between red and black sandstone hills,
and at last halted in a deep dark gorge, wooded with tamarisk and
oleander, where they found the camp of Sharraf. He was still away
and they waited until he came three days later.
Sleeping here in a shepherd’s fold Lawrence was awakened by the
voice of an Ageyl boy pleading to him for compassion. His name was
Daud and he had an inseparable friend called Farraj. Farraj had
burned their tent in a frolic and would be beaten by the captain of
the Ageyl who were with Sharraf. Would Lawrence beg him off?
Lawrence spoke to the captain, who answered that the pair were
always in trouble and had lately been so outrageous in their tricks
that he must make an example of them. All that he could do was to
let Daud share Farraj’s sentence. Daud jumped at the chance, kissed
Lawrence’s hand and the captain’s and ran up the valley. The next
day Farraj and Daud hobbled up to Lawrence, where he was
discussing the march with Auda and Nasir, and said that they were
for his service. Lawrence said that he wanted no servants and that
anyhow after their beating they could not ride. Daud turned away
defeated and angry, but Farraj went to Nasir, knelt humbly and
begged him to persuade Lawrence to take them on: which he did.
Sharraf came and reassured them about water, which had been
an anxiety; there were pools of new fallen rainwater farther on their
road. They set out then and had not gone far before they met five
riders coming from the railway. Lawrence riding in front with Auda
had the thrill ‘Friend or enemy?’ of meeting strangers in the desert,
but soon they saw that the riders were friendly Arabs, and riding in
front was a fair-haired, shaggy-bearded Englishman in tattered
uniform. Lawrence knew that this must be Hornby, Newcombe’s
pupil who vied with him in smashing the railway. The persistent pair
would cling for weeks to the railway with few helpers and often with
no food, blowing up bridges and rails until they had exhausted their
explosives or their camels and had to return for more. Newcombe
was hard on his camels, whom he worked at the trot and who
quickly wore out in that thirsty district; the men with him had either
to leave him on the road—a lasting disgrace in the desert—or
founder their own beasts. They used to complain: ‘Newcombe is like
fire, he burns friend and enemy.’ Lawrence was told that Newcombe
would not sleep except with his head on the rails, and that when
there was no gun-cotton left, Hornby would worry the metals with
his teeth. This was exaggerated, but gave a sense of their
destructive energy which kept four Turkish labour battalions
constantly busy patching up after them.
After greetings and exchange of news Hornby passed on and
Lawrence’s party continued the march over the lava desert. On this
eighth day of their journey they camped in a damp valley full of
thorny brushwood which was, however, too bitter for the camels to
feed on. But they ran about tearing up the bushes and heaping them
on a big bonfire, where they baked bread. When the fire was hot,
out wriggled a large black snake which must have been gathered,
torpid, with the twigs. The ninth day’s journey was still over long
miles of lava broken with sandstone, a dead, weary, ghostly land
without pasture. The camels were nearly spent.
At last the lava ended and they came to an open plain of fine
scrub and golden sand with green bushes scattered over it. There
were a few water-holes scooped by someone after the rainstorm of
three weeks before. By these they camped, and drove the unloaded
camels out to feed. There was an alarm when a dozen mounted men
rode up from the direction of the railway and began firing at the
herdsmen, but the party at the camp ran at once to the nearest
mounds and rocks, shouting, and began firing too. The raiders,
whoever they were, galloped off in alarm. Auda thought that they
were a patrol of the Shammar tribe. They rode on again over the
plain through a fantastic valley in which were red sandstone pillars
of all shapes and all sizes from ten to sixty feet in height, with
narrow sand paths between, then over a plateau strewn with black
basalt, and finally reached the water-pools of which Sharraf had
spoken. Hornby and Newcombe had evidently camped here: there
were empty sardine-tins lying about.
 Daud and Farraj were proving good servants; they were brave
and cheerful, rode well, worked willingly. They spent much time
attending to Lawrence’s camel which had the mange very badly on
its face; having no proper ointment they rubbed in butter, which was
a slight relief for the intolerable itch. This tenth day’s journey
brought the party to the railway which they had to cross near a
station called Dizad. It ran in a long valley. They happened on a
deserted stretch of line and were much relieved, because Sharraf
had warned them of constant Turkish patrols of mule-mounted men,
camel-corps and trolleys carrying machine-guns. There was good
pasture on both sides of the line, and the riding-camels were
allowed to graze for a few minutes while Lawrence and the Ageyl
began fixing gun-cotton and gelatine charges to the rails. The
camels were then caught again and taken on to safety while the
fuses of the charges were lighted in proper order: the hollow valley
echoed with the bursts. This was Auda’s first experience of
dynamite, and he improvised some verses in praise of its power and
glory. Then they cut three telegraph-wires, tied the free ends to the
saddles of six riding-camels and drove the astonished team far
across the valley with the growing weight of twanging wire and
snapped poles dragging after them. When the camels could pull no
more, the tangle was cut loose. They rode on in the growing dusk
until the country, with its switchback of rock ridges, was too difficult
to be crossed safely in the dark by weak camels. They halted, but no
fire was lit for fear of alarming the Turks who, roused by the noise of
the explosions, could be heard in the block-houses all along the line
shouting loudly and shooting at shadows.
The next morning they left the rocky country behind and found
themselves on a great plain: it was a country unknown to
Europeans, and old Auda told Lawrence the names of this valley or
that peak, bidding him mark them on his map. Lawrence said that
he did not want to pander to the curiosity of geographers in an
unspoiled country. Auda was pleased and began to give Lawrence
instead personal notes and news about the chiefs in the party or
ahead on the line of march. This whiled away dreary hours of slow
march across this waste of sand and rotten sandstone slabs. There
were no signs of life in this desert, which was named ‘The Desolate,’
no tracks of gazelle, no lizards, rats or even birds. There was a hot
wind blowing with a furnace-taste and, as the day went on and the
sun rose, it blew stronger. By noon it was half a gale. The Arabs
drew their headcloths tightly across their faces to keep the stinging
sand from wearing open the sun-chapped skin into painful wounds.
Lawrence’s throat was so dry that he could not eat for three days
after without pain. By sunset they had gone fifty miles and came
then to a valley full of scrub as dry as dead wood. The party
dismounted wearily and gathered armfuls to build a great fire to
show the rest of the party, from whom they had got separated the
previous day after crossing the railway, where they were halting.
When there was a fine heap gathered together they found that
nobody had any matches. However, the main body came up an hour
later, and that night they set sentries to watch because it was a
district over which raiding parties frequently passed. They gave the
camels the whole night for their grazing.
Noon of the twelfth day brought them to the place towards which
they had been heading, an ancient stone well about thirty feet deep.
The water was plentiful but rather brackish and soon grew foul when
kept in a water-skin. On the thirteenth day out the sun was hotter
than ever: at midday Auda and his nephew Zaal rode out hunting
towards a green-looking stretch of country while the rest of the
party rested in the shade under some cliffs. The hunters soon
returned, each with a gazelle. Bread had been baked the day before
at the well, and they had water in their skins, so they made a feast
of it. On the fourteenth day they came in view of the great desert of
sand-dunes called Nefudh which Wilfred Scawen Blunt, Gertrude Bell
and other famous travellers had crossed. Lawrence wanted to cut
across a corner of it but old Auda refused, saying that men went to
Nefudh only out of necessity when raiding, and that the son of his
father did not raid on a mangy, tottering camel. Their business was
to reach the next place, Arfaja, alive.
 They rode over monotonous glittering sand and over worse
stretches of polished mud, often miles square and white as paper,
which reflected back the sun until the eyes were tortured even
through closed eyelids. It was not a steady pain but ebbed and
flowed, piling up to an agony until the rider nearly swooned; then,
falling away for a moment, gave him time to get a new capacity for
suffering. That night they baked bread; Lawrence gave half his share
to his camel which was very tired and hungry. She was a pedigree
camel given to Feisal by his father who had her as a gift from the
Emir Ibn Saud of the Central Oases. The best camels were she-
camels: they were better tempered, less noisy and more comfortable
to ride. They would go on marching long after they were worn out,
indeed until they fell dead in their tracks of exhaustion: whereas the
males when they grew tired would roar and fling themselves down,
and die unnecessarily from sheer rage.
The fifteenth day was an anxious one: there was no water left,
and another hot wind would delay them a third day in the desert.
They had therefore started long before dawn over a huge plain
strewn with brown flints which cut the camels’ feet badly and soon
set them limping. In the distance they saw puffs of dust. Auda said
‘Ostriches,’ and presently a man rode up with two great eggs. They
decided to breakfast on these, but there was no more fuel than a
wisp or two of grass. However, Lawrence opened a packet of
blasting gelatine and shredded it carefully on the lighted grass, over
which the eggs were propped on stones. Nasir and Nesib the Syrian
stopped to scoff. Auda took his silver-hilted dagger and chipped the
top of the first egg. A terrible stink arose and every one ran out of
range. The second egg was fresh enough and hard as a stone. They
dug out the meat with the dagger, using flints for plates. Even Nasir,
who never before in his life had fallen so low as to eat eggs—eggs
were counted as paupers’ food in Arabia—was persuaded to take his
share. Later oryx were seen, the rare Arabian deer, with long slender
horns and white bellies, which are the origin of the unicorn legend.
Auda’s men stalked them: they ran a little but, being unaccustomed
to man, stopped still out of curiosity, and only ran away again when
it was too late.
The Ageyl were dismounted and leading their camels for fear that
if the wind blew stronger some of them would be dead before
evening. Lawrence suddenly noticed that one of his men, a yellow-
faced fellow called Gasim from the town of Maan, who had fled to
the desert after killing a Turkish tax-gatherer, was not with the rest.
The Ageyl thought that he was with Auda’s Howeitat, but when
Lawrence went forward he found Gasim’s camel riderless, with
Gasim’s rifle and food on it: it dawned on the party that Gasim was
lost, probably miles back. He could not keep up with the caravan on
foot, and the heat-mirage was so bad that the caravan was invisible
two miles away, and the ground was so hard that it left no tracks.
The Ageyl did not care much what happened to Gasim; he was a
stranger and surly, lazy and ill-natured. Possibly someone in the
party had owed him a grudge and paid it; or possibly he had dozed
in the saddle and fallen off. His road-companion, a Syrian peasant
called Mohammed, whose duty it was to look after him, had a
foundered camel and knew nothing of the desert; it would be death
for him to turn back. The Howeitat would have gone in search, but
they were lost in the mirage, hunting or scouting. The Ageyl were so
clannish that they would only put themselves out for each other.
Lawrence had to go himself. If he shirked the duty it would make a
bad impression on the men.
He turned his camel round and forced her grunting and moaning
with unhappiness past the long line of her friends, into the
emptiness behind. He was in no heroic temper; he was furious with
his other servants for their indifference, and particularly with Gasim,
a grumbling brutal fellow whose engagement he had much
regretted. It seemed absurd to risk his life and all it meant to the
Arab Revolt for a single worthless man. He had been keeping
direction throughout the march with an oil-compass and hoped by its
help to return nearly to that day’s starting-place seventeen miles
behind. He passed some shallow pits with sand in them and rode
across these so that the camel tracks would show in them and mark
the way for his return. After an hour and a half’s ride he saw a
figure, or a bush, or at least something black ahead of him in the
mirage. He turned his camel’s head towards it, and saw that it was
Gasim. He called and Gasim stood confusedly, nearly blinded and
silly, with his arms held out to Lawrence and his black mouth gaping.
Lawrence gave him water, a gift of the Ageyl, the last that they had,
and he spilled it madly over his face and breast in his haste to drink.
He stopped babbling and began to wail out his sorrows. Lawrence
sat him, pillion, on the camel’s rump and turned about. The camel
seemed relieved at the turn and moved forward well.
Lawrence went back by his compass course so accurately that he
often found the old tracks that he had made in the pits. The camel
began to stride forward freely, and he was glad at this sign of her
reserve strength. Gasim was moaning about the pain and terror and
thirst; Lawrence told him to stop, but he would not and sat huddled
loosely so that at each step of the camel he bumped down on her
hind-quarters. This and his crying spurred her to greater speed.
Lawrence was afraid that she might founder, and again told him to
stop, but Gasim only screamed the louder. Then Lawrence struck
him and swore that if he made another sound he would be pushed
off and abandoned. He kept quiet then. After four miles a black
bubble appeared in the mirage, bouncing about. Later it broke into
three and Lawrence wondered if they were enemies. A minute later
he recognized Auda with two of Nasir’s men, who had come back to
look for him. Lawrence yelled jests and scoffs at them for
abandoning a friend in the desert. Auda pulled at his beard and
grumbled that had he been present Lawrence would never have
gone back. Gasim was transferred to another rider’s camel with
insults. As they went forward Auda said, ‘For that thing not worth
the price of a camel....’ Lawrence interrupted: ‘Not worth half a
crown,’ and Auda, laughing, rode up to Gasim, struck him sharply
and made him, like a parrot, repeat his price. What had happened,
apparently, was that Gasim had dismounted for something or other
that morning, and sitting down had gone to sleep.
 An hour later they caught up the caravan and towards evening
they reached Sirhan, the chain of pastures and wells running up
towards Syria. There among sandhills grown with tamarisk they
halted. They had no water yet, but ‘The Desolate’ was crossed and
they knew that they would get some the next day, so they rested
the whole night and lit bonfires for the Emir of the Ruwalla’s slave
who had been with the caravan and had disappeared the same day.
Nobody was anxious for him, for he had a camel and knew the
country. He might be riding direct to Jauf, the capital of the Emir
Nuri, to earn the reward of first news that the party was coming with
gifts. However, he did not ride in that night or next day, and months
afterwards the Emir told Lawrence that the man’s dried body had
lately been found lying beside his unplundered camel far out in the
wilderness. He must have got lost in the mirage and wandered until
his camel broke down, and there died of thirst and heat. Not a long
death—the very strongest man would die on the second day in this
summer season—but very painful. Fear and panic tore at the brain,
and in an hour or two reduced the bravest man to a babbling
lunatic; then the sun killed him. Lawrence himself learned to stand
thirst as well as any of the Bedouin. He noticed that they did not
drink on the march and learned to do as they did—to drink deeply at
the wells and make it last, if need be, for two or three days. Only
once in all his journeys did he get really ill from thirst.
The next day, the sixteenth of their journey, they came to the
wells of Arfaja, grown about with a sweet-smelling bush after which
the place was named. The water was creamy to the touch, with a
strong smell and brackish taste: it soon went bad in the water-skins.
There was plenty of grazing for the camels, so they stayed a day and
sent scouts to the southernmost well of Sirhan to inquire for news of
Auda’s Howeitat, in search of whom they came. If they were not in
that direction they would be to the north, and by marching up Sirhan
the party could not fail to find them.
There was an alarm at the wells when a Shammar patrol of three
men was seen hiding among the bushes. Mohammed el Dheilan,
Auda’s cousin and second man of the clan, went after them with a
few men, but did not press the chase because of the weakness of
his camels. He was about thirty-eight years old, tall, strong and
active; richer because less generous than Auda, with landed
property and a little house at Maan. Under his influence the Howeitat
war-parties would ride out delicately with sunshades and bottles of
mineral-water. He was the brain of the clan and directed its politics.
Lawrence was taking coffee that night, sitting at the camp-fire
with the Ageyl and Mohammed el Dheilan. While the coffee-beans
were being pounded in the mortar (with three grains of cardamom
seed for flavouring) and boiled and strained through a palm-fibre
mat, and they were talking about the Revolt, suddenly a volley rang
out and one of the Ageyl fell screaming. Instantly Mohammed el
Dheilan quenched the fire with a kick of his foot that covered it with
sand. The coffee party scattered to collect rifles and shot back
vigorously. The raiders, a party of perhaps twenty, were surprised at
the resistance and made off. The wounded man soon died. It was
most disheartening to be troubled by inter-Arab warfare when all
efforts should be concentrated on fighting the Turks.
The seventeenth and eighteenth days passed without danger as
they rode from oasis to oasis. Nesib and Zeki the Syrians were
planning works of plantation and reclamation here for the Arab
Government to undertake when it was at last established. It was
typical of Syrian townsmen to plan wonderful schemes far ahead and
leave present responsibilities to others. Some days before, Lawrence
had said: ‘Zeki, your camel is mangy.’ ‘Alas,’ he agreed, ‘but in the
evening we shall make haste to dress her skin with ointment.’ The
following day Lawrence mentioned mange again and Zeki said that it
had given him an idea. When Damascus was in Arab hands, he
would have a Government Veterinary Department for the care of
camels, horses, donkeys, even sheep and goats, with a staff of
skilled surgeons. Central hospitals with students learning the
business would be founded in four districts. There would be
travelling inspectors, research laboratories and so on.... But his
camel had not been treated yet.
 The next day the talk went back to mange and Lawrence chaffed
them about their schemes: but they began talking of stud-farms for
improving the breeds of animals. On the sixth day the camel died.
Zeki said: ‘Yes, because you did not dress her.’ Auda, Nasir and the
rest kept their beasts going by constant care: they might perhaps
survive until they reached a tribe that had proper remedies.
 AUDA AND HIS KINSMEN
(His son Mohammed is seated on the left)
Copyright American Colony Stores, Jerusalem

On this eighteenth day they met a Howeitat herdsman who

guided them to the camp of one of the chiefs. The first part of the
journey was happily over and the gold and explosives were safe. A
council was held and it was decided to present six thousand pounds
to Nuri by whose permission the Howeitat were here in Sirhan; Nuri
would probably allow them to stop a few days longer and enrol
volunteers, and when they moved off would protect the Howeitat
families and tents and herds. Auda decided to go to Nuri on this
embassy, because he was a friend. Nuri was too near and too
powerful a neighbour for Auda to quarrel with, however great his
delight in war, and the two men bore with each other’s oddities in
patient friendliness. Auda would explain to Nuri what he, Nasir and
Lawrence hoped to do, and say that Feisal wished him to make a
public demonstration of goodwill towards the Turks. Only by these
means could he cover the advance to Akaba while still keeping the
Turks favourably disposed. Feisal knew that Nuri was at the Turks’
mercy still; they could blockade his province from the north. So Auda
went off with six bags of gold and said that he would rouse all his
clan, the Abu Tayi Howeitat, on the way. He would be back soon.
Meanwhile the local families promised unlimited hospitality and
Nasir, Lawrence, Nesib, Zeki and the rest were bound to accept it.
Every morning they had to go to a different guest-tent and eat an
enormous meal. About fifty men were present at each of these
feasts and the food was always served on the same enormous
copper dish, five feet across, which was lent from host to host and
belonged really to Auda. It was always the same boiled mutton and
rice, two or three whole sheep making a pyramid of meat in the
middle with an embankment of rice all round, a foot wide and six
inches deep, filled with legs and ribs of mutton. In the very centre
were the boiled sheeps’ heads propped upright with flapping ears
and jaws pulled open to show the teeth. Cauldrons of boiling fat, full
of bits of liver, intestines, skin, odd scraps of meat, were poured over
the great dish until it began to overflow on the ground; and at this
sign the host called them all to eat. They would rise with good-
mannered shyness and crowd about the bowl, twenty-two at a time,
each man kneeling on one knee.
Taking their time from Nasir, the most honourable man of the
company, they rolled up their right sleeves, said grace and dipped
together with their fingers. Only the right hand might be used, for
good manners. Lawrence always dipped cautiously; his fingers could
hardly bear the hot fat. Nobody was allowed to talk, for it was an
insult to the host not to appear to be very hungry indeed, eating at
top speed. The host himself stood by and encouraged their appetites
as they dipped, tore and gobbled. At last eating gradually slackened
and each man crouched with his elbow on his knee, the hand
hanging down from the wrist to drip over the edge of the tray. When
all had finished Nasir cleared his throat for a signal and they rose
together in haste, muttering, ‘God requite it to you, host,’ and then
made room for the next twenty-two men. The more dainty eaters
wiped the grease off their hands on a flap of the roof-cloth intended
for this purpose. Then sighingly all sat down on carpets, while slaves
splashed water over their hands and the tribal cake of soap went
round. When the last man had eaten and coffee had been served,
the guests remounted with a quiet blessing. Instantly the children
would rush for what was left, and tear the gnawed bones from one
another; some would escape with valuable pieces, to eat them safely
behind a distant bush. The dogs yapping about finishing what was
left. Nesib and Zeki soon broke down under this continual feeding,
not being used to desert hospitality, so Nasir and Lawrence had to
go out twice a day for a week and eat for the honour of Feisal.
On May the thirtieth they went forward again in company with the
whole of the Abu Tayi; it was the first time that Lawrence had ever
taken part in the march routine of a Bedouin tribe. There was no
apparent order, but the caravan advanced simultaneously on a wide
front, each family making a self-contained party. The men were on
riding-camels; the black goat-hair tents and the howdahs in which
the women were hidden were carried on the baggage-camels. Farraj
and Daud were behaving with more than usual mischief in this care-
free atmosphere. They rode about leaving a trail of practical jokes
behind them. Particularly they made jokes about snakes. Sirhan was
visited that summer by a plague of snakes—horned vipers, puff-
adders, cobras and black snakes. By night movement was dangerous
and at last the party learned to beat the bushes with sticks as they
walked. It was dangerous to draw water after dark, for snakes swam
in the pools or gathered in clusters on their brinks. Twice puff-adders
invaded the coffee-hearth, twisting among the seated men.
Lawrence’s party of fifty killed about twenty snakes daily. Seven
men were bitten. Three died, four recovered after great fear and
pain. The Howeitat treatment was to bind up the bite with snake-
skin plaster and read chapters of the Koran to the patient until he
died. They also pulled on thick blue-tasselled red ankle-boots from
Damascus over their feet when they went out at night. The snakes
loved warmth and at night would lie beside the sleepers under or on
the blankets: so great care was taken in getting up each morning.
The constant danger was getting on everyone’s nerves except
Farraj’s and Daud’s. They thought it very witty to raise false alarms
and give furious beatings to harmless twigs and roots: at last
Lawrence at a noonday halt forbade them ever again to call out
‘Snakes!’ About an hour later, sitting on the sand, he noticed them
smiling and nudging one another. His glance idly followed theirs to a
bush close by where lay coiled a brown snake, about to strike at
him.
He threw himself to one side and called out to another of his
men, who jumped at the snake with a riding-cane and killed it.
Lawrence then told him to give the boys half a dozen strokes with
the cane to teach them not to take things too literally at his
expense. Nasir, dozing beside Lawrence, woke up shouting: ‘And six
more from me!’ Nesib and Zeki and the rest who had all suffered
from the boys’ bad sense of humour called out for more punishment
still. However, Lawrence saved Farraj and Daud from the full weight
of their companions’ anger; instead he proclaimed them moral
outcasts and set them to gather sticks and draw water under the
charge of the women, the greatest disgrace for sixteen-year-olds
who counted themselves men.
The tribe moved on from well to well—the water always brackish
—through a landscape of barren palms and bushes which were no
use for grazing or firewood and only served to harbour snakes. At
last they reached a place called Ageila where they came on a village
of tents, and out rode Auda to meet them. He had a strong escort
with him of Ruwalla horsemen, which showed that he had had
success with Nuri. The Ruwalla, bareheaded and yelling, with
brandished spears and wild firing of rifles and revolvers, welcomed
the party to Nuri’s empty house.
Here they stopped, pitched their tents, and received deputations
from the clans and gifts of ostrich eggs, Damascus dainties, camels
and scraggy horses. Three men were set to make coffee for the
visitors, who came in to Nasir as Feisal’s deputy and took the oath of
allegiance to the Arab movement, promising to obey Nasir and follow
him. Their presents included an unintentional one of lice; so that
long before sunset Nasir and Lawrence were nearly mad with
irritation. Auda had a stiff left arm due to an old wound, but
experience had taught him how to poke a camel-stick up his left
sleeve and turn it round and round against his ribs, which relieved
the itch a good deal.
Nebk was the place decided upon for a rallying ground; it had
plentiful water and some grazing. Here Nasir and Auda sat down for
days to discuss together how to enrol the volunteers and prepare
the road to Akaba, now about a hundred and eighty miles to the
west. This left Nesib, Zeki and Lawrence at leisure. As usual the
Syrians let their imagination run ahead of them. In their enthusiasm
they forgot all about Akaba and their immediate purpose, and spoke
of marching straight to Damascus, rousing the Druse and Shaalan
Arabs on the way. The Turks would be taken by surprise and the
final objective won without troubling about the steps between.
 This was absurd. There was a Turkish army massing at Aleppo to
recover Mesopotamia, which could be rushed down to Damascus.
Feisal was still in Wejh. The British were held up on the wrong side
of Gaza. If Damascus should be taken now by Nasir he would be left
unsupported, without resources or organization, without even a line
of communication with his friends. But Nesib was infatuated with his
idea, and Lawrence could only stop him by intrigue. So he went to
Auda and told him that if Damascus were made the new objective,
the credit and spoils would go to Nuri and not him; he went to Nasir
and used the friendship between them to keep him on the Akaba
plan and also flattered Nasir’s distinguished birth at the expense of
Nesib’s, a Damascene of doubtful ancestry. This was sordid but
necessary. For Damascus, even if captured by surprise, could not be
held six weeks; the British at Gaza could not attack at a moment’s
notice, nor would transport be available for a landing at Beyrout.
And a set-back at Damascus would end the rebellion: rebellions that
stand still or go back are always doomed. Akaba must be taken first.
Fortunately, Auda and Nasir listened to Lawrence but Nesib
decided to go off with Zeki to the Druse mountains to prepare the
way for his great Damascus scheme. The gold that Feisal had shared
out to him was not enough for his purpose, so he asked Lawrence
for a promise of more if he raised a separate movement in Syria
under his own leadership. Lawrence knew that he could not do this,
so promised Nesib that, if he now lent Nasir some of his gold to help
him reach Akaba, funds would be got together there for the Syrian
movement. He agreed, and Nasir was glad of two unexpected bags
of gold for the payment of new volunteers. Nesib went off
optimistically: Lawrence knew that he could do no harm with the
little money that he had with him, and by talking too much might
mislead the Turks into thinking that an immediate attack really was
intended on Damascus.
 XIV
What follows next is the brief and unsatisfactory story of what
seems to have been the maddest and most dangerous adventure
undertaken by any man in the whole course of the World War: a
four-hundred-mile tour through the Turks’ country with visits to their
key-positions, without any disguise but the unbelievable folly of the
journey. Lawrence decided to visit Damascus and the railway to the
north of it. The exact account of it he has never given, even in his
Seven Pillars of Wisdom, and I have been unable to piece it together
accurately from the casual fragments which he has from time to time
given his friends. But the motive of the journey seems clear, and the
fact of it is beyond dispute. At Nebk Lawrence had time to think
about his own part in the Revolt, and was not pleased with it. He
began to see clearly things that he had been hitherto content to put
into the background.
First of all, he was more or less an Englishman and bound to the
hope of staving off his country’s defeat. Successful war in the East,
with the present deadlock in the West, might turn the scale and save
further slaughter. Next, he was an Arab by adoption: the tribes
trusted and loved him, and he was bound to do his honourable best
for them. The Arabs could help the British to success while fighting
their own war for freedom. So far, so good, but then came the
difficulty. The Revolt had begun on false pretences. The British
Government through the High Commissioner of Egypt had agreed to
Sherif Hussein’s demand for Arab freedom not only in Arabia but in
parts of Syria and Mesopotamia, ‘saving the interests of our ally
France.’ This clause concealed the secret Sykes-Picot treaty between
England, France and Russia, in which it was agreed to annex some
of the promised areas and establish ‘spheres of influence’ over the
rest: in fact there was no genuine freedom possible. The High
Commissioner had not been told beforehand of this treaty and so the
Sherif did not know about it either. What apparently had happened
was that the Foreign Office had two departments, each responsible
for one of these agreements, and neither had taken the other into
proper confidence. The High Commissioner, it may be noted, when
instructed by the Government to make the agreement, had sent a
strongly worded message of warning. He had said that in helping the
Nationalist cause in Arabia a most dangerous thing was being done.
Freedom for the Arabs might grow one day into a Frankenstein’s
monster: and he urged that great care should be taken to deal
honourably with the Arab leaders; particularly he recommended that
a single Government Department should be entrusted with all
negotiations.
The Russian revolution took place in the spring of 1917, and the
Bolsheviki published the secret treaty, copies of which the Turks sent
about where they would do harm to England. Nuri had just had a
copy sent him and confronted Lawrence with it; it was a great shock
to Lawrence to be asked which of two contradictory pledges was to
be believed. Lawrence did not know what to answer; he felt that the
most honourable thing to do would be to send the Arabs home, and
yet perhaps only by Arab help could the war in the East be won. So
he said that England kept her word in letter and spirit, and that the
later pledge cancelled the former treaty. This comforted Nuri, and
the Arabs thereafter trusted Lawrence and fought finely with him:
but instead of being proud he was bitterly ashamed of his deception.
Later, he quieted his conscience as well as he might by telling Feisal
all he knew and by refusing all decorations, rank and moneys that
his part in the Revolt brought him personally. He would make the
Revolt so well-armed a success that the Powers could not in honour
or common sense rob the Arabs of what they had won: and he
would fight another battle for the Arab Cause in the Council
Chamber after the War ended.
But this was not all. He knew now that the War was entering
another stage. In Syria the reputation of England was powerful and
the reputation of the Bedouin leaders and of Mecca was low. He was
the only man who, knowing the Syrians from before the War and
having the confidence of the Arabians and being a representative of
England, could carry the Revolt successfully north. All the
responsibility fell on him. Was he strong enough to undertake it? He
never had counted himself a man of action; books and maps were
more in his line and he had left the Cairo office only under protest.
And, again, towards what freedom was he leading the Arabs? A
Confederation of Arab States, even if such could be founded against
the wishes of France and England, would be necessarily the inheritor
of the Turkish Empire. Town Syrians like Nesib and Zeki would run
these states: their Governments might be more enterprising than the
Turkish Government, but would be as corrupt; and the innocence
and idealism of the desert Arabs on whose account alone he hoped
for freedom would be infected by the filth of Damascus or Basra.
Was the gift of freedom worth giving?
In this tangle of thought and shame he seems to have decided in
Bedouin style to throw himself on the mercy of fate. He would go
out on this mad ride and, so far from taking precautions, would
expose himself to every possible danger. If the Turks were so foolish
as to let him get back safely, they must pay the penalty of their folly,
for he would carry the Revolt through to a finish with no more
qualms. If they caught him, on the other hand, the Revolt would get
no farther than the deserts of Arabia.
On June the third, 1917, in the fifth week of the journey from
Wejh, he started off northward with a few of his body-guard and
was away a fortnight. How he reached Damascus—he admits the
visit—is not known, but it is possible that he went by way of the
Druse mountains and the Lebanon, there visiting his friends the
Christian Syrians, and that he turned south near Baalbek. He is said
to have been convoyed by relays of local tribesmen, beginning with
the Ruwalla, and changing them at each tribal boundary. Apparently
none of his own men nor of Nasir’s completed the journey with him.
He is said to have been franked by private letters of Feisal’s, but, as
I say, nothing certain is known of his immediate purpose, his route
or the results of his journey. At Ras Baalbek, south of Hama,
considerably beyond Damascus and Baalbek, the farthest points
associated by rumour with his journey, there was an important
bridge over which all the railway traffic between Constantinople and
Syria passed. An intercepted enemy report of that month mentions
the destruction of the bridge and one hesitates to regard this as a
coincidence; yet its demolition must have meant the use of a great
deal of explosive and Lawrence appears to have ridden light.
Of the Damascus visit little more than negative information can
be given. Lawrence neither dined, lunched nor breakfasted with Ali
Riza Pasha the Governor (as Mr. Lowell Thomas and others have
stated), nor did he then or at any time since set eyes on Yasin,
another Arab patriot. But it seems that he made arrangements with
prominent members of the Freedom Committee in Damascus for the
action to be taken when the Turks were finally expelled. There is a
circumstantial story current that he rode into Damascus in English
uniform on a camel and that seeing a notice pasted up offering a
large reward for the capture alive or dead of ‘El Orens, Destroyer of
Railways,’ with a portrait at the top, he decided to put the matter to
a supreme test; he sat down to coffee under one of these notices:
but, nobody connecting the man and the portrait, after an hour or
two he went on. That while he was in the city the men with him
camped outside the walls in a cherry orchard: that there they were
disturbed by some inquisitive Turkish policemen who, however, lie
buried under the cherry trees. The poster story at least is untrue:
none such were put up, nor was any camera-portrait of enlargeable
size available. On the positive side, Lawrence has told me that he
was never disguised during this ride, either as a woman or as
anything else, but instead put off necessary visits to dangerous
places until after darkness had set in. In the dark his figure could
not be distinguished from that of any other Arab of the desert fringe.
And the reference in Seven Pillars of Wisdom to his usually wearing
British uniform when visiting enemy camps may well refer to a
practice begun on this ride. Whether or no he regarded Damascus as
a ‘dangerous place’ I cannot say. Other picturesque incidents
reported of this journey are as demonstrably untrue as the poster
story. For instance, the Lowell Thomas account of his attempted visit
to a military academy at Baalbek is disproved by there not having
been a military academy there—only an infantry depot and a training
camp. It is possible, though, that he visited these. Nor did he enter
Rayak junction (‘for the purpose of inspecting the railway repair
shops’—another story) during the War. He seems, however, to have
visited one or more of the bridges over the River Yarmuk, of which
an account will be given in a later chapter, and to have been at Ziza,
the headquarters of the Beni Sakhr tribe.
At all events, Lawrence’s reticence about this ride is deliberate
and based on private reasons, and it is my opinion that he has found
mystification and perhaps statements deliberately misleading or
contradictory the best way to hide the truth of what really
happened, if anything of any serious importance did happen. His
return journey was possibly by a Yarmuk bridge and across the
Deraa-Amman railway to Azrak, and so to Nebk. I have marked the
route, in the map, with dots to show my uncertainty.
 XV
He returned on June the sixteenth and found Nasir and Auda still
at Nebk; the final preparations for the march to Akaba had been
made. Auda bought a small flock of sheep from a drover and gave a
farewell feast, the greatest of the whole series. Hundreds of men
were present and five fills of the great tray were eaten up as fast as
they were cooked and carried in. After the feast the whole party lay
round the coffee-hearth outside the tent in the starlight while Auda
and others told stories. Lawrence happened to remark that he had
looked for Mohammed el Dheilan in his tent that afternoon to thank
him for the present of a milch camel, but had not found him. Auda
began to laugh out loud until every one looked at him to know what
the joke was. Auda pointed to Mohammed sitting gloomily beside
the coffee-mortar and said to the company, ‘Ho! shall I tell you why
Mohammed has for fifteen days not slept in his tent?’ To every one’s
delight he told how Mohammed had bought in the bazaar at Wejh a
costly string of pearls and had not given it to any of his wives, so
that they all began to quarrel and only agreed in one thing, to keep
him out of the tent. This was Auda’s usual mischievous invention and
Mohammed, whose wives in the tent near by had come up close to
the partition-curtain to listen, was much confused and appealed to
Lawrence to witness that Auda lied.
Lawrence began his answer with the phrase that introduces a
formal tale in Arabia. ‘In the name of God the merciful, the loving-
kind. We were six in Wejh. There were Auda and Mohammed and
Zaal, Gasim, Mufaddhi and the poor man’ (which meant Lawrence
himself). ‘And one night just before dawn Auda said, “Let us make a
raid upon the market.” And we said, “In the name of God.” And we
went; Auda in a white robe and a red headcloth, and Kasim sandals
of pieced leather. Mohammed in a silken tunic of “seven kings”3 and
barefoot. Zaal ... I forget Zaal. Gasim wore cotton and Mufaddhi was
in silk of blue stripe with an embroidered headcloth. Your servant
was as he now is.’
[3] See page 37.
He paused, and the Howeitat sat dead-silent. Lawrence was
mimicking Auda’s epic style, also the wave of his hand, the booming
voice and the accentuation of the points or what he thought were
the points of his pointless stories. Parody was an unknown art
among the Bedouin, and Lawrence’s beginning had a tremendous
effect on them. He went on to tell how they left the tents (giving a
list of them) and walked down the village, describing all the passers-
by and the ridges ‘all bare of grazing, for by God, that country was
barren. And we marched: and after we had marched the time of a
smoked cigarette, we heard something, and Auda stopped and said,
“Lads, I hear something.” And Mohammed stopped and said, “Lads,
I hear something.” And Zaal said, “By God, you are right.” And we
stopped to listen, and there was nothing, and the poor man said,
“By God, I hear nothing.” And Zaal said, “By God, I hear nothing,”
and Mohammed said, “By God, I hear nothing.” And Auda said, “By
God, you are right!” And we marched and marched and the land was
barren and we heard nothing. And on our right came a man, a
negro, on a donkey. The donkey was grey with black ears and one
black foot and on its shoulder was a brand like this’ (here Lawrence
made a scribble in the air) ‘and its tail moved and its legs. Auda saw
it and said, “By God, a donkey.” And Mohammed said, “By the very
God, a donkey and a slave.”’
Lawrence continued this Arab version of the ‘Three Jovial
Welshmen’ with ‘And we marched. And there was a ridge, not a
great ridge but a ridge as great as from here to the what-do-you-
call-it yonder; and we marched to the ridge and it was barren. The
land was barren: barren: barren. And we marched; and beyond the
what-do-you-call-it was a thing-um-bob as far as from this very
place here to that actual spot there and afterwards a ridge; and we
came to that ridge: it was barren, all that land was barren: and as
we came up that ridge and were by the head of that ridge and came
to the end of the head of that ridge, by God, by my God, by the very
God, the sun rose upon us.’
This brought down the house. Every one knew the repetitions and
linked phrases that Auda used to bring some sort of excitement into
the dull story of a raid in which nothing happened, and they knew of
old the terrible bathos of the sunrise which ended the story. But the
walk to the market at Wejh was one also that many of them had
taken. So they howled with laughter, rolling on the ground.
Auda laughed the loudest and longest, for he loved a joke against
himself, and Lawrence’s parody had only proved to him how fine a
story-teller he really was. So he went over to Mohammed, embraced
him, and confessed that the necklace story was an invention.
Mohammed in gratitude invited the whole camp to breakfast the
next morning: they would have a sucking camel-calf boiled in sour
milk.
The next day they rode off making for Bair, sixty miles away in
the direction of Akaba. There were five hundred in the party now
and every one was happy and confident. The country was limestone
strewn with black flints, and in the distance were three white chalk
hills. The leaders had a treat of rice that night, the chiefs of the Abu
Tayi coming in to share it. At coffee-drinking Auda began provoking
Lawrence with talk of the stars. ‘Why are the Westerners always
wanting everything?’ he asked when Lawrence had said that
astronomers every year make more and more powerful telescopes to
map the heavens out more and more accurately, adding thousands
to the number of known stars. ‘Behind our few stars we can see
God, who is not behind your millions,’ said Auda. ‘We want the
World’s End,’ answered Lawrence. ‘But that is God’s,’ said Zaal, half
angry. Auda said that if the end of wisdom was to add star to star,
the foolishness of the Arabs pleased him better.
He took Lawrence ahead next day: he wished to visit the grave of
his favourite son, Annad, which was at Bair. Annad had been waylaid
by his cousins of the Motalga tribe and fought them, one against
five, until he was killed; Auda was bringing Lawrence to hear him
mourn for the dead. As they rode down a slope to the grave, they
were astonished to see smoke wreathing about the wells. They rode
up carefully and found that the well-top had been shattered: looking
down they found that the stone sides had been stripped and split
and the shaft choked. Auda said, ‘This is done by the Jazi.’ They
went to see another well beyond: it was also ruined. So was a third.
There was a smell of dynamite in the air. It was clear that the Turks
had got wind of their coming, and had possibly also raided the wells
at Jefer where they had planned to concentrate before the attack.
But in any case they could not reach Jefer without the Bair water.
There was still, however, a fourth well some way off. They visited
this rather hopelessly, and were delighted to find it undamaged. It
was a well belonging to the Jazi tribe and that it had been spared
seemed to prove that Auda was right. But one well was not enough
for five hundred camels. So it was necessary to open the least
damaged of the others. Lawrence went down in a bucket and found
that a set of charges fixed lower in the shaft had not all been
exploded: the Turkish engineers had evidently been surprised before
they had time to finish their work. So he carefully unpacked the
charges and took them up with him. Soon they had two fit wells and
a clear profit of thirty pounds of Nobel dynamite.
They decided to stay a week at Bair and meanwhile sent off a
party to buy flour in the villages near the Dead Sea—it would be
back in five or six days—and a party to inquire about the wells at
Jefer. If Jefer was not spoilt for them they would cross the railway
below Maan and seize the great pass that led down from the plateau
of Maan to the red sandstone plain of Guweira. To hold this pass
they would have to capture Aba el Lissan, sixteen miles from Maan,
where was a large spring of water; the garrison was small and they
should be able to rush it. They could then hold the road to Akaba
from Maan and the Turkish posts along it would have to surrender
within a week for want of food; but before then the hill-tribes would
probably have risen in sympathy and wiped them out.
It was important not to frighten the Turks at Maan before the
attack began on Aba el Lissan, but the destruction of the Bair wells
showed that the news of the Howeitat march had reached them.
The only thing to do was to pretend that Akaba was not the place
aimed at, but that they were driving farther north. Nuri had been
misleading the Turks into thinking this and Newcombe had allowed
some official papers to be stolen from him at Wejh in which was a
plan for turning north at Jefer and attacking Damascus and Aleppo.
Nesib was in Druse country preaching revolt and Lawrence in his
Damascus ride had himself, it seems, hinted to the Druse tribes that
they would soon have the Arab army there. The Turks were taken in
by all this and made preparations to resist the northern advance by
strengthening their garrisons.
To make the plan seem more likely still, Lawrence decided to raid
the line about a hundred and twenty miles north near Deraa. He
went with Zaal and a hundred and ten chosen men and they rode
hard in six-hour spells with one- or two-hour intervals, day and
night. It was a most eventful trip for Lawrence because the raid was
carried out on the conventional lines of a tribal raid, the first in
which he or possibly any Westerner had ever taken part. On the
second afternoon they reached a Circassian village north of Amman
in Transjordania; there was a big bridge not far from here, suitable
to be destroyed. Lawrence and Zaal walked down in the evening to
have a look at it and found the Turks there in force. They saw that
four arches of the bridge had been washed away by the spring flood
and the line was laid on a temporary structure while the Turks
repaired the arches. It was useless to bother about a bridge already
in ruins; so they decided to try to blow up a train instead. This would
attract more attention than a bridge, and the Turks would think that
the main body of the forces was at Azrak in Sirhan, fifty miles to the
east. As they rode forward over a flat plain in the dark they heard a
rumble and along came a train at great speed. If Lawrence had had
two minutes warning he could have blown the engine to scrap-iron,
but it rushed past and was gone. At dawn they found an ideal
ambush, an amphitheatre of rock with pasture for the camels,
hidden from the railway which curved round it, and crowned with a
ruined Arab watch-tower from which Lawrence could get a fine view
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