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The Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain

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The Journal of Gemmology

Editor: Dr R.R. Harding
Assistant Editors: M.J. O'Donoghue, P.G. Read
Associate Editors: Dr C.E.S. Arps (Leiden),
G. Bosshart (Zurich), Prof. A.T. Collins (London), Dr J.W. Harris (Glasgow),
Prof. R.A. Howie (Derbyshire), Dr J.M. Ogden (Hildesheim),
Prof. A.H. Rankin (Kingston upon Thames), Dr J.E. Shigley (Carlsbad),
Prof. D.C. Smith (Paris), E. Stern (London), Prof. I. Sunagawa (Tokyo),
Dr M. Superchi (Milan), C M . Woodward (London)
Production Editor: M.A. Burland

Vol 27, No. 3, July 2000 ISSN: 1355-4565

 A
A new
new find
find of
of
spessartine
spessartine garnets
garnets in
in Nigeria
Nigeria
Thomas
Thomas Lind
Lind and
and Ulrich
Ulrich Henn
Henn
German Gemmological
German GemmologicalAssociation,
Association, Idar-Oberstein,
Idar-Oberstein, Germany
Germany

ABSTRACT:
ABSTRACT: The The physico-chemical
physico-chemical and and microscopic
microscopic features
features of of
spessartine
spessartine garnets from a new occurrence in Nigeria are presented.
garnets from a new occurrence in Nigeria are presented.
Chemical
Chemical analyses
analyses show
show that that these
these garnets
garnets have
have aavery
very high
high spessartine
spessartine
component
component of of 89-95%
89-95% with with varying
varying small
small amounts
amounts of of pyrope
pyrope and and
almandine.
almandine. Variation
Variation of of the
the almandine
almandine component
component between
between 1% 1% and
and 6%6%
isis responsible
responsible for
for aa variation
variation of of colours
colours between
between yellow,
yellow, golden
golden yellow
yellow
and
and brown-orange.
brown-orange. Absorption
Absorption spectraspectra of
of the
the yellow
yellow and
and golden
golden yellow
yellow
specimens
specimens (type a spectra) are very similar to those of spessartine from
(type a spectra) are very similar to those of spessartine from
Kunene
Kunene (Namibia),
(Namibia),whilewhile those
those ofof brown-orange
brown-orange colour
colour (type
(type bb spectra)
spectra)
are
are similar
similar to
to those
those from
from Ramona
Ramona (USA).
(USA). The
The main
main inclusions
inclusions in in the
the
Nigerian
Nigerian spessartines
spessartines are are healed
healed cracks
cracks representing
representing thin
thin liquid-filled
liquid-filled
cavities
cavities oror fingerprint-type
fingerprint-type feathers.
feathers.

Keywords:
Keywords: spessartine
spessartine garnet,
garnet, Nigeria,
Nigeria, physico-chemical
physico-chemical properties,
properties,
internal
internal characteristics
characteristics
129

Introduction
Introduction spessartine
spessartine garnets.
garnets. These
These gem
gem garnets
garnets were
were
first
first designed as 'Kunene spessartine' after
designed as 'Kunene spessartine' after

S
pessartine
pessartine garnets
garnets ofof gem
gem quality
quality are
are the
the boundary
boundary river
river between
between Namibia
Namibia and and
relatively
relatively rarerare compared
compared to to other
other Angola,
Angola, but
but became
became widely
widely known
known in in the
the
species
species of of the
the garnet
garnet solid
solid solution
solution jewellery
jewellery industry
industry under
under the
the trade
trade name
name
series.
series. Both
Both quantity
quantity andand quality
quality ofof the
the 'mandarin
'mandarin garnet'.
garnet'.
material
material from different sources such as
from different sources such as
Ramona
Ramona County,
County, California,
California, Macon
Macon County,
County,
Virginia,
Virginia, Minas
Minas Gerais,
Gerais, Brazil,
Brazil, Madagascar,
Madagascar,
Sri
SriLanka
Lanka and
and Kenya,
Kenya, have
have been
been very
very erratic,
erratic,
and
and therefore
therefore spessartine
spessartine garnets
garnets have
have been
been
aa collector's
collector's gemstone
gemstone rather
rather than
than aa stone
stone
suitable
suitable for
for jewellery
jewellery industry
industry purposes.
purposes.
This
Thiswhole
whole picture
picture changed,
changed, when
when inin 1992
1992
an
an occurrence of spessartine garnet was
occurrence of spessartine garnet was
discovered
discovered on
on the
the northern
northern edge
edge of
of Namibia,
Namibia,
near
near the
the border
border with
with Angola
Angola (Lind
(Lind etet ah,
ah,
1993,1994).
1993,1994).
The
The material
material from
from this
this occurrence
occurrence isis of
of aa
fine,
fine, bright
bright orange
orange colour
colour which
which isis easily
easily Figure
Figure1:1:Cut
Cut spessartine
spessartinegarnet
garnet ofof2.68 ctfrom
2.68 ct from
distinguished
distinguished fromfrom allall hitherto
hitherto known
known aanew
new occurrence
occurrenceinin Nigeria.
Nigeria.
©©Gemmological
Gemmological Association
Association and
and Gem
GemTesting
TestingLaboratory
Laboratory ofofGreat
Great Britain
Britain ISSN:
ISSN: 1355-4565
1355-4565
 Production from this source has been Composition
continuous, and has made spessartine
Garnets are a group of minerals with
garnets popular among gem dealers and
extended isomorphous solid solution
jewellers. Unfortunately, sizes of cut stones
between its end members. Although solid
generally are small, and faceted gems of
solution of five and more components is
more than 1 ct are already relatively rare. For
common, usually 80% of the crystal is built
sizes of 2-3 cts and up, a regular supply
up of only two or three main constituents,
cannot be maintained, even at high prices.
and all garnets can be broadly subdivided
Recently, a new source of gem quality into the two solid solution series ugrandite
garnets of fine yellow-orange colour was (with end members uvarovite, grossularite
discovered in Nigeria, West Africa (Bank et and andradite) and pyralspite (with end
al., 1999). The material from this new members pyrope, almandine and
occurrence complements the range of sizes spessartine).
available for fine orange spessartine garnets,
Pyralspite garnets with spessartine being
as sizes of 2-3 ct and more can now be
the main component are called spessartine in
supplied to jewellers (Figure 1).

Table II: Microprobe analyses of spessartine garnets

Refractive index and specific gravity from Nigeria.

Refractive indices of 20 specimens were

Hgr324 ligr325 Ugr326 Hgr327
measured using a Rayner refractometer and
fluid with an RI of 1.81 and the results varied wt%
between 1.801 and 1.803. Specific gravities MgO 0.67 0.99 0.96 0.85
measured using the hydrostatic method
129 varied between 4.15 and 4.22. FeO 0.62 2.77 1.44 2.44
CaO 0.27 0.09 0.19 0.35
Table I compares values of measured
gemmological data for spessartine garnets MnO 40.38 37.67 39.36 37.76
from Nigeria with values for spessartine
garnets from other occurrences described in
A1 2 0 3 21.21 21.40 21.36 21.48
the literature.
Fe 2 0 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Table I: RI values and SG values for gem quality
spessartine garnets from Nigeria compared with v2o3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
published work.
Cr 2 0 3 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.02
Locality n SG
Nigeria 6 1.801-1.803 4.15-4.22 Ti0 2 0.07 0.01 0.08 0.09
Rutherford Mine, 1.802(3) - Si0 2 36.68 37.04 36.55 37.02
Virginia1
Total 99.97 100.00 99.99 100.01
Taita Hills, Kenya 2 1.795-1.809 -
Minas Gerais, Brazil3 1.803-1.805 4.15
4
Mol%
Ramona, Calif. >1.81 4.17
Pyrope 2.8 4.1 3.9 3.5
Kunene, Namibia 5 1.801-1.803 4.15-4.22
Almandine 1.4 6.5 3.3 5.7
1. Sinkankas and Ried, 1966 Spessartine 95.0 89.1 92.1 89.7
2. Medenbach et al, 1978
3. Bank et al, 1970 Grossular 0.6 0.2 0.4 1.0
4. Tisdall, 1962
5. Lind et al, 1993,1994 Uvarovite 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1
6. this work

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 129-132

the trade. Gem-quality spessartine garnets
are usually members of two mainly binary Relevant sector of ternary pyralspite diagram
solid-solution series: for spessartine from Nigeria
• spessartine var. sources
1. spessartine-almandine series (pyrope
A spessartine Nigeria (this paper)
and grossular < 10%);
• spessartine Namibia (Kunene)
2. spessartine-pyrope series (almandine
and grossular < 15%); Sp 100%

(see Sinkankas and Ried, 1966, Bank et al,

1970, Jobbins et al, 1977, Medenbach et al,
1978, and Lind et al, 1993,1994).
Compositions of spessartines from the new
occurrence in Nigeria are shown in Table II.
Figure 2 shows the position of
investigated samples from the new
occurrence within the composition triangle
of pyralspite garnets, together with analyses
of garnets from pyrope-spessartine solid Sp 50% A! 50% Sp = spessartite
Py = pyrope
solution series from the literature and Al = almandine
unpublished data of Lind (1999, in prep.)
As can be seen from this diagram, the Figure 2: Relevant part of ternary pyralspite
garnets from the new occurrence in Nigeria diagram for spessartine garnets from different
have very high spessartine contents of 89- sources and from the new find in Nigeria.
95%, with varying small contents of both
pyrope and almandine.
129
Figure 3 shows typical visible absorption
spectra of specimens with low almandine Absorption spectra of spessartite
garnet from Nigeria
content (a) and high almandine content (b).
Spessartines of spectra type (a) show yellow-
golden colour, while type (b) spectra are
typical for stones of more brownish-
yellow colours.
Type (a) spectra are dominated by spin
forbidden bands of Mn2+[8]. Type (a) spectra
are very similar to those of Kunene material
(Lind et al, 1993, 1994), although extremely
weak Fe2+[8] bands can also be identified.
Type (b) spectra show bands of Mn2+[8]
and Fe2+[8], which are superimposed on a
strong charge transfer band system, which
causes continuously increasing absorption
from the red part of the spectrum towards
T 1 1 1 —i 1 r
the ultraviolet region, and which is the
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
reason for the brownish-yellow colour of
these spessartines. Type (b) spectra resemble wavelength (nm)
those of material from Ramona.
Figure 3: Absorption spectra of spessartine
Positions of absorption bands are given in garnet from Nigeria. Numbers refer to bands
Table III. listed in Table III.

A new find of spessartine garnets in Nigeria

 Figure
Figure 4: Healed
4: Healed cracks
cracks in spessartine
in spessartine fromfrom Figure
Figure 5: Tabby extinction visible under crossed
5: Tabby extinction visible under crossed
Nigeria.
Nigeria. polarizing filters.
polarizing filters.

Internal
Internal features
features Conclusion
Conclusion
TheThe mainmain inclusions
inclusions in inthe the Nigerian
Nigerian Chemical
Chemical analyses
analyses andand absorption
absorption spectra
spectra
spessartine garnets are healing-cracks
spessartine garnets are healing-cracks show that the spessartine garnets from the the
show that the spessartine garnets from
representing thin liquid-filled cavities or
representing thin liquid-filled cavities or newnew occurrence
occurrence in Nigeria
in Nigeria fall fall between
between the the
fingerprint-type feathers (Figure 4). A distinct
fingerprint-type feathers (Figure 4). A distinct binary series spessartine-almandine andand
binary series spessartine-almandine
tabby
tabby extinction
extinction is visible
is visible underunder crossed
crossed spessartine-pyrope.Variation
Variationof of the the
spessartine-pyrope.
polarizing filters (Figure 5). The tiny black almandine component between 1% and
polarizing filters (Figure 5). The tiny black almandine component between 1% and 6% 6%is is
129 inclusions and hollow-tubes
inclusions and hollow-tubes which are which are responsible for the variation
responsible for the variation of colour of colour
typically present in Namibian spessartines between yellow, golden-yellow
typically present in Namibian spessartines between yellow, golden-yellow andand brown-
brown-
have not been
have not been found. found. orange with the latter containing the higher
orange with the latter containing the higher
almandine
almandine component.
component.
Table
Table III:III: Absorption
Absorption bandsbands
(nm)(nm) in spessartine
in spessartine fromfrom
Nigeria (this work) compared with those
Nigeria (this work) compared with those in Namibian in Namibian
stones (hind References
stones (hind et al,et 1993,1994)
al, 1993,1994) References
Bank, H., Berdesinski, W., and Ottemann, J., 1970.
Spessartine Spessartine Bank, H., Berdesinski, W., and Ottemann, J., 1970.
Spessartine Spessartine Orangeroter Spessartin aus Brazilien. Z. Dt. Gemmol.
Band Nigeria Namibia Assignment Orangeroter Spessartin aus Brazilien. Z. Dt. Gemmol.
Band Nigeria Namibia Assignment Ges.f 19(3/4), 123-7
[nm] [nm] Ges., 19(3/4), 123-7
[nm] [nm] Bank, H., Henn, U., and Milisenda, C.C, 1999. Spessartine
Bank, H., Henn, U., and Milisenda, C.C., 1999. Spessartine
1 406 408 Mn 2+ garnets from Nigeria. Z. Dt. Gemmol. Ges., 48, 62-3
1 406 408 Mn 2+ garnets from Nigeria. Z. Dt. Gemmol. Ges., 48, 62-3
Jobbins, E.A., Saul, J.M., Statham, P.M., and Young, B.R.,
2 420 420 Mn 2+ Jobbins, E.A., Saul, J.M., Statham, P.M., and Young, B.R.,
2 420 420 Mn 2+ 1977. Studies of a gem garnet suite from the Umba
1977. Studies of a gem garnet suite from the Umba
3 428 430 Mn 2+ river, Tanzania. /. Gemmol, 16(3), 161-71
3 428 430 Mn 2+ river, Tanzania. J. Gemmol., 16(3), 161-71
Lind, Th., Bank, H., and Henn, U., 1993. Spessartine aus
4 457 457 Mn 2+ Lind, Th., Bank, H., and Henn, U., 1993. Spessartine aus
4 457 457 Mn 2+ Namibia., N. Jahrb. Miner. Mh., 12, 569-76
Namibia., N. Jahrb. Miner. Mh., 12, 569-76
5 480 483 Mn 2+ Lind, Th., Henn, U., and Bank, H.,1994. Leuchtend
5 480 483 Mn 2+ Lind, Th., Henn, U., and Bank, H., 1994. Leuchtend
orangefarbige Spessartine aus einem neuen
orangefarbige Spessartine aus einem neuen
6 503 n.f. Fe2+ Vorkommon in Namibia. Z. Dt. Gemmol. Ges., 43(1/2),
6 503 n.f. Fe2+ Vorkommon in Namibia. Z. Dt. Gemmol. Ges., 43(1/2),
39-47.
7 524 527 Mn 2+ , Fe2+ 39-47.
7 524 527 Mn 2+ , Fe2+ Medenbach, O., Schmetzer, K., and Krupp, H., 1978.
Medenbach, O., Schmetzer, K., and Krupp, H., 1978.
8 566 n.f. Fe2+ Spessartine aus den Taita Hills, Kenia. Der Aufschlufi,
8 566 n.f. Fe2+ Spessartine aus den Taita Hills, Kenia. Der Aufschluß,
29, 275-6
9 566 n.f. Fe2+ 29, 275-6
9 566 n.f. Fe2+ Sinkankas, J., and Ried, A.M., 1966. Colour-composition
Sinkankas, J., and Ried, A.M., 1966. Colour-composition
10 607 n.f. Fe2+ relationship in spessartine from Amelia, Virginia. /.
! relationship
10 607 n.f. Fe2+ ! in spessartine from Amelia, Virginia. J.
Gemmol, 10(4), 125-34
11 686 n.f. 2+ Gemmol., 10(4), 125-34
2+ Fe Tisdall, F.S., 1962. Spessartines from Madagascar.
11 686 n.f. Fe Tisdall, F.S., 1962. Spessartines from Madagascar.
Gemmologist, 26,124-5
Gemmologist, 26, 124-5

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 129-132

J. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 129-132
 Imperialtopaz
Imperial topazfrom
from Ouro
OuroPreto,
Preto,
Brazil:chemical
Brazil: chemicalcharacter
characterand
and
thermal behaviour
thermal behaviour
1 1 2 2 3 3
G.M.
G.M. dada Costa
Costa , A.C.S.
, A.C.S. Sabioni
Sabioni and
and C MFerreira
C.M. . Ferreira
1. 1. Chemistry
Chemistry Department,
Department, 2. 2. Physics
Physics Department,
Department, 3. 3. Geology
Geology Department
Department
Universidade
Universidade Federal
Federal dede Ouro
Ouro Preto,
Preto, 35400,
35400, Ouro
Ouro Preto,
Preto, MG,
MG, Brazil
Brazil

ABSTRACT: Imperial
ABSTRACT: Imperialtopaz
topazfrom fromtwotwomining
miningfields
fieldsnear
nearOuro
OuroPretoPreto
have
have been
been investigated
investigated byby thermal
thermal analysis
analysis and
and X-ray
X-ray diffraction.It It
diffraction. waswas
foundthat
found thatnonochanges
changesin inthethecomposition
compositionoccurred
occurredononheating
heatingupupto to
1000°C,
1000°C, butbut
thethe colour
colour changed
changed from
from reddish-brown
reddish-brown to to colourless.
colourless. AA first
first
lossof ofmass,
loss mass,ascribed
ascribedto tothetherelease
releaseof ofOHOHgroups
groupsoccurs
occursat atabout
about
1200°C,
1200°C, andand a second
a second loss
loss occurs
occurs at at 1320°C
1320°C at at which
which mullite
mullite wasformed.
was formed.

Keywords:Imperial
Keywords: Imperial topaz,
topaz, thermalstability
thermal stability

133
Introduction
Introduction quartz,
quartz, dolomite,
dolomite, andsometimes,
and sometimes, in insmaller
smaller 129
amounts,muscovite,
amounts, muscovite,hematite,
hematite,euclase,
euclase,and and

TT
hehe mineral
mineral topaz
topaz is is a a fluorine
fluorine rutile.
rutile. Topaz
Topaz fromfrom hydrothermal
hydrothermal veins
veins cancan
bebe
aluminiumsilicate,
aluminium silicate,with
with chemical
chemical foundin in
found a broadrange
a broad rangeof of coloursincluding
colours including
formula A ^AS^iSOiJOCJO
formula CHO^H. ^A.LA L where
where orange-yellow,brownish-orange,
orange-yellow, brownish-orange,orange- orange-
thethe hydroxylgroup
hydroxyl groupcan canreplace
replacefluorine
fluorineupup pink,violet,
pink, violet, and,
and, rarely,
rarely,as asgreen
green or or
to to ~ 30
~ 30 mol%
mol% (Barton,
(Barton, 1982).
1982). AA fullyhydrated
fully hydrated colourless. Except
colourless. Except forfor thethe green
green and and
topazhas
topaz hasbeen
beenrecently
recentlysynthesized
synthesizedat at colourlesstopaz,
colourless topaz,these
thesevariations
variationsarearecalled
called
hightemperatures
high temperaturesand andpressures
pressures(Wunder
(Wunder imperial
imperial topaz.
topaz. The
The crystals
crystals of of imperial
imperial topaz
topaz
et et
ah,ah, 1993).
1993). usually
usually weigh
weigh less
less than
than 200200
g, g, and,
and, only
only very
very
Therearearetwo
There twomajor
majortypes
typesof ofgeological
geological rarely
rarely have
have these
these crystals
crystals been
been foundwith
found with a a
occurrencesof oftopaz topazproducing
producingprecious precious weight
weight exceeding
exceeding 1 kg.
1 kg.
occurrences
stones:(a)(a)pegmatite,
stones: pegmatite,and and(b)(b)hydrothermal
hydrothermal In Infact,
fact,imperial
imperialtopaz
topazis israre,
rare,and,
and,today,
today,
veins
veins in in carbonate
carbonate rocks.
rocks. In In
thethe firstcase,
first case,
thethe mining
mining of of
thisthis mineral
mineral is is taking
taking place
place onlyin in
only
topazesareare
topazes associatedwith
associated withminerals
mineralssuch suchas as twotwo localities
localities in in
thethe world.
world. OneOne is Chundao
is Chundao Hill,
Hill,
quartz,
quartz, feldspar,
feldspar, muscovite
muscovite andand cassiterite.
cassiterite. TheThe in in Pakistan,
Pakistan, andandthethe otheris is
other nearthethehistoric
near historic
coloursof ofthese
colours thesetopazes
topazesarearepale
paleblue,blue,pale
pale town
town of of
OuroOuro Preto,
Preto, Minas
Minas Gerais,
Gerais, Brazil.
Brazil.
green,colourless
green, colourlessor,or,rarely,
rarely,pale
paleyellow.
yellow.The The
Thetwo
The twomost
mostimportant
importantmining
miningsites
sitesof of
topazesfrom
topazes frompegmatites
pegmatitesareareknown known as as
imperial
imperial topaz
topaz in in Ouro
Ouro Preto
Preto areare Capao,
Capao, and and
common
common topaz
topaz or or simply
simply topaz,
topaz, areare common
common in in
Vermelhao. These
Vermelhao. These minesmines and and thethe
weights
weights more
more than
than 1 kg1 kg and
and maymay attain
attain 100100
kg.kg.
characteristics of of their
characteristics their imperial
imperial topaz
topaz
AsAs there
there areare
manymany occurrences
occurrences of of this
this mineral
mineral
varietieshave
varieties havebeenbeendescribed
describedelsewhere
elsewhere
in in
thethe world,
world, it considered
it is is considered a common
a common gem.
gem.
(Olsen,1971;
(Olsen, 1971; D'Elbouxand
D'Elboux andFerreira,
Ferreira,1975;
1975;
In In thethe second
second case,case, topaz
topaz from Cassedanneand
from Cassedanne andSauer,
Sauer, 1987;
1987; Menzies,
Menzies, 1995;
1995;
hydrothermalveins
hydrothermal veinscancanbebeassociated Sauer
with Sauer
associatedwith et et
al,al,1996).
1996).

© Gemmological
© Gemmological Association
Association andand
GemGem Testing
Testing Laboratory
Laboratory of Great
of Great Britain
Britain ISSN: 1355-4565 5
 The typical colours of imperial topaz from Chemical and thermal characterization
the Ouro Preto area range from yellow-
Typical values for transition metal
orange to reddish-brown. Some of the
elements found in these topaz varieties are
reddish-brown crystals can be heat treated to
shown in Table I, and the most significant
pink, which is appreciated in the gem
variation is related to the chromium content.
market. The heat treatment of imperial
Chromium is a chromophore and its amount
topazes from Ouro Preto has been performed
increases from the orangy-yellow topazes to
at a few mines (Sauer et al., 1996), and has
the brownish-red varieties. The elements V
also been a subject of scientific research
and Ni are also chromophores and may play
(Sabioni et al., 1997). This work was
some role in the topaz colour.
performed in this context, and deals with the
study of the chemical and thermal behaviour Fourier-transform infrared spectra (FTIR)
of imperial topaz during heating. The were collected in a Nicolet spectro-
chemical composition and structure changes photometer in order to characterize the
are investigated, and a chemical formula for presence of hydroxyl groups in both natural
the Capao topaz is calculated. and thermally treated samples. The pellets
were prepared by grinding about 1 mg of the
sample with 100 mg of KBr.
Materials and methods
The water content of the topaz was
determined by titration using the Karl-
Topaz samples Fischer method after heating at 1200°C. The
principle of this method is described
This work was performed using two
elsewhere (Skoog et al, 1992).
samples from the Capao Mine (samples CI
and C2) and two samples from the Powder X-ray diffraction patterns (XRD)
Vermelhao Mine (VI and V2). The two were taken to check the effect of the thermal
129 samples from each mine were orangy-yellow treatment on the topaz structure, and for the
and brownish-red as shown in Figure 1 for determination of the fluorine content. The
the samples CI and C2. diffractograms were collected by using a
Rigaku Geigerflex diffractometer with Cu Koc
The refractive indices of these imperial
radiation and a graphite monochromator.
topazes lie in the ranges a, 1.629, & 1.632 and
The scans were done in the range of 15° - 70°
71.637, and the specific gravity is about 3.54.
(20) at a speed of 1° mhr 1 . For the
quantification of fluorine the method
Figure 1: Orangy-yellow and brownish-red proposed by Ribbe and Rosenberg (1971)
imperial topazes from the Ouro Preto region was used. This method is based on the shift
(samples CI and C2). Actual size. (Photo by of the (021) topaz diffraction line, which was
A. Liccardo.) shown to be proportional to the fluorine
content. For these experiments, sodium
chloride was mixed with the samples and the
scans were done in the rate of 26° - 33°C at a
speed of 0.25° mirr 1 . Peak positions were
determined by fitting the numerical profiles
with a Pearson VII function.
Simultaneous thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA) and differential thermal analysis
(DTA) were performed in a Du Pont
SDT2960 module. The temperature ranged
from 25°C to 1380°C, using a constant flow of
nitrogen or synthetic air (100 ml/min) and a
heating rate of 10°C/min. All runs were

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3,133-138

Table I: Contents of transition metal elements (ppm) and fluorine (%) in imperial topazes

Sample Colour Fe Mn Cr V Ni Co F
CI Orangy-yellow 2150 <10 280 116 22 <5 18.0

C2 Brownish-red 3100 <10 660 114 12 <5 16.2

VI Orangy-yellow 5000 46 160 60 15 <5 17.1

V2 Brownish-red 4400 40 380 56 10 <5 15.1

performed with powders as well as with to estimate the fluorine contents. According
crystals about 3 m m in size. to the method, proposed by Ribbe and
Rosenberg (1971), the fluorine content in
topaz is given by:
Results and discussion
(% F) = 155.6 - 35.7 A021,

Chemical characteristics where A021 - 29NaC1 200 - 26 t o p a z 021 and is

measured in degrees.
The fluorine contents were first
The results obtained for the fluorine
determined using the specific ion electrode
contents in the topaz samples CI, C2, VI and
method at a commercial laboratory, but the
V2 are listed in Table I. The total error,
results were much lower than those
considering an uncertainty of about 0.05° in
predicted by the chemical formula of topaz.
A021, is about 1%.
The reason is assumed to be associated with
the method of preparation of the samples for The water contents of samples CI and C2,
135129
this type of analysis. Therefore an alternative were determined using the Karl-Fischer
method based on X-ray diffraction was used method and gave results of 1.73% and 1.84%

Figure 2: Thermogravimetric curves of topaz samples from Capao and Vermelhao mines.

I
Q

I
CD
Q

900 1000 1100 1200 1300 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Temperature (°c) Temperature (°c)

Imperial topaz from Ouro Preto, Brazil: chemical character and thermal behaviour
129 136
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
Wavenumber (cm2)

Figure 3: Infrared spectra of sample V2 before (bottom) and after thermal treatment at 1230°C (top).

respectively. Using the above results for the F The atmosphere used in the experiments
and H 2 0 contents in the samples from Capao plays an important role in the overall shape
Mine, it was possible to deduce the value of the thermogravimetric curves, but the loss
x~0.80 in the chemical formula of mass is generally not so affected. In some
Al 2 Si0 4 [F x (OH) 1 . x ] 2 . This result is similar to samples the high temperature peak clearly
the value of 0.75 reported by Barton (1982) splits in two depending on the atmosphere
for a topaz sample from Ouro Preto. used. All these results show that the
interpretation of these curves is not
straightforward, and only a general
Thermal characteristics
proposition can be made at this stage: the
Typical thermogravimetric curves of low temperature peak is due to the loss of
samples from Vermelhao (V) and Capao (C) OH groups, probably as water, or as Si(OH) 4,
in different atmospheres are shown in whereas the other one is due to the loss of
Figure 2. A common feature for all samples is
fluorine.
the thermal stability up to temperatures of
1000°C. All samples show an endothermic Further evidence that the first loss of mass
loss of mass of about 5% in the vicinity of at about 1200°C is due to the release of OH
1200°C, and a second endothermic loss groups was found from the following
ranging from 8% to 15% at temperatures experiment: the TGA was repeated for
about 1320°C. sample V2, but the run was interrupted at

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 133-138

 0.7 J

Theoretical Si/AI ratio in topaz

0.6-

.o
gj 0.5.

0.4-

0.3 -J
Theoretical Si/AI ratio in mullite
137129
— I — ' —I
— ' 1 ' 1 1 1—
200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Temperature (°C)

Figure 4: Effect of the thermal treatment on the Si/AI ratio of sample CI.

1230°C (air atmosphere). The infrared spectra product obtained after heating the sample at
of both the original and heated sample were 1380°C was identified by XRD as mullite
collected, and are displayed in Figure 3. The (Al 6 Si 2 0 13 ), which means that silicon has
sharp peaks at 3460 c m 1 and 1166 c m 4 are been released from the topaz structure,
attributed to the stretching and bending perhaps as SiF4.
modes of OH groups (Shinoda and Aikawa,
1997), and these peaks are clearly reduced in This assumption is corroborated by
the heated sample. However, the loss of Figure 4, where the Si/AI ratio for identical
about 5% of mass is not in agreement with topaz samples from Capao mine was plotted
the value determined from both the Karl- after heating from room temperature to
Fischer method (H z O) and XRD (fluorine), 1380°C, during one hour, in an air
and therefore it is likely that more than one atmosphere. It is seen that the Si/AI ratio
reaction is taking place at this temperature. approaches that of mullite as the annealing
temperature increases, in good agreement
From the above discussion it is seen that with the results obtained by XRD.
the mechanism for the thermal
decomposition of topaz in not yet clear. The Concerning the colour changes of the

Imperial topaz from Ouro Preto, Brazil: chemical character and thermal behaviour
 Ribbe,
Ribbe, PH.,
P.H., andand Rosenberg,
Rosenberg, P.E.,
P.E., 1971.
1971. Optical
Optical and andX-ray
X-ray
topazsamples
topaz samplesduring
duringthethethermal
thermalanalysis,
analysis,it it
determinative
determinative methods
methods forfor fluorine
fluorine in in topaz.
topaz. American
American
wasfound
was foundthat
thatupuptoto300°C
300°Cnonochange
changeininthe
the Mineralogist,
Mineralogist, 56,56,1812-21
1812-21
reddish-brown or orangy-yellow
reddish-brown or orangy-yellow topaz topaz Sabioni,A.C.S.,
Sabioni, A.C.S.,1997.1997.Tratamento
TratamentoTermoquímico
Termoquimicodede
occurs.However,
occurs. However,at at600°C 600°Ca apink
pinkcolour
colour Minerais-Gemas: Aplicações
Minerais-Gemas: Aplicac,6es aoao Topázio Topazio e e aoao
developed,which
whichdisappeared
disappearedafterafterfurther
further Corindon.
Coríndon. Processo
Processo TEC TEC - 8126/97,
- 8126/97, FAPEMIG
FAPEMIG
developed,
Sauer,D.A.,
Sauer, D.A.,Keller,
Keller,A.S.,
A.S.,and andMcClure,
McClure,S.F., S.F.,1996.
1996.AnAn
heatingatat900°C.
heating 900°C.AtAthigher
highertemperatures
temperaturesa a updateononImperial
ImperialTopaz Topazfrom fromthetheCapão
CapaoMine, Mine,
update
whiteand
white andopaque
opaquematerial
materialwaswasformed.
formed. Minas
Minas Gerais,
Gerais, Brazil.
Brazil. GemsGems andand Gemology,
Gemology, 32,32, 232-41
232-41
Shinoda,
Shinoda, R.,R.,
andand Aikawa,
Aikawa, N.,N., 1997.
1997. IRIR active
active orientation
orientation of of
OH OH bending
bending mode
mode in in topaz.
topaz. Physics
Physics andand Chemistry
Chemistry of of
Conclusions
Conclusions Minerals,
Minerals, 24,24, 551-4
551-4
Skoog,D.A.,
Skoog, D.A.,West,West,D.M.,
D.M.,and and Holler,
Holler,F.J.,F.J.,1992.
1992.
Imperial topazestopazes fromfrom Ouro
Ouro Preto
Preto Fundamentals of ofanalytical
Fundamentals analyticalchemistry,
chemistry,6th6thEdition.
Edition.
Imperial
Saunders
Saunders College
College Publishing,
Publishing, Fort
Fort Worth,
Worth, pp.pp. 393-5
393-5
have been
have been chemically
chemically and and thermally
thermally
Wunder,B.,B.,
Wunder, Rubie,D.C.,
Rubie, D.C., RossRossII, II, C.R.,Medenbach,
C.R., Medenbach,O.,O.,
characterized.From
characterized. Fromdetermination
determinationofofF Fand
and Seifert,
Seifert, F., E,
and and Schreyer,
Schreyer, W.,W., 1993.
1993. Synthesis,
Synthesis, stability,
stability,
OHOHcontents,
contents,a arepresentative
representativeformula
formulaofof and andproperties
propertiesof ofAlAl 2 Si0
2 SiO 4 (OH)
4 (OH)
: A fully hydrated
2 : 2A fully hydrated

AlAl 2 SiO 4 [F 08 (OH) 02 ]2was

wascalculated
calculatedforforthe
the analogue
analogue of of topaz.
topaz. American
American Mineralogist,
Mineralogist, 78,78, 285-97
285-97
2 SiO 4 [F 08 (OH) 02 ]2
Capao
Capao topazes.topazes.
Thermogravimetricstudies
Thermogravimetric studiesindicate
indicatethatthat
heatingofoftopaz
heating topazupuptoto1000°C
1000°Capparently
apparently
causesnonochange
causes changeininthethecomposition,
composition,but butthe
the
colour changes
colour changes fromfrom reddish-brown
reddish-brown oror
orange-yellowtotocolourless.
orange-yellow colourless.A Afirstfirstloss
lossofof
mass,ascribed
mass, ascribedtotothetherelease
releaseofofOHOHgroups
groups
occursat atabout
occurs about1200°C,
1200°C,and anda asecond
secondloss loss
occursat at1320°C.
occurs 1320°C.
AtAtthis
thistemperature,
temperature,mullite
mullite
129138 is isthe
theonly
onlycrystalline
crystallinephase
phasepresent.
present.

Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
Thiswork
This workwas
wassupported
supportedbybythe
theBrazilian
Brazilian
agenciesFAPEMIG
agencies FAPEMIGand andCNPq.
CNPq.The Theauthors
authors
arearegrateful
gratefultotoDr.
Dr.Catherine
Catherine McCammon
McCammon
(University ofof Bayreuth,
(University Bayreuth, Germany)
Germany) forfor
performingthe
performing theKarl-Fischer
Karl-Fischeranalysis.
analysis.

References
References
Barton,M.D.,
Barton, M.D.,1982.
1982.The Thethermodynamic
thermodynamicproperties
propertiesof of
topaz solid
topaz solid solutions
solutions and and some some petrologic
petrologic
applications.
applications. American
American Mineralogist,
Mineralogist, 67,67, 956-74
956-74
Cassedanne,J.P.,
Cassedanne, J.P.,and
andSauer,
Sauer,D.A.,
D.A.,1987.
1987.LaLatopaze
topaze
imperiale.
impériale. Revue
Revue de de Gemmologie,
Gemmologie, 91,91,
2-92-9
D'Elboux,C.V.,
D'Elboux, C.V.,and andFerreira,
Ferreira,C.M.,
CM.,1975.1975.Topázio
Topazionana
regiaodedeOuro
regiao OuroPreto.
Preto. BoletimdodoDepartamento
Boletim Departamentodede
Geologia,
Geologia, UFOP,
UFOP, Publicacao
Publicação Especial
Especial NoNo1, 1,
73-973-9
Menzies,M.A.,
Menzies, M.A.,1995.1995.TheThemineralogy,
mineralogy,geology
geologyand and
occurrence
occurrence of of topaz.
topaz. Mineralogical
Mineralogical Record,
Record, 26,26, 5-60
5-60
Olsen,D.R.,
Olsen, D.R.,1971.
1971. Originof oftopaz
Origin topazdeposits
depositsnear nearOuro
Ouro
Preto,Minas
Preto, MinasGerais,
Gerais,Brazil.
Brazil.Economic
EconomicGeology,
Geology,66,66,
627-31
627-31

/. Gemm.,
J. Gemm., 2000,
2000, 27,27,
3, 3, 133-138
133-138
 Somaliland - aa potential gem
Somaliland
producer in
producer in the
the Mozambique Belt
Judith A.
Judith Kinnaird11 and
A. Kinnaird and Brian Jackson22
Brian Jackson
1. Department
1. Department of
of Geology,
Geology,University
University of
of Witwatersrand,
Witwatersrand, Private
Private Bag
Bag 3,
3,
Wits 2050, South Africa, email: [email protected]
Wits 2050, South Africa, email: [email protected]
2. Department
2. Department of
of Geology,
Geology, National
National Museums
Museums of
of Scotland,
Scotland, Chambers
Chambers Street,
Street,
Edinburgh
Edinburgh

ABSTRACT: Gem-quality
ABSTRACT: Gem-quality minerals
minerals such
such as as emerald,
emerald, ruby,
ruby, sapphire,
sapphire,
aquamarine, garnet
aquamarine, garnet and and amethyst
amethyst have have been
been found
found recently
recently in in
Somaliland. The
Somaliland. The majority
majority of of the
the gems
gemstones
tones areare derived
derived from
from pegmatitic
pegmatitic
host rocks,
host rocks, which
which are are related
related to to late
late granite
granite intrusions
intrusions in in the
the
Mozambique orogenic
Mozambique orogenic belt.
belt. The
The pegmatites
pegmatites occur
occur in
in an
an east-west
east-west zone
zone
through the
through the centre
centre of of Somaliland.
Somaliland. WhereWhere pegmatites
pegmatites cross-cut
cross-cut biotite
biotite
and amphibole schists, emeralds may occur, whereas
and amphibole schists, emeralds may occur, whereas when pegmatites when pegmatites
cross-cut migmatites
cross-cut migmatites and and granite
granite gneisses,
gneisses, aquamarines
aquamarines are are more
more
common. Not
common. Not all
all the
the gemstones
gemstones described
described havehave been
been collected
collected from
from
production sites, and minerals such as rubies, sapphires,
production sites, and minerals such as rubies, sapphires, opal and opal and
pyrope or
pyrope or almandine
almandine garnet
garnet are
are likely
likely to
to have
have originated
originated from
from aa range
range of
of
different rock
different rock types.
types. Most
Most gemstones
gemstones are are being
being extracted
extracted from
from solid
solid 139
unweathered rock
unweathered rock and
and recovery
recovery methods
methods are are unsophisticated.
unsophisticated.
129
The importance
The importance of of gems
gems in in the
the Mozambique
Mozambique orogenic
orogenic belt belt has
has
previously been
previously been noted
noted within
within Kenya,
Kenya, Tanzania,
Tanzania, Sri
Sri Lanka,
Lanka, India
India and
and
Madagascar. The
Madagascar. The recognition
recognition of of the
the extension
extension of
of the
the Mozambique
Mozambique belt belt
into Somaliland
into Somaliland is is therefore
therefore of
of considerable
considerable interest
interest as
as itit means
means there
there is
is
potential for
potential for the
the production
production of of aa wide-range
wide-range ofof gemstones,
gemstones, and and this
this
remains to
remains to be
be fully
fully assessed.
assessed.

Keywords: amethyst,
Keywords: amethyst, aquamarine,
aquamarine, emerald,
emerald, extraction,
extraction, garnet,
garnet, geology,
geology,
Gondwana, Mozambique
Gondwana, Mozambique Belt,
Belt, opal,
opal, pegmatites,
pegmatites, sapphire,
sapphire, Somaliland,
Somaliland,
titanite, vesuvianite,
titanite, vesuvianite, zircon
zircon

Introduction
Introduction natural resources
natural resources is is being
being investigated
investigated and and
the gemmological
the gemmological potential potential of
of Somaliland
Somaliland

T
he discovery
he discovery of of gemstones
gemstones in in may provide
may provide an an important
important incomeincome
Somaliland and their subsequent
Somaliland and their subsequent generation in this country where
generation in this country where many will many will
recovery only
recovery only began
began inin 1990.
1990. ItIt is
is earn only $10 per month.
earn only $10 per month. This article This article
surprising, considering the widespread
surprising, considering the widespread presents more
presents more detailed
detailed information
information than than
distribution and
distribution and range
range of
of gemstones,
gemstones, that
that appeared in
appeared in aa preliminary
preliminary note
note introducing
introducing
they were
they were not
not noted
noted previously
previously during
during the
the Somaliland as
Somaliland as aa new
new gemgem source.
source. (Kinnaird,
(Kinnaird,
excellent field
excellent field mapping
mapping undertaken
undertaken byby the
the 1999). ItIt isis based
1999). based on on mineral
mineral samples
samples shown
shown
Geological Survey Department
Geological Survey Department during during and donated by various mining
and donated by various mining groups and groups and
colonial rule.
colonial rule. Sustainable
Sustainable development
development of of is not necessarily representative of
is not necessarily representative of the types the types

©Gemmological
© Gemmological Association
Association and
and Gem
Gem Testing
Testing Laboratory
Laboratory of
of Great
Great Britain
Britain ISSN: 1355^565
ISSN: 1355-4565
 of material, or the quality of stones available. Table I: Minerals from Somali pegmatites, or in the
collections of miners and traders.
It also emphasizes that the majority are
derived from pegmatite host rocks.
Silicate Non-silicate
beryl: aquamarine apatite
Location and access
emerald cassiterite
Somaliland lies in the Horn of Africa. It is diopside chakopyrite
a hot country with a varied scenery ranging epidote chrysoberyl
from upland plateaux to forested garnet: pyrope corundum: ruby
mountainous regions and a hot coastal plain almandine sapphire
fringed by white sands. On independence in
grossular hematite
1960, the British protectorate joined with the
hornblende pyrite
Italian protectorate to form the new State of
Somalia, but civil war between the two opal rutile
factions soon followed. Despite the quartz varieties spinels fpleonaste')
declaration of independence in 1991 and the (including amethyst
restoration of NW Somalia as Somaliland, and rock crystal)
there have been local disputes and occasional titanite
upsurges in clan-related violence. Generally topaz
however, it is now quite safe to visit most tourmaline
gem-bearing areas, although their remote zircon
location, coupled with local suspicion, means
that an arranged guide from the appropriate
area is essential, and permission from the
and rarer mineral species, to minerals such as
Ministry of Water and Minerals should also
be sought. Access into any area is by four- emerald, ruby, sapphire and aquamarine
wheeled drive vehicle, which can be hired in (Table I), which contain a proportion of gem-
129 the capital Hargeisa. Hire includes a driver quality material that has definite potential
who can act as an interpreter. Roads have for the overseas market.
suffered badly during the war, and few Other mineral varieties like phenakite,
bridges remain intact, which requires alexandrite and heliodor were reported
deviations through stream valleys. Only the though were not seen, and it is unwise to
main roads from Hargeisa to Berbera, place too much reliance on local gem
Hargeisa to Borama and Hargeisa to Sheik identification as most producers or traders
are in relatively good condition, the are only just beginning to learn to identify
remainder are dirt roads of poor quality To
the minerals. Occurrences reported as
reach the emerald-bearing localities to the
'tanzanite', either turned out to be purple
north of Bawn, for example, requires a ten-
fluorite or lilac vesuvianite. Similarly, a
hour return journey by road from Borama.
supposed emerald from a gem-producing
Also, individual localities may be a long
area was found to be quartz coloured green
walk or climb from access tracks as the gem
localities are often in mountainous terrain. by secondary copper minerals. Green
The difficulty of access means that the epidote and diopside are frequently
miners must camp away from their confused as tourmaline or peridot.
home village. Unfortunately, there is also a widespread
belief among the inhabitants that there is an
abundance of diamonds in the country. This
Variety of gemstones is based on the mis-identification of quartz
During a visit to Somaliland, a number of by certain traders using gem-testing
minerals were shown to one author (JAK) by equipment incorrectly. The abundant small
collectors and traders in Hargeisa, Borama, quartz crystals common in small cavities in
Berbera and Sheik. These vary from common rocks are called 'sugar-diamonds' by
low-value minerals like garnet and amethyst these traders.

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 139-154

 Geology and occurrence (Figure 1). It comprises an older Precambrian
crust in the west, which has been through
The geological history spans a long period
several geological events, and a simpler Pan-
of time even by geological standards. The
African terrain in the eastern sector which
oldest rocks are more than 1800 Ma (Kroner
has evolved in one geological period from
et al., 1989), whilst basaltic flows have
around 700-500 Ma. Altogether, the
erupted in the last 30 Ma with the opening of
basement consists of five metasedimentary
the Gulf of Aden. It is possible that rare
sequences interrupted by two different
rhyolite horizons within these basalts may be
phases of igneous activity (Table II). Single
the source of opals which are being mined in
zircon age dates on samples from the
NW Somaliland. The extensive Mesozoic and
Hargeisa-Sheik-Burao area give very precise
Cenozoic sedimentary succession deposited
ages for these rocks (Kroner and Sassi, 1996).
in the last 200 million years does not contain
gem minerals.
The Palaeoproterozoic Qabri Bahar
The crystalline basement of Somaliland Complex was originally dominantly
crops out at the surface in a discontinuous sedimentary sandstones and mudstones.
belt about 600 km long and 30 km wide, These were metamorphosed and deformed
running parallel to the Gulf of Aden and several times. In contrast, the overlying Mora
covering an area of around 30,000 km 2 Complex (Gebile, Borama and Mora Series)

Figure 1: Geological map of part of the northwestern Somaliland, showing the older rocks of the Qabri
Bahar and Mora Complexes, and the Neoproterozoic rocks of the Mozambique orogenic belt, with
important pegmatite localities. The younger rocks shown in yellow are Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary
sandstones, siltstones, limestones, evaporites and Tertiary to Quaternary basalts.

GULF OF ADEN

Lughaye

J
^>
1
Qabri

V-
^,
S£ ^ if?
Gebfley
p-m
Geology
ETHIOPIA m
Hargefc • Pegmatite occurrences

H B Younger Granites
SOMALILAND Neoproterozok-complexes: Inda Ad, Mait
Abdulkadir and gabbro syenites

Mora Complex
Qabri Bahar Complex

Somaliland - a potential gem producer in the Mozambique Belt

 ~

Table II: The subdivisions of the Somaliland Basement.

Chronometric subdiu ision Complex • Age Litholog ies

Ca mb rian Younge r gran ite com plexes 500 - 550 Ma (S) Un foliated subalka line to alka line gra n ites w ith aplites and
pegmati tes; massive to folia ted ca lc-a lka line gra n ites.

Cambrian Ind a Ad Co m plex 500 - 550 Ma (S) Low to ve ry low grade met asedimentary turbidi tic seq uence of
cong lome ra tes, sands tones, silts an d mudstones. The seq uence has
been in terpreted as mo las se se d ime n ts d eri ved from erosion of a
volcan ic ar c in Saud i Ara bia (Abbate et at., 1985).

Neop ro teroz oic Mait Complex 640- Ma (S) Pillow to massi ve basa lts and associa ted de pos its, muds and sands
and occasional ca rbonate uni ts w h ich have been meta morphosed to
gree nsc his t facies to form a g reens tone belt.

Ne op roterozoic Abd ulkadir Com p lex 640 ± 67 Ma (S) Volcano-sedimenta ry sequence w ith greensc h ist facies pelit es and
772 ± 40 Ma (S) acid and basic volc anics w hich wer e de pos ited unconfor ma bly on the
olde r Mora Com p lex (Warden and Daniels, 1983). Most of the
con tac ts a p pea r to be faulted .

Ne op rote roz oic Ga bb ro-sye n ite -700 Ma (F) Deformat ion and low-grad e metamorphism . G ra n itoid magma tism
778 - 814 ± 7 Ma 720 Ma (K&S) to 697 Ma (Sas si et al., 1989). Ga bbros, d ior ites and
(K&S) syen ites (778 - 814 ± 7) e m placed at a rela tive ly high crustal level
d ur ing crustal exte nsion (Abda lla et al., 1996) ea rly min or alka line
gra nites at 842 ± 4 Ma (K&S).
Mesoproterozoic Mora Series
1400 Ma Domin an tly marbl es wi th metaquar tzit es and pelite in tercalati ons.
?Mesoproterozoic Bora ma -Ubali Pelitic
Series (F) Pelites wi th in tercalated am p hibolites.

?Mesoproterozo ic Ge bile Psa rnmit ic Ser ies (F) Dominantly psammites with min or amphibolit es, sch ists and marbles
(Warden & Horkel, 1984).
'-

Palaeoproterozo ic Qabri Baha r Co m p lex 1710 Ma-1822 ± 5 Ma Medium to h igh grade, polymetam orphic basem en t of migmatites,
~ (K&S) mi gmat ised at g ne isses, pa ragn eisses, gra ni te gne isses, am p hibo lites and rare calc-
:l
N - 840 Ma silicate rocks. Relics of gra nulite facies rema in wi th in a domi nan t
25
,0
a m ph ibolite facies metamor phism retrograd ed to greenschist facies.
N
::'-J
2' N .B. The terminology used is that o f the Geo log ical ma p of Somalia (1994), Frizzo (1993) (F in tabl e), Warden and Hor kel (1984). Age d a ta from Sassi ei al.
~
Co
(1989) (S in tabl e) and Kron er and Sassi (1996) (K&S in tabl e). The ages are not necessarily th e complete time spa n of th e ser ies shown, but give ages of
~ samples dated from the sequence. Chronome tric sub div isio ns are from the Int erna tion al Com m ission on Stra tigra p hy (Plum b, 1991).
~
is dominated by carbonates with some Although most of the gemstones are
sandstones and mudstones, which do not recovered from the pegmatites, rubies and
appear to have undergone the same sapphires probably also occur in basalt flows
multiphase deformation events. Field in the Molis area, 50 km north of Hargeisa,
evidence suggests that the Mora Complex is although it proved logistically impossible
in tectonic contact with the Quabri Bahar and to visit the locality. The opals, by analogy
the migmatites separating these two with the Ethiopian occurrences may come
complexes are interpreted as a high strain from rhyolite horizons within young
zone. The Mora and Qabri Bahar Complexes volcanic rocks.
were intruded by gabbro-syenite bodies
(Daniels et al, 1965) about 700 Ma ago
(Ferrara et al, 1987; Kroner and Sassi, 1996). Pegmatite petrology
A second phase of plutonism affected the The majority of the pegmatites have a
whole Precambrian basement in the period simple mineralogy comprising quartz and
550-500 Ma with the intrusion of two granitic microcline with minor accessory muscovite,
series: an older, sometimes foliated series but some of the pegmatites are more complex
affected by a late orogenic deformation and a and are clearly zoned. In the Hargeisa and
younger post-orogenic group which has Borama district these zoned bodies have an
associated aplitic and acid pegmatite inner core of white quartz, which is typically
intrusions (Table II). These pegmatite several metres wide and up to 100 m long,
intrusions (very coarse-grained igneous surrounded by coarse-grained quartz, K-
rocks) are widespread (Figure 1) and are the feldspar, albite and muscovite sometimes
main source-rocks of the gemstones found with accessory beryl and columbite, or
in Somaliland. garnet or zircon. There may be an outer zone
Pegmatites occur in two sectors in an east- of feldspar intergrown with wedge shaped 129
west zone (Figure 2). In the western sector, quartz. Although the core widens at depth,
which is approximately 30 km wide by about beryl disappears. In some pegmatites the
100 km long, and extending from Bawn to quartz core is transparent rock crystal which
northwest of Hargeisa, pegmatites cross-cut has potential for its piezo-electric nature, and
biotite and amphibole schists of the Mora
Complex. The eastern sector lies between Figure 2: Gem-bearing pegmatites can be seen on
Hargeisa and Berbera, and is approximately the hillside near Heiwena as thin white cross-
30 km wide and 50 km long (Figure 1). These cutting bands. Eastern Daarburuq-Larfarug
pegmatites cross-cut migmatites, granitoids pegmatite area.
and paragneisses of the Qabri Bahar
complex. Elsewhere scattered pegmatites
occur, e.g. in the highest part of the Sheik
pass south of Berbera, numerous pegmatites
cross-cut the basement and comprise quartz,
microcline and muscovite, with neither ores
nor gem minerals.
The pegmatites occur in swarms, with
individual bodies typically between 1 and
3 m wide and 100-200 m long, although the
largest may exceed 1 km in length. Generally,
they have a dyke-like form, dipping 70° to
vertical, typically oriented NW-SE, NE-SW
and N-S, sub parallel to the main faults.
Irregular masses and pegmatitic sheets also
occur but are less common than dykes.

Somaliland - a potential gem producer in the Mozambique Belt

 Recovery of the gem-quality
minerals
Most gemstones in Somaliland are being
extracted from solid unweathered rock, often
with primitive tools such as pry bars made
from car axles (Figure 3). Extraction is all the
more difficult because the pegmatites are
very hard and have not undergone the
process of albitisation like the gem-bearing
pegmatites in Nigeria for example, which
has rendered the feldspar soft and crumbly.
Figure 3: Working in an aquamarine-bearing Explosives are hardly available, and only in
pegmatite near Heinwena with an iron bar, the one locality of more than 30 visited, was a
only tool available at the site apart from a pick-axe. compressor being used (Figure 4). Extraction
is extremely hard work, and as money is so
very limited, even protective gloves are
in the period 1977-78, at one locality, 200 too expensive to buy. The open pits are
tonnes of pure quartz were extracted from a typically less than 5 m deep and recovery is
trench 5-6 m deep. In other pegmatites, by simple hammering and hand-picking of
coarse crystalline amethyst may occur in the crystals, many of which are damaged in
vugs in the central core, associated with the process. Any production estimates of
smoky quartz. the gemstone varieties would at present be
very speculative.
Clearly, the pegmatites are of more than
one
129 144 tyPe- F ° r example, in the Aliheley area Description of minerals and
north of Bawn, there are two types exposed,
one of which is very white, quartz-poor,
gemstones from Somaliland
saccharoidal feldspathic pegmatite with Beryl
emerald and aquamarine, while the other is
Beryl occurs as euhedral crystals up to
pink, coarser-textured, more quartz-rich with
1 m long and 30 cm across. It appears that
accessory coarse zircon and garnet.
wherever milky white quartz occurs in large
masses, beryl is also present. Only small
parts of many beryl crystals are transparent,
Figure 4: View across an emerald site at Aliheley, but some are zoned with a blue core and
north of Bawn. This was the only site visited with
a compressor and a range of equipment.
Figure 5: Emeralds being extracted at Aliheley.
Stringers of pegmatite fades form fingers into the
friable black biotite-schist. The majority of emeralds
occur within the schists close to the contact with the
pegmatite band or the pegmatitic fingers.

S^i^V

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 139-154

 Emeralds from AHheley

Figure 6 (above): Mid-green emerald partly

covered with flecks of phlogopite.

Figure 7 (above right): A cut emerald

weighing 0.15 ct showing two-phase growth
disturbance swathes.

Figure 8 (right): Rounded phlogophite

inclusions in emerald.

145129

white rim. Green varieties occur on the of pegmatites; the emeralds appear to be
margin of the pegmatites, while blue beryl associated with the later, whitish pegmatites.
occurs in the quartz core. Stringers of this pegmatite facies form
fingers into the friable black biotite-rich
Emeralds have been encountered in schist (Figure 5) where the emerald crystals
pegmatites in both the western pegmatite often have a thin coating of phlogophite
sector, and in the eastern Lafarug sector. (Figure 6). The emeralds are a mid-green
However, emeralds are much more abundant colour (Figure 7) and lack the depth of colour
in the west where pegmatites cut biotite and and clarity of the finest Colombian emeralds.
amphibole schists of the Mora Complex than Typically, the colour distribution is irregular;
in eastern Daarburug-Lafarug pegmatite e.g. a 17 mm diameter emerald crystal from
belt, where the pegmatites cross-cut the Bawn has a pale yellow beryl core and a
Qabri Bahar complex. The chromophores 3 mm rim of emerald. Stones are flawed with
(chromium, and more rarely vanadium), that natural cracks and inclusions, and a 0.15 ct
are responsible for the coloration of emerald cut stone contained two phase growth
are of low concentration in pegmatitic fluids, disturbance zones (Figure 7) and thin platy
and these colouring agents are more likely to crystals of phlogopite (Figure 8). This stone
have been derived from the mafic-ultramafic had refractive indices of 1.568 - 1.574, a bi-
basement, so it is where the pegmatites cut refringence of 0.006, and a specific gravity of
biotite-rich schists of the Mora Complex that 2.76. In contrast to the zoned crystal which
the emerald localities are more common. In was inert, this stone showed red under the
the Aliheley area northwest of Bawn, near Chelsea colour filter signifying a greater
the Djibouti road, where there are two types chromium content.

Somaliland - a potential gem producer in the Mozambique Belt

 Figure 9: Broken fragment of gem-quality Figure 10: Aquamarine weighing 0.18 ct still
aquamarine. retaining a good pale bluish tone.

Aquamarine is more abundant than (Figure 9). A 0.18 ct cut stone, for example,
emerald. Commonly it occurs as perfectly- still retains a good but pale tone (Figure 10); it
shaped hexagonal crystals in the milky has RIs of 1.572 and 1.579, birefringence of
quartz core of pegmatite particularly in the 0.007 and an SG of 2.69.
Heinweina area to the east of Larfarug where
crystals in excess of 8 cm have been recorded.
The hardness of the quartz makes it difficult Corundum-
to extract the aquamarine without damage Sapphires are generally dark green and
and furthermore, the aquamarines are translucent rather than transparent because
characterized by numerous cracks across the of the large number of inclusions. Although
129146 crystal. These cracks are a natural most of the sapphire in Somaliland is not
characteristic of the aquamarines and have particularly transparent or deep blue, some
nothing to do with the rough mining of the material should be tested with heat to
methods, but nevertheless, they affect the determine whether a deep blue colour
potential size of any cut stones. Irregular enhancement can be obtained. Bluish
colour distribution is also a natural corundum, has been observed in a quartz-
characteristic of the stones, caused by the poor, muscovite-rich pegmatite west of
variation in iron content throughout the Hargeisa on the Gebily road. Many of the
crystal. The colours of the crystals examined crystal fragments however, which were
range from medium blue to pale pastel hues shown by traders in Hargeisa, showed
residual truncated hexagonal pyramidal
faces and smooth resorption features
characteristic of corundum from alkali
basalts rather than from pegmatites.
Ruby: some Somaliland ruby is of good
quality although both ruby and sapphire
seem less abundant than emerald and
aquamarine. The rubies are typically colour
banded with natural cracks and inclusions,
and are often surrounded by a rim of dark
amphibole or a bright green rim, presumed
to be zoisite. This is very similar to the ruby
in chromiferous zoisite amphibolites known
Figure 11: Translucent ruby crystal, 1 cm in from the Matabatu Mountains near Longido
diameter, surrounded by fuchsite, a chrome- in Tanzania (Keller, 1992). In Tanzania, ruby-
bearing muscovite. bearing amphibolites are intimately

/. Gemm., 2000,27, 3,139-154

associated with serpentine and the latter rock
type may act as indicator for similar ruby
deposits in Somaliland. Another similar ruby
specimen was found to be coated with the
green chromium muscovite fuchsite, and
associated with tiny grains of red rutile
(Figure 11).

Garnets
Garnets are very abundant in Somaliland.
A range of crystal sizes, colours and clarities
has been seen in the collections of various Figure 12: Rough grossular garnet and fragment
traders. Crystals often show a perfect of dodecahedron, 5-6 mm in diameter.
dodecahedral form (Figure 12), and these
may be more valuable sold as mineral Ill, GI is the average of 14 analyses of a deep
specimens than as potential gemstones. orange-red stone which is a grossular (Figure
Colours range from light orange, through 13); G2 (average of 18 analyses), is a pyrope
pink, cherry red and dark red, to purple and of a deep red colour characteristic of this
almost black. Garnet compositions were variety (Figure 14); whilst G3 (average of 9
determined by electron probe microanalysis analyses), is a scarlet red stone
(EPMA), and the data in Table III of three compositionally intermediate between
average compositions from 41 analyses pyrope and almandine (Figure 15).
illustrate their compositional range. In Table Specimens G2 and G3 showed iron

147 129
Figure 13 (below): Orange-red grossular
garnet (sample Gl),1.15 ct.

Figure 14 (right, top): Deep red pyrope

garnet (sample G2) 0.77 ct.

Figure 15 (right, bottom): Bright red pyrope

almandine garnet (sample G3), 1.01 ct.

Somaliland - a potential gem producer in the Mozambique Belt

 Table III: Composition of Somaliland garnets.

Gl G2 G3
Si0 2 38.78 41.79 40.19
Ti0 2 0.71 0.06 0.03
Al A 19.97 23.28 22.56
Cr203 0.01 0.09 0.04
Fe 2 0 3 3.42 0.35 0.32
FeO 1.21 9.54 20.07
MnO 0.12 0.27 0.54
MgO 0.12 17.95 12.68

Figure 16: A cluster of parallel tubular, partially CaO 35.49 6.30 3.80
liquid-filled inclusions in sample Gl. Total 99.82 99.63 100.22
Formula basedon 24 Oxygens
absorption spectra characteristic of \ Si4+ 5.92 6.00 5.99
almandine; the intensity of the spectrum Ti4+ 0.08 0.01 0.00
increasing with increasing iron content. 3+
Al 3.59 3.94 3.97
Elongate tubular inclusions that are Cr 3+ 0.00 0.01 0.01
partially filled with liquid are confined to ! 3+
Fe 0.39 0.04 0.04
one orientation (Figure 16), while exsolved
rutile or boehmite are oriented parallel to the Fe2+ 0.15 1.15 2.50
dodecahedral faces. Mn 2+ 0.02 0.03 0.07
129 148 Green garnets have also been reported
Mg2+ 0.03 0.85 2.82
Ca 2+ 5.81 0.97 0.61
and tiny green glassy garnets were observed
in the field in a calc-silicate body to the NE of Sum: cations 16.00 15.99 16.00
Hargeisa. These occurred as bright green End member proportions
crystals, up to 4 m m across, in a variegated Pyrope 0.44 64.16 47.01
matrix of diopside and calcite; they have Almandine 2.57 19.13 41.74
been identified by X-ray diffraction analysis
Spessartine 0.27 0.54 1.13
as grossular.
Andradite 9.86 0.92 0.90
This grossular is similar to the tsavorite 0.27
Uvarovite 0.01 0.13
garnets from Kenya which suggests that
Grossular 86.85 14.98 9.08
there is gem potential for this garnet if larger
pieces exist. N.B. Gl is the mean of 14 analyses, G2 of 18 analyses
The wide-range of garnet compositions and G3 of 9 analyses. Microprobe analyses were
carried out by Dr P. Hill of the Department of
indicates that they are not all from pegmatitic Geology, University of Edinburgh.
rocks. Pyrope may have been derived from
ultramafic intrusions, or high-grade
metamorphic basement rocks, whilst The opal nodules range from 1-5 cm in
some of the almandine may also have been diameter - like golf-balls, and vary from
derived from amphibolite-grade meta- white to yellow, orange or red fire opal.
morphic terrain. Although the opals were not seen in situ,
they are known to originate from a locality
which lies between Borama and the coast.
Opal The opals display a small amount of play of
Examples of both common opal and colours (Figure 17) and would make fine
precious opal have been seen in Hargeisa. cabochon gems. However, some of this

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 139-154

 149129

Figure 17 (above): Two opals, 25 mm and

42 mm across. The orange piece shows a little
green fire in the top left.

Figure 18 (right): Opal nodule, 6 mm across,

with crust.

material which was cobbed for cutting, identical to the trace elements reported from
developed fractures within a short time. the Ethiopian material (Johnson et ah, 1996)
and suggest a related paragenesis.
The Somali opals bear a remarkable
similarity to opal from Shewa Province in The Ethiopian opals occur as nodules in
Ethiopia, some 300 km to the west (Johnson acid volcanic rocks in a layer of welded tuff
et ah, 1996) which range in colour from near (approaching obsidian in character) about
colourless or white, to yellow, orange, grey 3 m thick, between sub-horizontal rhyolite
or brown and are typically 10 cm in diameter. layers. The volcanic pile is 300-400 m thick
Both Ethiopian and Somali opals are nodular and believed to be of Miocene age (8-27 Ma).
with a 1-5 mm crust (Figure 18). Qualitative Similar Miocene volcanic rocks occur in
EDXRF on Somali samples showed the Somaliland west of Cabdulqaadir near the
presence of calcium, iron, strontium, border with Djibouti (Abbate et al, 1993).
zirconium, potassium, niobium and sulphur Within extensive basalt flows there are rare
as trace elements. These data are almost intercalated rhyolites, but whether these are

Somaliland - a potential gem producer in the Mozambique Belt

 the source of the Somali opals is not known.
A full review of the stability and durability of
the opal will be required before serious
development can be initiated on proven
reserves but nevertheless, the Somali
material is likely to drift onto the market as a
result of small scale mining.

Amethyst
Amethyst occurs in the quartz core of
numerous pegmatites. Often it is somewhat
banded in colour, or the deep purple
coloration is patchy. In general, the mineral is Figure 20: Vesuvianite with colour-banding.
rather pale and of low value as a gemstone,
although it would make excellent beads. Spinel
However, intensely purple amethyst of Spinel occurs quite widely Deep wine-red
exceptionally fine quality has been shown, spinels, often mistaken for garnet or ruby by
and was said to come from the Molis area the locals, seem moderately abundant
just north of Hargeisa. although not all will have come from the
pegmatites. A bag of small sapphire crystals
Chrome diopside contained a few black spinel and augite
Chrome diopside occurs in fragments fragments. On examination by EDXRF and
which may exceed 3 cm. Larger masses tend FTIR the spinels proved to be 'pleonaste'
to be bottle green to greenish black. Smaller with an SG of 3.82.
129 fragments are transparent and may be a
lovely emerald green colour. This is known Titanite
from other localities in East Africa as well, Four yellowish-green crystals u p to
although the African deposits are until now 10 mm were reported to have come from a
quite small compared to those in Russia pegmatite; these had good clarity and were
which is the major source. thick enough to cut stones 3-5 m m in depth
(Figure 19).
Epidote
Epidote occurs as dark green or brown Topaz
crystals in a number of localities. They are Large colourless transparent crystals of
always confused for tourmaline. The topaz up to 10 cm in length have been shown
identification of one transparent brown by several traders although they were not
crystal as epidote was confirmed by FTIR. observed in situ by the authors.

Tourmaline
Although tourmaline has been described
as an accessory in pegmatites in old Survey
reports, it did not appear in the collections
shown, nor was it observed in any of the
pegmatites visited in the field. Epidote or
chrome diopside were always identified as
tourmaline by the locals.

Vesuvianite
Figure 19: Four titanite fragments, the largest Vesuvianite occurs as abundant
crystal is 9 mm across. aggregates of coarse grey-purple to greenish-

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3,139-154

yellow elongate crystals in the same
calcareous body which hosts the green
grossular garnet. The vesuvianite crystals are
mainly translucent although parts of the •" ^ k Mozambique
crystals are transparent and of gem quality •:--?":;': k Belt
The largest single crystal examined was 40 x -.• Africa ':P ^ ^ • v
:
•?•'... . ' M ^ ^ • '.
15 mm and showed strong colour zoning in
apple green and pale lavender (Figure 20).
Parti-coloured gem-quality material could be
India
particularly desirable, but the group that
work this deposit are completely unaware of
the potential of this mineral.

Zircon East Antarctica

Zircon appears to be quite widespread in

occurrence in Somaliland. It varies from Figure 21: Extension of the Mozambique
colourless to pale orange brown to deep red. orogenic belt from Mozambique through
Tanzania and Kenya and extending into
Somaliland. Note how the reconstruction
The development of the includes Madagascar, part of India, Sri Lanka and
Mozambique orogenic belt East Antarctica within the Mozambique belt.
Reconstruction based on Dalziel (1991) and
Shackleton (1996).
The deformation of Proterozoic rocks in
Somaliland between 800 and 500 Ma ago,
was part of a wider sequence of tectono- somewhat younger (720 and 640 Ma; Kroner
thermal events which has also been et al., 1997), whilst the culmination of 129
recognised on other continents. In relatively metamorphism in Mozambique has been
simple terms, rifting of a large continental dated as 615 Ma and in Malawi at 550-575 Ma
mass (Rodinia) 900-850 Ma ago led to the (Kroner et al, 1997).
formation of the 'Mozambique Ocean 7
The belt averages between 250 and
(Abdelsalam and Stern, 1996) which then
325 km in width and extends from
began to close again around 800 Ma. Crustal
Mozambique and Tanzania, northwards to
shortening led to NNW-trending continental
Ethiopia, Somaliland and into Saudi Arabia.
folding on a regional scale which was linked
It also includes rocks within Madagascar
to a high temperature metamorphic event
(Malisa and Muhongo, 1990), Eastern
(amphibolite to granulite facies), during the
Antarctica (Dalziel, 1991; Shackleton, 1996),
collision of West Gondwana (Africa and
India (Choudhary et al., 1992) and Sri Lanka
South America) and East Gondwana (India,
(Harris et al, 1996).
Antarctica etc.) to form what is now known
as the Mozambique orogenic belt (Figure 21). Although igneous activity has occurred in
This belt forms the suture zone along which the Mozambique belt, both during periods of
the final amalgamation of various extension and compression, it is the
continental fragments took place as a result emplacement of late stage granites, intruded
of subduction of the 'Mozambique Ocean' after continental collision which are
floor. The timing of the tectono-thermal important for the genesis of gem-bearing
event varies. In the northern part of the belt pegmatites in eastern Africa. The most
in Somaliland, the event has been dated intense period of potassic granite intrusions
around 800 Ma (Dal Piaz et al.f 1987), with occurred between 585 and 540 Ma (Kiister
similar dates of 808 ± 6 provided by Stern and Harms, 1998), largely coinciding with
(1994), and 828 ± 170 by Abbate et al. (1985). the peak of temperature metamorphism in
In Tanzania zircon age dates for the event are Madagascar and with regression to lower

Somaliland - a potential gem producer in the Mozambique Belt

 temperature amphibolite facies in north- correlate with category 3 of Keller (1992),
eastern Africa (Somaliland and Sudan). although no lithium-bearing minerals have
According to Kuster and Harms (1998), the been noted so far. The granitic pegmatites
high temperature metamorphism and late- intruded into ultramafic rocks of the Bawn
stage granitic magmatism are probably both area would equate with category 1 of Keller
related to post-collisional lithosperic (1992). These emerald-bearing pegmatites
thinning, magmatic underplating and crustal cut exceptionally biotite-rich rocks, which
relaxation. However, the emplacement of are interpreted to be ultramafic in origin.
potassic granites continued until 470 Ma and Limestones to the north of Bawn and NW of
implies several magmatic episodes Hargeisa, which have undergone medium to
associated with different phases of post- high grade metamorphism, have a
orogenic crustal uplift after collision. Rb-Sr paragenesis similar to category 2 of Keller
and K-Ar cooling ages for micas from (1992). Although, no 'tsavorite 7 garnets,
granites in southern India (Soman et ah, 1982, have been located, tiny crystals of green
Unnikrishnan-Warrier et ah, 1995) and Sri grossular have been identified from a thin
Lanka (Burton and O'Nions, 1990) which calc-silicate horizon NE of Hargeisa. Purple
vary between 490 and 450 suggest that post- vesuvianite, green diopside, scapolite and
collisional uplift and cooling occurred much other minerals have also been identified in
earlier in the northwest of the orogenic belt. the same area so there is potential for
'tanzanite' and similar minerals. As yet no
equivalents of Keller's category 4 are known,
Comparison with other African although the Abdul Qadr Complex has been
gem occurrences within the identified as an ophiolite fragment (Berhe,
Mozambique belt 1990) and so typical source rocks for category
4 occurrences do exist within the area.
129 Keller (1992), defined four categories of
gem deposits within the Mozambique Belt in Conclusions
Kenya and Tanzania, according to their
The gem deposits of the Mozambique belt
par agenesis:
in Kenya and Tanzania have been well
documented by Keller (1992). Malisa and
1. Desilicification of granitic pegmatites or
Muhongo (1990) have noted the extent of the
gneisses by ultramafic rocks resulting in
Mozambique belt in eastern Gondwana and
the formation of ruby, sapphire, spinel,
highlight the gem occurrences within Sri
emerald, alexandrite and tourmaline.
Lanka, India and Madagascar. The
2. Medium- to high-grade metamorphism of
recognition of the extension of the
carbonates closely associated with
Mozambique belt into Somaliland is
graphite gneisses that provide the
therefore of considerable interest as it means
chemistry for the formation of tsavorite
that there is a potential for the production of
garnet, tanzanite and other gemstones.
a wide range of gemstones. This has
3. Emplacement of lithium and beryllium-
important implications for the Somaliland
rich granite pegmatites with tourmalines,
economy, although the Somali producers
beryl, quartz, phenakite and euclase.
need external help to maximize the potential.
4. Hydro thermal alteration of serpentinites
They need help to recognize the importance
and other ultramafic rocks resulting in the
of geological factors, such as controls on
formation of peridot, chrysoprase, prase-
emerald formation, to identify minerals
opal and rhodonite at much lower
using simple physical tests and to appreciate
temperatures.
the value of different gem minerals. In
The first three of Keller's categories have particular, they need support with the
definite equivalents in Somaliland. The marketing of gemstones as this will help to
majority of the emerald /aquamarine- provide the funding they need to buy
bearing pegmatites in Somaliland would equipment to develop their prospects.

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 139-154

 Dal Piaz, G.V., Ibraham, H.A., Gosso, G., Piccardo, G.B.,
Acknowledgements and Rigatti, G., 1987. The Sheikh gabbro body and the
JK is indebted to Gerry McCarthy and Hudiso paragneisses. In: Guidebook Excursion B
staff of the EC Somalia Unit in Nairobi, for (International Meeting Geology Somalia GEOSOM
making the visit to Somaliland possible. '87) pp23-42. Somali National University,
Thanks go to all the mineral groups who Mogadishu, Somalia
Dalziel, I.W.D., 1991. Pacific margins of Laurentia and
allowed visits to their prospects, gave of their East Antarctica-Australia as a conjugate rift pair:
time and knowledge and generously Evidence and implications for an Eocambrian
donated material for study. Particular thanks supercontinent. Geology, 19, 598-601
go to the Minister, Director General and Daniels, J.L., Skiba, A.J., and Sutton, J., 1965. The
geologists at the Ministry of Minerals and deformation of some banded gabbros in the northern
Somali fold belt. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. London, 121, 111-42
Water, Yassim Kahen Booh ('Mr Fixit'),
Ferrara, G., Gatto, G.O., Ibraham, H.A., Said, A.A., Sassi,
Hassan Younis, John Drysdale and F.P., Tonarini, S., and Visona, D., 1987. Sequence of
particularly my driver Hassan Ibrahim who events recorded in the crystalline basement of
got me to all the remote places - and more Northern Somalia. GEOSOM 87, Intern. Meeting of
importantly back again! The staff at Oxfam Geology of Somalia, Mogadishu, Abstract: 65
Frizzo, P., 1993. Ore geology of the crystalline basement of
provided background information on
Somalia. In: Geology and mineral resources of
historical aspects of the country and Barry Somalia and surrounding regions. (Eds) Abbate, E.,
Clarke at the EU office in Berbera gave great Sagri, M., and Sassi, F.P, 1993. 1st Agron. Oltremare,
support. Both authors are indebted to the Firenze, Relaz. E Monogra, 113, 513-40
National Museums of Scotland Charitable Harris, N.B.W., Bartlett, J.M., and Santosh, M., 1996.
Crustal evolution of high-grade metamorphism in the
Trust for a grant to enable selected South India segment of Gondwanaland. Geological
gemstones to be faceted and to Paul Nex for Society of South Africa Centennial Congress (1995).
the production of the maps and geological Extended Abstracts, 1, 377
discussions on the Mozambique belt. Johnson, M.L., Kammerling, R.C., DeGhionno, D.G., and
Koivula, J.I., 1996. Opal from Sherwa Province,
Ethiopia. Notes and new techniques. Gems &
Gemology, 32(2), 112-20 153129
References Keller, P.C., 1992. Gemstones of East Africa. Geoscience
Abbate, E., Bonazzi, A., Savioli, M.E., Dal Piaz, G.V., del Press, Phoenix, Arizona. 144pp
Moro, A., Gosso, G., and Ibraham, H.A., 1985. Il Kinnaird, J.A. 1999. The gem-producing potential of
settore deall'unità di Ida Ad ed il granito di Arar Somaliland - a new Sri Lanka? Gem and Jewellery News,
(Somalia settrionale). Univ. Naz. Somalia. Quad. Geol. 8(4), 54-6
Somalia, 8, 7-25 Kröner, A., and Sassi, F.P., 1996. Evolution of the northern
Abbate, E., Sagri, M., and Sassi, F.P., 1993. Geology and Somali basement: new constraints from zircon ages.
Mineral resources of Somalia and surrounding Journal of African Earth Sciences, 22(1), 1-15
regions (with a geological map of Somalia Kröner, A., Eyal, M., Sassi, F.P., and Teklay, M., 1989.
1:1,500,000). A: Regional geology 416 pp; B: Mineral Extension of the Arabian-Nubian shield into southern
and water resources 417-733. N113B. Relazioni e Israel, Ethiopia and northern Somalia. Terra Abstracts,
Moniografie Agrarie Subtropicali et Tropicali Nuova pp363
Serie, Instituto Agronomico per L'Oltremare, Firenze Kröner, A., Braun, I., and Jaeckel. P., 1996. Zircon
Abdalla, J.A., Said, A.A., and Visona, D., 1996. New geochronology of anatectic melts and residues from a
geochemical and petrographic data on the gabbrosyenite high-grade pelitic assemblage at Ihosy, Madagascar:
suite between Hargeysa and Berbera-Shiikh evidence for Pan-African granulite metamorphism.
(northern Somalia). Journal of African Earth Sciences, 23, Geol. Mag. 133(3), 311-23
363-74 Kröner, A., Sacchi, R., Jaeckel, P., and Costa, M., 1997.
Abdelsalam, M.G., and Stern, R.J., 1996. Sutures and Kibaran magmatism and Pan-African granulite
shears in the Arabian-Nubian Shield. Journal of African metamorphism in northern Mozambique: single
Earth Sciences, 23(3), 289-310 zircon ages and regional implications. Journal African
Berhe, S.M., 1990, Ophiolites in northeast and East Africa: Earth Sciences, 25, 467-84
implications for Proterozoic crustal growth. Journal Küster, D., and Harms, U., 1998. Post-collisional potassic
Geological Society Eondon, 147, 41-57 granitoids from the southern and northwestern parts
Burton, K.W., and O'Nions, R.K., 1990. The timescale and of the Late Neoproterozoic East African Orogen: a
mechanism of granulite formation at Kununegala, Sri review. Eithos, 45, 177-95
Lanka, Contrib.Mineral.Petrol., 106, 66-89 Malisa, E., and Muhongo, S., 1990. Tectonic setting of
Choudhary, A.K., Harris, N.B.W., van Calsteren, P., and gemstone mineralisation in the Proterozoic
Hawkesworth, C.J., 1992. Pan-African charnockite metamorphic terrain of the Mozambique belt in
formation in Kerala, South India. Geol. Mag, 129, 257-64 Tanzania. Precambrian Research, 46, 167-76

Somaliland - a potential gem producer in the Mozambique Belt

 Plumb, K.A., 1991. New Precambrian time scale. Episodes, Stern, R.J., 1994. Arc assembly and continental collision in
14(2), 139-40 the Neoproterozoic East African Orogen: implications
Sassi, F.P., Visona, D., Ferrara, G., Gatto, G.O., Ibrahim, for the consolidation of Gondwanaland. Annual
H.A., and Tonarini, S., 1989. The crystalline basement Review Earth Planet. Sci., 22, 319-51
of northern Somalia: lithostratigraphy and the Unnikrishnan-Warrier, C., Santosh, M., and Yoshida, M.,
sequence of events. In: Geology and mineral resources
1995. First report of Panafrican Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr
of Somalia and surrounding regions. Abbate, E., Sagri,
mineral isochron ages from regional charnockites of
M., and Sassi, F.P., (Eds), 1993. 3-40. Relazioni e
Moniografie 113A/1993 Instituto Agronomico per southern India, Geol. Mag., 132, 253-60
L'Oltremare, Firenze Warden, A.J., and Daniels, J.L., 1983. Evolution of the
Shackleton, R.M., 1996. The final collision zone between Precambrian of northern Somalia. Bull, Fac. Earth Sci.
East and West Gondwana: where is it? Journal of King Abdulaziz Univ., Jeddah, 6, 145-64
African Earth Sciences, 23(3), 271-87 Warden, A.J., and Horkel, A.D., 1984. The geological
Soman, K., Nair, N.G., Golubyev, V.N., and Arakelyan, evolution of the NE branch of the Mozambique belt
M.M., 1982. Age data on pegmatites of South Kerala (Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia). Mitt. Oesterr. geol, Ges.
and their tectonic significance. J. Geol. Soc. India, 23, Wien, 77, 161-84
458-62

SYNTHETIC MOISSANITE
MEGGER TESTER
The easy way to distinguish synthetic moissanite from diamond
129154
• User friendly
• Portable - battery operated
• Can test mounted and
loose stones

NEW LOW PRICE

£125.00*
plus VAT, postage and packing

To be used in conjunction with a LW ultraviolet lamp

(Cat No. ULV 0004 £12.25 plus VAT, postage and packing).

It is recommended that stones be tested with a thermal tester to eliminate

other diamond simulants before the Megger Tester is used.

* Remember to ask for your membership discount!

Gemmological Instruments Ltd.

27 Greville Street (Saffron Hill entrance), London EC1N 8TN
Tel: 020 7404 3334 Fax: 020 7404 8843

J. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 139-154

 The Hanneman Refractometer
W.Wm. Hanneman Ph.D.
P.O. Box 942, Poulsbo, WA 98370, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT: The description of a very simple and very inexpensive

refractometer of unlimited range for faceted stones is described. This
instrument and the Hanneman specific gravity balance provide the basic
tools for the student wishing to master gemstone identification.

Introduction culminated in a new unlimited range

refractometer. Surprisingly, it can be

T
he two most useful physical
constructed by any student at a cost of only a
properties for gemstone identification
few pennies. Because of the educational
are specific gravity and refractive
features offered by this instrument, the
index. It is imperative that every
author believes a treatment of the concept
gemmological student fully understands
should be incorporated into the basic
these principles and the means by which
programme of every gemmological student.
they can be determined.
For many years, the measurement of 155
specific gravity was hampered by the lack of Background 129
an inexpensive balance having the required
While visiting Alan Hodgkinson in May
sensitivity to handle small gems.
1999, I witnessed a demonstration of a
Additionally, there were mathematical
modified version of Dr Jamie Nelson's
calculations involved. These problems were
Pavilion Facet Fingerprinter (Hodgkinson,
solved by the development of the Hanneman
1999). This incorporated a liquid immersion
Balance (Anderson, 1980; Hanneman, 1998,
cell and was used to demonstrate the high
pp. 50-64).
refractive index and dispersion of
Refractive index measurements are synthetic moissanite.
frequently performed by rote by students
I immediately recognized that this was
using a critical angle refractometer which has
essentially a pinhole refractometer. The
an upper range limit of 1.81. An alternative,
the inexpensive Hanneman-Hodgkinson immersion liquid allowed for an effective
refractometer (Hodgkinson, 1995, pp. 25-32; reduction of the refractive index of the test
Hanneman, 1998, pp. 70-83), presented the zone so that the 2.37 limit for round brilliant-
student with a visual demonstration of the cut gems which was imposed by air could be
optical properties of transparent gemstones. raised considerably and cover all gemstones.
This included the determination of refractive The limit can be raised by a value equal to
index, birefringence and dispersion. It also the difference between the refractive index of
extended the RI range to about 2.37. the liquid and that of air (nD=1.000). Use of
The basic principles of this technique water nD=1.333 could raise the limit by 0.333
were first expounded in a discussion of a to a value of 2.70, or use of baby oil
pinhole refractometer (Hanneman, 1982). (nD=1.465) could raise the limit to above 2.8.
This present paper describes a logical Use of methylene iodide (nD=1.74) could
extension of that concept which has raise the limit above 3.00.

© Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain ISSN: 1355-4565
 la lb

Baby Oil nD = 1.465 Air r»D = 1.000 Methylene Iodide % = 1.74 Water nD = 1.333

41° Pavilion Angle 43° Pavilion Angle 41

° Pavilion An9,e 41° Pavilion Angle
2.10; .1.70
1.90- !t.80
2.20 s
2.00- !1.90
2.30 £
2.10- ^2.00
2
2.40-
2.20- 2.50- •2.10
2 2
J
2.30- 2.60- 2.20
2
2.40- 2.70- 2.30

2.50-
, 2.00 2.80- - 2.40

2.60-
, 2.10 2.90- , 2.50

2.70-

3.00-
2.20

129 156

Exit Angle Exft Angle

Figure 1: Hanneman Refractometer scales (a) for baby oil and air for specified pavilion angles and (b)
for methylene iodide and water for a 41° pavilion angle.

Using the Hanneman Refractometer distance between the origin and the 45
Conversion Tables which had been degree line on the scale.
calculated from the equation in Hanneman
The refractive index (nD) is determined
(1982) to relate exit angle to refractive index,
the refractometer scales shown in Figures 1(a) from the position of the yellow region of the
and (b) were constructed. A schematic spectral image. A monochromatic filter can
diagram of the refractometer is shown in be employed if desired. Birefringence is
Figure 2 and an example in Figure 3. The determined as the difference in refractive
scales can be enlarged to any size for the index value (nD) of the two images exhibited
purpose of improving accuracy or by doubly refractive gems.
readability. It is important that the height of It should be noted that the scales are
the stone above the scale exactly matches the calibrated in terms of index of refraction (n)

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 155-160

 Light

Immersion cell wall

Transparent base plate

\A Opaque 'pinhole' shield

Support stand

Refractometer scale

Figure 2: Cross section diagram ofHanneman Refractometer at scale origin.

157129

Figure 3: Hanneman Refractometer stone holder and scale. Exit angle measurements are converted to
values of V by means of the Hanneman Refractometer Conversion Tables according to the pavilion
angle of the sample.

The Hanneman Refractometer

 and not refractive index (n D ), as in the case of refractometer scale from extraneous light.
the critical angle refractometer. A darkened room is ideal.
Consequently, one can determine the index
For general purposes, the hole should be
of refraction for any colour of light that one
large enough to allow a ring of light to
might desire. This allows one to determine
form a halo around the shadow of the
the gemmologist's value of dispersion. To do gem which is centered over the O on the
this, determine the difference between the origin line. A piece of white cardboard
extreme values (n) for the red and violet with a hole punched in its centre serves as
which can be observed. Then, multiply that a perfectly adequate opaque plate.
value by 0.71. The extremes of the visible
spectrum which are measured here extend A sheet of polarizing material can be placed
from 760 to 397 nm (Fraunhofer lines A to H), over the gem and rotated in order to
while dispersion is defined over the range of observe or measure birefringence. A lens
B to G, i.e. from 687 to 431 nm. The 0.71 factor from a pair of broken polarizing sunglasses
is derived from the relationship (687 - 381) / is perfectly adequate for this purpose.
(760 - 397) = 256 / 363 = 0.705.
The transparent plate and the walls of the
liquid container can be fabricated from
Construction notes the plastic cover of a 'compact recording
disc'.
1. Any light source will do. A bare bulb and
filament will produce sharper images The support for the transparent plate can be
than a frosted bulb or fibre-optic light constructed from anything available. The
pipe. A penlight torch is perfectly only important feature is that its height
adequate. must be such that the bottom of the gem
(top of the plate) is exactly the height above
2. Depending on the intensity of the light
129158 source, it may be necessary to shield the
the scale as the distance between the origin
and the 45 degree line on the scale.

Figure 4a: Hanneman Refractometer set up to

examine a round brilliant-cut CZ in air (no
immersion liquid). Illuminated by a SIC
(Standard Image Candle ofl candle-power).

Figure 4b: Appearance of refracted images of

CZ in a darkened room with the SIC light
shielded. Photographic limitations prevent the
long blue and violet portions of the spectrum
from appearing. They are readily visible by eye.

J. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 155-160

 Figure 5a: Hanneman Refractometer set up to examine a round brilliant-cut synthetic rutile
immersed in methylene iodide. Illuminated by a SIC (Standard Image Candle ofl candle power).
159129
Figure 5b: Appearance of refracted images from synthetic rutile in a darkened room with the SIC
light shielded. Note the extreme dispersion exhibited by the synthetic rutile. Each image consists
of two overlapping images which must be separated by means of the polarizing filter in order to
measure the dispersion.

Figure 5c: Appearance of refracted images from a diamond in a darkened room with the SIC light
shielded. Photographic limitations prevent the long blue and violet portions of the spectrum from
appearing. They are readily visible by eye.

Operation notes pinhole, so that the light shines directly

down onto the gem, through the hole, and
1. Set up the refractometer as shown in produces a small bright halo around the
Figures 2 and 3. While it is obvious that shadow of the gem which is centered over
the most precise and accurate results can the O on the origin line of the scale {Figure
only be obtained by carefully aligning and 4a). A symmetrical circle or circles of
rigidly securing all the component parts spectral images should appear concentric
and the light source, results adequate for to the O (Figure 4b). If a different shaped
most confirmatory purposes and for gem is used, the images will correspond
teaching demonstrations can be obtained to the design of its pavilion facets. The
by merely assembling the components arrangement and results from synthetic
and using a hand-held penlight (torch). rutile and diamond are shown in Figure 5.
2. Place a round brilliant cut-gem on the Adjust the gem so that the image you
transparent plate and adjust the plate, the wish to examine falls along an imaginary
light, and the opaque plate with the centre line of the scale.

The Hanneman Refractometer

 Figure
Figure6:6:Protractor
Protractorforforestimating
estimatingcrown
crownand
and
pavilion
pavilionangles.
angles.

4.4.Read
Readthe thescale.
scale.Almost
Almostallallfaceted
facetedgems gems
have
haveatatleast
leastone
onesetsetofofpavilions
pavilionsfacets
facetscutcut
atatangles
anglesbetween
between4141and and4343degrees.
degrees.For For
general
generalpurposes,
purposes,two twocalibrations
calibrationshave have
been
beenprovided.
provided.The Theone oneononthetheright
rightofof
Figure
Figurelalais isforforuse
usewithwithnonoliquid
liquidand and
assumes
assumesa a4343degreedegreepavilion
pavilionangle.
angle.This This
is is a a common
common angle angle used used forfor lower
lower
refractive
refractiveindex
indexgems.
gems.The Thescale
scaleononthetheleft
left
requires
requires immersion
immersion inin baby baby oiloil and and
assumes
assumesa apavilion
pavilionangle angleofof4141degrees
degrees
which
whichis iscommon
commonforforround roundbrilliant
brilliantcutscuts
ofofhigher
higherrefractive
refractiveindexindexgems.
gems.Higher
Higher
index
index gemsgems can can bebe immersed
immersed inin di- di-
iodomethane
iodomethane (methylene
(methylene iodide)iodide) and and
measured
measuredononthe thescale
scaleininFigure
Figurelb.lb.
129160
5.5.The
Themost mostaccurate
accurateresults
resultscan canbebeobtained
obtained
byby(i)(i)accurately
accuratelymeasuring
measuringthe theangle
angleofof
the
thefacet
facetproducing
producingthe theimage
imagebybymeans
means
ofofa aprotractor
protractorlike
likethat
thatshown
shownininFigure
Figure6,6,
(ii)(ii)using
usingananenlarged
enlargedscale scaleforfora amore
more
precise
precisereading
readingofofthetheexitexitangle,
angle,and
and(iii)
(iii)
converting
convertingthe themeasured
measuredexit exitangle
angletotothe
the
refractive
refractive indexindexusingusing the the Hanneman
Hanneman
Refractometer
Refractometer Conversion Conversion Tables. Tables.
However,
However,none noneofofthesetheserefinements
refinementsare are
necessary
necessarytotoimpart
impartthe thebasic
basicprinciples
principlestoto
a astudent.
student.

References
References
Anderson,
Anderson,B.W.,
B.W., 1980.
1980.Gem Testing,
Gem Testing,9th9th
ed.,
ed.,Butterworths,
Butterworths,
London
London
Hanneman,
Hanneman,W.W.,WW.,1982.1982.Understanding
UnderstandingthetheHodgkinson
Hodgkinson
Method,
Method,J. /.
Gemm.,
Gemm.,XVIII, 3, 3,
XVIII, 221-8.
221-8.
Hanneman,
Hanneman,W.W., W.W.,1998.1998.Guide
Guideto toaffordable
affordablegemology,
gemology,
Hanneman
Hanneman Gemmological
Gemmological Instruments,
Instruments, Poulsbo,
Poulsbo, WA,
WA,
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
Hodgkinson,
Hodgkinson, A.,A., 1995. 1995. Visual
Visual optics,
optics, Gemworld
Gemworld
International,
International, Northbrook,
Northbrook, IL,IL,
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
Hodgkinson,
Hodgkinson,A.,A.,1999.1999.Gemstones
Gemstonesin ina new
a newlight,
light,Aust.
Aust.
Gemm.,
Gemm.,2020
(6),(6),
246-9.
246-9.

J. Gemm., 2000,
/. Gemm., 27,27,
2000, 3, 3,
155-160
155-160
 The cause of colour of the blue
alexandrites from Malacacheta,
Minas Gerais, Brazil
M.V.B. Pinheiro 1,3 , M.S. Basílio2, K. Krambrock 3 , M.S.S. Dantas 3 ,
R. Paniago 3 , A.L. Assunção 3 and A.C. Pedrosa-Soares 4
1. Centro de Densenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear, C.P. CEP 30123-970,
Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
2. Dep. de Química, Centro Federal de Educação Tecnólogica de Minas Gerais,
Av. Amozonas 5253, CEP 30480-000, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
3. Dep. de Física, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, C.P. 702,
CEP 30123-970, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
4. Dep. de Geologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, C.P. 702,
CEP 30123-970, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil

ABSTRACT: A rare and very attractive variety of chrysoberyl, a blue

alexandrite from Malacacheta, Minas Gerais (Brazil), commercially
called 'peacock-blue' alexandrite, was investigated by electron
paramagnetic resonance (EPR), optical absorption, photoluminescence 161
and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The peacock-blue
alexandrite is known for its strong pleochroism ranging from blue to 129
green or greenish-yellow, as well as its strong colour-changing effect
showing blue or greenish-blue in daylight and reddish-purple in
incandescent light. The results show that the rare bluish colours of the
peacock-blue alexandrite are related to a critical balance between Fe3+
and Cr3+ substituting for Al3+ in the sites with mirror symmetry, while
the concentration of Cr 3+ in the sites with inversion symmetry
is negligible.

Introduction ruby and that in emerald, a very interesting

phenomenon occurs. That is the case of the

M
ost gemstones owe their colours to
very rare and highly prized alexandrite. This
transition metal ions dispersed in
gemstone can have both the green colour of
the crystalline matrix. Such ions
give rise to, in the presence of a strong ligand emerald and the red colour of ruby
field, absorption bands in the visible spectral depending on the illumination conditions
range. A classical example is the Cr 3+ (daylight or incandescent light, respectively).
impurity in an octahedron formed by six Alexandrite is a variety of chrysoberyl, a
oxygen atoms that, depending on the beryllium aluminate gem mineral
strength of the ligand field, causes both the structurally isomorphous with the olivine
deep red colour of ruby (A1203) and the vivid family and with an ideal chemical
grass-green of emerald (Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 0 18 ) composition BeAl 2 0 4 (Bragg and Brown,
(Nassau, 1983). 1926). Unlike the more common iron-bearing
When the octahedral ligand field is yellow chrysoberyl, alexandrite also contains
intermediate in strength between that in Cr3+ that substitutes for Al 3 + (Figure 1).

© Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain ISSN: 1355^4565
 Although the origin of natural alexandrite
is still a controversial subject, it is accepted
by many that alexandrite is formed when
solutions rich in beryllium, originating from
granites, percolate through ultramafic rocks
(which are the source of chromium) and
crystallise in a medium saturated by
aluminium (Martin-Izard et ah, 1995).

******* **** fZ>

W
For more than 20 years, alexandrite from
Malacacheta has been recovered from
alluvial deposits located along four streams
0 1 2cm j j * ^p£^ named Corrego do Fogo, Ribeirao Setubinha,
Ribeirao Santana and Ribeirao Soturno
(Guimaraes and Grossi Sad, 1977, Proctor,
Figure 1: Chrysoberyl crystals from Malacacheta 1988, Basilio, 1999). Nowadays very few
photographed in incandescent light. alexandrites of gem quality are found.
The size of the crystals ranges from 1 mm up
to 1 cm.
The colour-changing effect, or the
'alexandrite-effect7 (White et ah, 1967) as it is The main purpose of this paper is to
referred to nowadays, is attributed to two present an optical and a structural
characterization of this alexandrite from
broad absorption bands belonging to Cr3+
Malacacheta, with the focus on the peacock-
substituting Al 3+ . Their maxima are at
blue variety. Electron microprobe, electron
approximately 400 nm (violet-blue) and
paramagnetic resonance (EPR), X-ray
^ 600 nm (yellow-orange) with a transmission
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), optical
129 ~ window in between (White et al., 1967,
absorption and emission methods were used
Farrell and Newnham, 1965). According to
to provide reliable information on the colour
Poole (Poole, 1964), the alexandrite-like
and its correlation with the impurity-related
colour changes, which appear in various
point defects present in the material.
chromium-bearing compounds, occur due to
the much higher spectral response of the
human eye and brain to the green and yellow Structural details
colours that fall near the 600 nm absorption
BeAl 2 0 4 is an orthorhombic crystal with
band (Nassau, 1983). In green-rich natural
space group D 2h 16 (p nma ) (Bragg and Brown,
light, the crystal is vivid green, while in the
1926). The unit cell has the following lattice
red-rich incandescent light the alexandrite
parameters: a = 9.404 A, b = 5.476 A and c =
shows a red colour with a violet hue. The
4.472 A, and is composed of four BeAl 2 0 4
same absorption bands, together with the
molecules (Swanson et al, 1960). The oxygen
orthorhombic symmetry of the crystal
atoms are arranged in an approximately
structure, render alexandrite strongly
hexagonal close-packed array perpendicular
pleochroic (Farrell and Newnham, 1965).
to the c axis. The aluminium cations (Al3+)
This pleochroism is also observed as a
occupy half of the interstitial octahedral sites,
change in the colour, but only when looking
while the beryllium (Be2+) ions are found in
at the crystal with light propagating along
one eighth of interstitial tetrahedral sites.
different orientations. Another important
Both the octahedral and the tetrahedral sites
optical fingerprint of alexandrite is its
are distorted in shape.
characteristic emission spectrum. The Cr3+ in
alexandrite, as in ruby and emerald, is A refinement of the chrysoberyl structure
responsible for an intense red fluorescence, showed that the eight distorted octahedral
with two sharp lines (called R lm and R2m) sites occupied by Al cations in the unit cell
near 1.83 eV (or 679 nm) (Walling et al, 1995). can have two distinct symmetries (Farrell

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 161-170

 Glossary
X-ray photo-electron spectroscopy (XPS): in different structures, e.g. in ruby, emerald
A non-destructive technique generally used or alexandrite structures. It can also have
for chemical analysis of surfaces. In a different symmetries due to the
vacuum chamber, the sample is irradiated coordination number, resulting in different
by X-rays and the energy of the emitted colours.
electrons is measured. It is the opposite of
the electron microprobe technique in which Crystal field transitions: Are transitions
a sample is irradiated with electrons and the that involve redistribution of electrons in the
characteristic X-rays of each element are partially filled 3d shells of transition metal
collected. With XPS, it is possible e.g. to impurities embedded in a crystal field. The
obtain the relative concentrations of the crystal field transitions are optical
chemical elements present at the surface. transitions between ground and excited
states. They result from the splitting of the
Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR):
3d energy level of the free ion, induced by
Used for chemical identification, site
the crystal field. Normally these transitions
symmetry and valence states of point
are related to absorption bands in the visible
defects and impurities. In general, the
samples are placed into a microwave spectrum and are the cause of colour.
resonance cavity. The resonance lines are Site symmetry: The site symmetry, which
detected with a fixed microwave frequency is directly associated with the coordination
perpendicular to a variable static magnetic number, has a strong influence on the colour
field. The sensitivity for paramagnetic of some gems due to the symmetry of the
impurities in solid state samples is from ppb crystal field. For example, in beryl, iron can
to ppm.
enter either in an interstitial position in
Crystal field: The inhomogeneous structural channels, or substitute for Al ions.
electrical field of the neighbourhood ions of In the substitutional site, Fe2+ produces a
an impurity is called the crystal field. The blue colour while in the interstitial site it 129
crystal field around Cr3+ differs in intensity causes no colour.

et ah, 1963). The first four sites lie on a mirror et al., 1964). For lower chromium contents,
plane (Cs) with only one Be2+ neighbour, EPR experiments yield more accurate data
while the other four have inversion concerning site occupancy than X-ray
symmetry (Q), due to the symmetrical powder diffraction data. In synthetic laser-
location of two neighbouring Be2+ ions. quality alexandrite crystals with chromium
These sites differ not only in symmetry but contents ranging from 0.1% up to 0.3%, the
also in volume, with the C s site being larger relative site occupancy of the mirror sites has
than the Q sites. While the C s sites have an been estimated as 78% ± 3% (Forbes, 1983).
average nearest-neighbour distance (Al-O) of There are basically two transition ion
about 1.934 A, the same distance for the Q impurities in alexandrite and chrysoberyl,
sites is only 1.890 A (Farrell et al., 1963). This Fe3+ and Cr3+ that substitute for the Al3+.
volume difference strongly determines the With electronic spins S = 5/2 and S = 3/2
distribution of substitutional Cr3+ between respectively, those impurities are
the two types of sites. For lower chromium paramagnetic, being thus detectable by
and iron concentrations, the larger C s sites means of electron paramagnetic resonance
are preferentially occupied. As the (EPR). While the substitutional C s sites are
concentration of Cr increases, the Q sites can magnetically equivalent in pairs, the four
also be occupied (Newnham et ah, 1964). In inversion sites (Q) are magnetically
synthetic alexandrite, the relative site inequivalent (Forbes, 1983). The EPR
occupancy of the mirror-symmetry (Cs) sites parameters for Cr3+ and Fe3+ on the C s sites
is well known to be between 60 and 74% for were first determined by Barry and Troup in
the highest Cr concentrations (Newnham 1969 and 1970. Later, the Cr 3+ EPR

The cause of colour of the blue alexandrites from Malacacheta, Minas Gerais, Brazil
 Experimental details
The microprobe analysis had the spectrophotometer. The photoluminescence
following operational conditions: 15 kV was measured with a Dilor Micro-Raman
accelerating voltage, 20 mA current and 10 spectrometer with the green line of an Ar-
s counting time. The results in Table I are ion laser (514.5 nm) as excitation. The EPR
givenin per cent of weight. The study was done with a conventional EPR
spectrometer used for the chemical spectrometer working at the X-Band (9 - 1 0
analyses was a Cameca model Camebax GHz). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
5X-50. The analytical standards were Ian (XPS) spectra were recorded by a VG-
Steele and the lower limit of detection of escalab 2201-XL spectrometer using Al Ka
0.01 per cent of weight, with errors of the excitation (hu = 1486.6 eV) operating at
same order. It is important to note that the 10 mA and 15 kV. The vacuum during data
BeO level was not directly measured with acquisition was always near 10~9 torr. The
the microprobe, being estimated from the analyser was operated at a constant pass
stoichiometric concentrations of other energy of 40 eV and in 'small area mode'
oxides. The Be contents were confirmed (~ 0.2 mm 2 ), in order to focus on different
with X-ray photo-electron spectroscopy sample positions. When necessary, the
(XPS). For the optical characterization, gemstone was bombarded with Ar ions
optical absorption and photoluminescence to eliminate surface contamination.
were used. The optical absorption spectra Most experiments were made at room
were collected with a Hitachi U-3510 temperature.

parameters were refined for both the mirror spin-allowed crystal field transitions of the
and the inversion sites and the relative site Cr 3+ ion, i.e.4A2 - • 4T2(F), 4 A 2 - • 4 T a (P)
129 164 occupancy was defined (Forbes, 1983). respectively (Farrell and Newnham, 1965).
Phonon structure can also be barely seen at
300 K as sharp and less intense peaks at 620
Results and discussion
Table I: Electron probe microanalyses of two
The peacock-blue alexandrite samples representative rough samples of the blue alexandrite
selected for this investigation were the rough from Malacacheta.
crystals with highest purity and wt.% No.l No.2
transparency, and with both the most intense
and homogeneous pleochroism and A1 2 0 3 80.55 80.90
alexandrite effect {Figure 1). The results of the
BeO 17.91 17.61
electron probe microanalysis (WDS-EPMA)
for two of the samples are shown in Table I. Na20 0.01 0.01

From the group a single crystal was MgO 0.02 <0.01

carefully chosen as the most representative
Si0 2 <0.01 0.02
sample. It was cut in the shape of a
parallelepiped with dimensions of about 4 x K20 <0.01 <0.01
2.5 x 2 mm and faces oriented along the
CaO <0.01 <0.01
rhombic axes a, b and c.
Ti0 2 0.29 0.33
Unpolarized optical absorption spectra
were measured at 300 K for light propagating Cr 2 0 3 0.65 0.59
along the a and b axis as shown in Figure 2.
MnO 0.02 0.02
Three strong bands at 570 nm (Crl or
Y-band), 410 nm (Cr2 or U-band) and 300 nm FeO 0.53 0.51
(Cr3) are caused by Cr3+ in an octahedral site
(Table II). These three bands belong to the Total 99.98 99.99

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 262-270

 - Ela green
— Elb blue

E
c
o

o
C/J

CO

— I 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 —

300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
wavelength (nm)

Figure 2: Unpolarized optical absorption spectra of the peacock-blue alexandrite measured at room
temperature for light propogating along the crystal axis a and b with the marked positions in Table II.

nm (Cr4) and 640 nm (Cr5). Other weak 165 129

absorption peaks at 679 nm belong to the Table II: Average positions and origin of the
absorption bands of the peacock-blue alexandrite.
spin-forbidden transitions of Cr3+, i.e. 4 A 2 —•
2
E (Cr6), 4A2 - • 2Ta and 4 A 2 - • 2T2 (not Absorption Position Transition
marked). band (nm)
As in most natural alexandrites, Fe 3+ Crl (Y-band) 570 4
A2-4T2(F)
substituting for Al3+ was also detected in the
blue alexandrites from Malacacheta. Four Cr2 (U-band) 410 *A2->%(?)
iron-related weak absorption lines were 4
A 2 -+ 4 T 2 (F)
Cr3 300
observed at 368 nm (Fel), 378 nm (Fe2),
385 nm (Fe3) and 440 nm (Fe4), as marked in Cr4 620 phonon structure
Figure 2. All four lines are due to spin- of Crl
forbidden transitions from the 6A ground
state to the ^ ( G ) , 4E(G), 4T2(D) and 4E(D) Cr5 640 phonon structure
excited states, respectively. Without Cr 3+ , of Crl
these four Fe3+ related lines in the violet and 4
blue spectral range result in the yellow Cr6 (R lm and -679 A 2 -> 2E
colour of chrysoberyl (Farrell and Newnham, R2m lines)
1965). The origin of the absorption 6
Fel 368 A -> 4 A! (G)
transitions and their average positions are
summarised in Table II. For samples with Fe2 378 6
A-> 4 E(G)
high Fe3+ content, the transmission window
6
between the Fe and the Cr related absorption Fe3 385 A-> 4 T 2 (D)
bands at about 480 nm shifts toward the 6
Fe4 440 A -> 4E (D)
green, resulting in a green alexandrite
without blue hues.

The cause of colour of the blue alexandrites from Malacacheta, Minas Gerais, Brazil
 The visually observed colours of the Gauss, 5704 Gauss and 9003 Gauss for B \\b
peacock-blue alexandrite, for natural light (Forbes 1983), we could only detect a broad
propagating with polarization perpendicular and weak line at 5700 Gauss. While the 9003
to the a and b axes are green and blue, Gauss line was outside the range of our
respectively. Even though the transmission magnetic field, the other low-field lines were
for the blue wavelengths is slightly higher masked by the stronger Fe3+ lines and the
for E ± a (i.e. less absorption), as can be seen low-field Cr3+ (Cs) line. The EPR line of the
in the spectrum of Figure 2, the strength of inversion site can, in principle, be associated
the absorption bands between 550 nm and with the very weak and broad line at about
600 nm is greater by far for E _L b. Since the 5700 Gauss shown in Figure 4. This line,
human eye is more sensitive to green-yellow together with other weak and broad lines at
(Nassau, 1983), the final result is green for E lower fields could, however, belong to other
J_ a and blue for E _L b, which is consistent defects like, for example, Cr-pairs. Assuming
with recent results obtained for certain that the line observed at 5700 Gauss belongs
synthetic alexandrite grown from a melt of in fact to the -1/2—• +1/2 transition from the
stoichiometric composition by the Cr3+ (Q) (Forbes, 1983), we could roughly
Czochralski method (Liu et al., 1995). estimate its intensity ratio to be about 1/12
Figure 3 shows the photoluminescence with respect to the - 1/2 - • +1/2 line of
spectrum of the same peacock-blue Cr3+ (Cs) at 7845 Gauss. This value is slightly
alexandrite sample measured at room smaller than the ratio of ~ 1/10 one can
temperature. The line observed in the estimate from the synthetic alexandrite EPR
absorption spectrum at about 679 nm (Cr6) spectrum (Forbes, 1983). For synthetic
(Figure 1) is in fact a doublet (678.5 nm and alexandrites, a relative site occupancy of
680.3 nm at 300 K) that was better resolved in 78 ± 3% was found (Forbes, 1983). By
the photoluminescence spectrum (along with comparing the intensity ratios of the two
129 the phonon vibronic structure). This doublet, lines estimated for the peacock-blue
known as the R lm and R2m lines appears to be alexandrite with the ratio obtained for the
due to the deviation from octahedral synthetic alexandrite, and scaling them with
symmetry of the Cr3+ ion on the mirror- site occupancy, we conclude that the relative
symmetry sites, which lifts the degeneracy of site occupancy for substitutional Cr3+ should
the 2E level into two states A' and A" be higher than 90% on C s sites. This is also
(Walling et al, 1979; Hori et al., 1989). The consistent with the strong luminescence of
inversion sites do not contribute to the Cr3+ in the C s sites (R lm and R2m), since the
photoluminescence spectrum. luminescence-active site is the C s site.

The EPR spectrum for the magnetic field Another aspect of the EPR spectrum that
(B) approximately parallel to the crystal axis is important to mention is the large
b measured at 300 K and a microwave halfwidth of the EPR lines, that for most lines
frequency of 9.45 GHz is shown in Figure 4. either from Cr3+ and Fe3+ exceeds 50 Gauss,
In the spectrum, the two lines from Cr3+ in and that in some cases even reaches 100
the mirror symmetry sites (Cs) can clearly be Gauss. For synthetic alexandrites it stays in
seen at about 1364 Gauss and 7845 Gauss. the range between 10 and 30 Gauss (Forbes,
They belong to the Zeeman transitions 1983). This difference in the EPR linewidth of
-3/2 -> 3/2 and -1/2 - • 1/2, respectively, as transition ion impurities in natural and
observed in synthetic alexandrite (Forbes, synthetic alexandrites occurs mainly due to
1983). The other EPR lines belong to Fe3+ in the disorder of the lattice that is expected to
the mirror site (Barry and Troup, 1970). be higher for a natural crystal than for its
In the peacock-blue alexandrite it was synthetic counterpart.
very difficult to detect the EPR lines from The XPS spectrum of the same alexandrite
Cr3+ in the inversion sites (C^. From the (CJ sample studied by EPR is shown in Figure 5.
four lines expected at 1638 Gauss, 1872 From relative peak areas and sensitivity

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 161-170

 -

—
^ r R1m (680.3 nm)

0
I - . R2m (678.5 nm)
o
c
CD Vlbronic structure
O
CO
0 -
c
E
3

I
NVVW^VA^* vy ''^
I , | " ^ ^ ^ m M ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.70 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95
Photon energy [eV]

figure 3: Photoluminescence spectrum measured at room temperature with the green line (514.5 nm)
of an Ar-ion laser as excitation.
167129

Cr* (Cs)
(-3/2,+3/2) Cr*(CJ
(-1/2.+1/2)

fX
LU

Fe3+(CS)

2000 4000 6000 8000

Magnetic Field [Gauss]

Figure 4: EPR spectrum measured at room temperature and with microwave frequency of 9.45 GHz
and for B \\b.

The cause of colour of the blue alexandrites from Malacacheta, Minus Gerais, Brazil
 BeAI 2 . x (Cr,Fe) x 0 4 01s

AI2s

O - Auger AI2p

c
0
*-*
c Be 1s
Fe Cr
* * 2P3, 2 P 1 ^ |

L
-J J i i i i J — a i i i t » t

1200 1000 800 600 150 100 50 0

Binding Energy [eV]

Figure 5: XPS spectrum of the peacock-blue alexandrite measured with Al Ka radiation in the binding
energy ranges of 1200-500 eV, as collected (left side), and 200-0 eV, multiplied by 4 (right side).

129 J (£g factors of the photo-emission lines, the molar specific balance in the concentrations of Cr3+
fractional content in the alexandrite formula and Fe3+ substituting for Al3+ in the C s sites
BeAl2.x (Cr, Fe)x 0 4 was calculated, where in an otherwise colourless chrysoberyl
x = x Fe + x Cr. Spectra were collected at crystal. While it is known that the iron-
different sample positions and the results related absorption bands, in the absence of
averaged A l / O = 0.51 ± 0.06, and Al/Be = Cr, gives the typical yellow colour of the
1.87 ± 0.22, which gives 2 - x = 1.96 ± 0.23. chrysoberyl, for samples with Fe and Cr,
From the 2p 1 / 2 ,2p 3 / 2 of the Fe and Cr and the green or blue-green alexandrite is expected
O-ls transitions x = x Fe ± x Cr = 0.022 ± 0.015. depending on the relative concentrations of
The C r / F e molar ratio x C r / x Fe was Fe and Cr. For samples with high Fe content,
calculated as 0.8 ± 0.4, consistent with the the Fe-related broad absorption bands in the
WDS-EPMA analysis. From the EPR and blue are intense and, as a result, the
optical absorption experiments, it is clear transmission window shifts slightly from 480
that the Cr3+ and Fe3+ are the main cations in nm (blue-green) to the green 500 nm. Figure 6
the peacock-blue alexandrite which affect the shows clearly that by changing the
colour of this gemstone. EPR and concentration ratio of Fe3+ and Cr3+, the
photoluminescence results showed that Cr3+ overlap of the two absorption bands and
occupies preferentially the mirror sites, i.e. therefore the position of the absorption
more than 90% with respect to the minimum at about 500 nm is influenced. As
inversion sites. a consequence, the amount of transmitted
blue wavelengths will depend heavily on the
The pleochroic colours of the peacock-
balance between Cr3+ and Fe3+.
blue alexandrite, and the strong alexandrite
effect of a change from greenish-blue in XPS enables determination of the specific
daylight to reddish-purple under range in the Cr/Fe molar ratio which gives
incandescent light, are consequences of a the most attractive colours and the best

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 161-170

 Fe3
Cr3+

500 nm

Blue | Green ;'

300 nm 800 nm

Figure 6: The shape of the absorption bands ofCr3+ in synthetic alexandrite and ofFe3+ in chrysoberyl
(after Farrell and Newnham, 1965). Both spectra were measured for light polarized along b.

colour change in the peacock-blue minimum in the absorption spectrum lies at 169 129
alexandrite. The result was 0.4 < x C r /x Fe < about 480 nm, giving rise to the blue tones of
1.2. Finally, this model is also consistent with this variety of alexandrite. For higher Fe and
the existence of green alexandrites without intermediate Cr contents, the minimum in
blue tints because of the higher iron a n d / o r the spectrum shifts to the green (k > 500 nm),
lower chromium content, compared to the and the alexandrite loses the bluish colours
peacock-blue alexandrite. The results are when viewed along b. For very low Cr
consistent with the WDS-EPMA analysis. concentrations, absorption is strong in the
However, it is interesting to note the violet-blue region and the chrysoberyl
relatively high titanium content (Table I). cannot be considered to be alexandrite
Whether or not optical transitions belonging because it becomes yellow, losing its strong
to charge transfer Fe2+ - Ti4+, well known in pleochroism in the green range and the
so many oxygen-based minerals, influence 'alexandrite-effect'.
the optical absorption spectrum has not yet
been resolved.
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by the
Conclusions
Brazilian foundation FAPEMIIG (CEX
The origin of colour of the peacock-blue 245197 and CEX 172495). We are grateful to
variety of alexandrite from Malacacheta M.P. Ferreira and to V.C. Costa (CDTN), for
(Minas Gerais, Brazil) is explained by the help with the optical absorption
presence of Fe3+ and Cr3+ substituting for spectrometer. We are also grateful to H.D
Al3+ in the mirror sites. For intermediate Pfannes for motivating discussions and to
Fe/Cr ratios (0.4 < x C r /x Fe < 1.2), and with F.S. Lameiras for his critical review of
both Fe3+ and Cr3+ in the mirror sites, the the manuscript.

The cause of colour of the blue alexandrites from Malacacheta, Minas Gerais, Brazil
 References Liu, Y., Shigley, J.E., Fritsch, E., and Hemphill, S., 1995.
Relationship between the crystallographic orientation
3+
Barry, W.R., and Troup, G.J., 1969. EPR of Cr ions in and the 'alexandrite effect' in synthetic alexandrite.
alexandrite. Physics Status Solidi, 35, 861-4
Mineralogical Magazine, 59, 111-14
Barry, W.R., and Troup, G.J., 1970. EPR of Cr3+ ions in
Martin-Izard, A., Panigua, A., and Moreiras, D., 1995.
chrysoberyl. Physics Status Solidi, 38, 229-34
Basílio, M.S., 1999. A alexandrita de Malacacheta, Metasomatism at a granitic pegmatite-dunite contact
Nordeste de Minas Gerais. Dissertation, April 1999, in Galicia: the Franqueira occurrence of chrysoberyl
Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil (alexandrite), emerald and phenakite. Canadian
Bragg, W.L., and Brown, G.B., 1926. Die Kristallstruktur Mineralogist, 33, 775-92
von Chrysoberyl (BeAl2O4). Zeitschrift Kristalographie, Nassau, K., 1983. The physics and chemistry of color. John
63, 122-43 Wiley & Sons, New York
Farrell, E.F., Fang, J.H., and Newnham, R.E., 1963. Newnham, R.E., Santoro, R., Pearson, J., and Jansen, C.,
Refinement of the chrysoberyl structure. American 1964. Ordering Fe and Cr in chrysoberyl. American
Mineralogist, 48, 805-10
Mineralogist, 49, 427-30
Farrell, E.F., and Newnham, R.E., 1965. Crystal-field
Poole, C.P Jr, 1964. The optical absorption spectra and
spectra of chrysoberyl, alexandrite, peridot, and
sinhalite. American Mineralogist, 50, 1972-81 colour of chromium-containing solids. Journal of
Forbes, C.E., 1983. Analysis of the spin-Hamiltonian Physical Chemistry Solids, 25, 1169-82
parameters for Cr3+ in mirror and inversion symmetry Proctor, K., 1988. Chrysoberyl and alexandrite from
sites of alexandrite (Al2-xCrxBeO4): Determination of pegmatite districts of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Gems and
the relative site occupancy by EPR. Journal of Chemical Gemology, 24(1), 16-32
Physics, 79, 2590-9 Swanson, H.E., Cook, M.I., Issacs, T., and Evans, E.H.,
Guimãraes, M.L.V., and Grossi Sad, J.H., 1977. Geologia 1960. Standard X-ray diffraction powder patterns.
da folha Malacacheta, Minas Gerais. In Grossi Sad,
U.S. National Bureau Standard Circulation, 539, 10-12
J.H., Lobato, L.M., Pedrosa-Soares, A.C., and Soares-
Walling, J.C., Jenssen, H.P., Morris, R.C., O'Dell, E.W., and
Filho, B.S., (Eds), Projeto Espinhaço em CD-ROM (Texto
e anexos). COMIG, Belo Horizonte, p.2693 Peterson, O.G., 1979. Tunable-laser performance in
Hori, H., Kuroda, N., Yamamoto, H., Nishina, Y., and BeAl2O4:Cr3+. Optical Letters, 4, 182-3
Muneyuki, D., 1989. Zeeman Effect of R-Lines in White, W.B., Roy, R., and McKay Crichton, J., 1967. The
alexandrite under high magnetic fields. Journal of the 'alexandrite effect': an optical study. American
129170 Physical Society of Japan, 58, 2988-93 Mineralogist, 52, 867-71

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J. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 161-170

 Abstracts
lamon tics and Sir

Gems and Minerals 1

mantle. It has a higher harzburgite /lherzolite ratio and

may have a higher olivine/orthoproxene ratio. It is an
lamonc ancient oceanic or sub-arc mantle. The deep mantle (145-
200 km) is similar to the Kaapvaal lithosphere sampled by
Diamonds in volcaniclastic komatiite from Group I kimberlites but the harzburgite /lherzolite ratio
French Guiana. decreases with depth. Eclogites come from this deeper
R. CAPDEVILA, N. ARNDT, J. LETENDRE and J-R SAUVAGE. layer which contains abundant diamonds, was derived
Nature, 399(6735), 1999, pp 456-8. from the lower mantle (ferropericlase-perovskite
Analyses are presented of diamondiferous inclusions) and is a fossil plume head. Some
volcaniclastic komatiites from the Dachine deposit in the representative partial major and trace element analyses of
2210 ± 900 m.y. old greenstone belt of the Guiana Shield, garnets are given. B.E.L.
French Guiana. The ultramafic host of the deposit is > 5
km x < 1000 m wide. Bulk samples contain < 1-77 (mainly)
Changes and new developments in Africa.
microdiamonds/kg rock. Larger diamonds (>1 mm) (< 4
carats/m 3 rock) occur in poorly sorted alluvium overlying J.J. GURNEY. Gems & Gemology, 35(3), 1999, 34-6.
mineralised bedrock. Cubo-octahedral diamonds and low Africa currently produces 51.8 million carats of rough
513C ratios (-23 to 27%o) indicate eclogitic sources. Nine diamonds annually (46% of the world total by weight, or
analyses are listed of komatiites for major and trace 72% by value). It is forecast that African diamond
elements. The diamonds are probably xenocrysts sampled production will increase to > 60 million ct/yr in the
at depths of > 150 km and transferred rapidly to the foreseeable future. It is reasonable to expect further
surface. Primary, anhydrous komatiite magma formed by discoveries in the Kalahari craton and in Mauretania. 171 129
deep melting, penetrated hydrated lithosphere beneath R.A.H.
the Dachine island arc, accumulated H 2 0 and diamonds
and was propelled to the surface. R.K.H.
Diamonds from Australia.
A.J.A. JANSE. Gems & Gemology, 35(3), 1999, 37-9.

Layered m a n t l e l i t h o s p h e r e i n the Lac d e Gras The Argyle lamproite pipe has been mined since 1985
area, Slave Craton: c o m p o s i t i o n , structure and and produces mainly small brown diamonds of irregular
shape; only 5% are of gem quality, but now ~ 40% of the
origin.
non-gem Argyle diamonds are cut economically in India
W.L. GRIFFIN, B.J. DOYLE, C.G. RYAN, N.J. PEARSON, S.Y. into inexpensive low-quality stones. The only other
O'REILLY, R. DAVIES, K. KIVI, E. VAN ACHTERBERGH AND producing diamond mine is Merlin, in the Northern
L.M. NATAPOV. Journal of Petrology, 40(5), 1999, Territory, which came into production in 1999; it draws
pp 705-27. from 4-7 small kimberlite pipes and produces diamonds of
Garnet and chromite concentrates and lherzolite, very good quality.
harzburgite, dunite, websterite and eclogite xenoliths
Created Diamonds'; avariety of colours are being
from 21 Cretaceous-Tertiary kimberlite intrusions have produced as well as near-colourless material. It is noted
been used to map the Archaean lithosphere mantle with some amusement that synthetic moissanite is more
beneath the central Slave Province, Canada. Ni (for expensive than synthetic diamond. R.A.H.
garnet) and Zn (for chromite) - derived T enable estimates
of the depth of crystallization and show a sharp
discontinuity in mantle composition at 900°C. The Gem news.
lithospheric mantle < 145 km is extremely depleted in M.L. JOHNSON, J.I. KOIVULA, S.F. MCCLURE AND D.
LILE and HFSE compared to other known Archaean DEGHIONNO (eds). Gems & Gemology, 35(2), 1999,142-55.

Abstractors
J. Flinders J.F. B.E. Leake. B.E.L A.H. Rankin A.H.R.
R.K. Harrison R.K.H. RB. Leavens P.B.L. I. Sunagawa I.S.
R.A. Howie R.A.H. M. O'Donoghue M.O'D.

For further information on many of the topics referred to, consult Mineralogical Abstracts

© Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain ISSN: 1355-4565
 The first diamonds from Merlin project in the North placers in the Ural Mts. Within Saakha, 10% of the
Territory, Australia, included a 14.76 ct 'white' octahedron production is from the Anabar placers on the Ebelyakh
from the Scaramore pipe. R.A.H. River; several pipes in the Muna field are being prepared
for mining. The Arkhangelsk diamondiferous province in
Genesis of diamonds in the lower mantle. the East European craton has several high-grade
kimberlite pipes, of which the Lomonossov may be the
L. Liu. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 134(2-3),
first to be developed. R.A.H.
1999,170-3.
The occurrence of the ('forbidden') assemblage
ferropericlase + enstatite as inclusions in diamonds
implies formation and that of their host diamonds in the
H p t e m s and Mineral! ^ f l |
lower mantle. Magnesite is probably the only stable II 'demantoide' della Val Maleno
carbonate at > ~ 220 km depth. The reaction boundary for
magnesite decarbonation has a positive dT/dP slope at F. BEDOGNE, E. SCIESA AND P. VIGNOLA. Rivista mineralogica
lower P which becomes negative at higher P if no other italiana. 23, 208-17,1999, illus. in colour.
phase intervenes, and probably intersects the geotherm at Yellow-green andradite is found in the Val Malenco
~ 900 -1100 km, below which magnesite decomposes into area of northern Italy. The name demantoid has frequently
assemblages periclase + diamond + O. Hence, the most been used for this material and some small crystals do
likely inclusion to form in diamond in the lower mantle is achieve a deep emerald-green. Crystals occur in
ferropericlase, the occurrence of only this type of serpentinites as rhombic dodecahedra with faces
inclusion in diamonds from Sao Luiz, Brazil,
modified by trapezohedra: the composition of a number
substantiating this view. J.F.
of specimens is given in tabular form. The finest green
crystals appear to be limited to the two areas Campo
Observations of GE-processed diamonds: a Francisca and Alpa Acquanegra M.O'D.
photographic record.
T.M. MOSES, J.E. SHIGLEY, S.F. MCCLURE, J.I. KOIVULA AND
[The quantitative appraisal of the green of
M. VAN DAELE. Gems & Gemology, 35(3), 1999,14-22.
jadeite.] (Chinese with English abstract)
Natural high-purity diamonds are being processed at
high T and high P by the General Electric Co. to improve Y. CHAN, F. PAN AND J. REN. Kuangwu Yanshi (Bulletin of
their colour, i.e. to make them more nearly colourless. Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry), 18(4), 1999,
Agreement has been reached with Pegasus Overseas Ltd 412-15.
(POL) and GE to inscribe the girdle surface of all their
129 processed stones with the letters POL. The GIA has now
A new standard is proposed for the naming and
classification of the green colour of natural jadeite, based
established a database of information after examining 858 on photometry. Green jadeite is classed as one of six
GE POL diamonds; 99% of them are type Ha. Most of the
'species' pure green, very slightly yellowish-green, very
stones examined were 1-2 ct generally cut in one of several
slightly bluish-green, slightly bluish-green, yellowish-
'fancy' shapes. Photographs are presented showing some
green and bluish-green. The colour is evaluated according
of the unusual internal features such as graining and
'partially healed' cleavages; they often show a slightly to saturation and brightness, these two indices then being
hazy appearance. Examples are reported of stones in united to establish the new standard. R.A.H.
which the GE POL inscription has been partially or
completely removed, but the database built u p on these [Mineralogical characteristics of chatoyant
stones allowed their detection. R.A.H.
quartz in Luodian County, Guizhou.]
(Chinese with English abstract)
C a n a d i a n d i a m o n d production: a G o v e r n m e n t
M. DENG. Kuangwu Yanshi (Bulletin of Mineralogy,
perspective. Petrology and Geochemistry), 18(4), 1999,416-7.
D. PAGET. Gems & Gemology, 35(3), 1999,40-42. The Luodian chatoyant quartz may have originated in
The main cluster of economically viable diamond- quartz veins in blue asbestos; it is brown-green, light
bearing kimberlite pipes occur in the Lac de Gras area in green and bluish-green in colour. It contains parallel fibres
the Slave Province of the Northwest Territories. Here the of tremolite. In bright sunshine or under a tungsten light
Ekati mine has a resource of 66 million tonnes at 1.07 ct/t, it reflects a dazzling slit of light from the interior of the
with an average value of US$100 per carat. Other stone. R.A.H.
diamond projects in the evaluation stage include that at
Jericho in Nunavat [a new territory in the East Arctic, on
the east side of Hudson Bay, formally created in 1999]. The separation of natural from synthetic
R.A.H. colourless sapphire.
S. ELEN and E. FRITSCH. Gems & Gemology, 35(1),
Russian diamond sources.
1999, 30-41.
N.V. SOBOLEV. Gems & Gemology, 35(3), 1999, 43.
Increasing amounts of colourless sapphire, promoted
More than 800 kimberlite bodies have so far been mainly as diamond substitutes but also as natural
identified in the Siberian craton of the Republic of Sakha gemstones, have been seen in the gem market during the
(formerly Yakutia) and produce ~ 98% of all diamonds past decade. Natural colourless sapphires can be
mined in Russia, the remaining 2% being recovered from distinguished from their synthetic counterparts by their

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 171-175

trace-element composition and short-wave UV Criteria for distinguishing emerald filling materials
transparency. EDXRF shows higher Fe, Ti, Ca and Ga in have been investigated, 39 fillers being divided into six
natural sapphires; these impurities cause a reduction in substance categories ~ three 'presumed natural' (essential
the SWUV transparency that can be detected by UV- oils, including cedar wood oil, other oils and waxes) and
visible spectrophotometry, i.e. a total absorption in the UV three 'artificial resin' (epoxy and other prepolymers,
region below 280-300 ran, which is not seen in synthetic including UV-setting adhesive, and polymers). Regardless
stones. A SWUV transparency tester that can rapidly of their composition, fillers with RI > 1.54 show flash
identify parcels of colourless sapphires is described. effects in emeralds. On the basis of Raman and IR
R.A.H. spectroscopy, the fillers can be separated into five spectral
groups A-E. Most, but not all, commonly used artificial
resins have spectra distinct from that of cedar wood oil.
T h e identification of Zachery-treated t u r q u o i s e . However, the detection of one substance in a fissure does
E. FRITSCH, S.F. MCCLURE, M. OSTROOUMOV, Y, ANDRES, T. not imply that all others are absent. R.A.H.
MOSES, J.I. KOIVULA AND R.C. KAMMERLING. Gems &
Gemology, 35(1), 1999, 4-16.
Gem news.
Over the last ten years, millions of carats of turquoise
have been enhanced by a proprietary process called the M.L. JOHNSON AND J.I. KOIVULA (eds). Gems & Gemology,
Zachery treatment. This process effectively improves a 35(1), 1999,47-60.
stone's ability to take a good polish and may or may not Items described include a 2 cm prism of Colombian
improve the colour. It also decreases the material's emerald with a large moveable gas bubble and a twelve-
porosity limiting its tendency to absorb discolouring rayed star quartz from Sri Lanka (sillimanite being
agents such as skin oils. Examination shows that the responsible for the asterism). R.A.H.
process does not alter the gemmological properties of the
turquoise; it does not involve impregnation with a
polymer. Most Zachery-treated turquoise can be Gem news.
identified only through chemical analysis (most efficiently M.L. JOHNSON, J.I. KOIVULA, S.F. MCCLURE AND D.
by EDXRF or EPMA techniques) as it contains DEGHIONNO (eds). Gems & Gemology, 35(2), 1999,
significantly more K than its untreated counterpart. 142-55.
R.A.H. A new source for tsavorite is recorded ~ 15 km from
Ruangwa in Lindi Province, Tanzania. R.A.H.
G u a t e m a l a jadeites a n d albites w e r e f o r m e d b y
deuterium-rich serpentinizing fluids deep
129
[ T h e c o l o r i m e t r y a n d c h r o m a t i c i t y s t u d y of
within a subduction zone. Xinjiang H e t i a n jade.] (Chinese with English abstract)
C A . JOHNSON AND G.E. HARLOW. Geology, 27(7), 1999, W. LI and R. Wu. Kuangwu Yanshi (Bulletin of Mineralogy,
pp 629-32. Petrology and Geochemistry), 19(4), 1999, 418-22.
Jadeites and albitites from the Motagua Valley, Analysis of the visible spectrum of Hetian jade
Gutemala, are high-P-low-T metasomatic rocks that occur indicates that the green colour is due to the total iron
as tectonic inclusions in a serpentinite-matrix melange. content. The absorption peak at 450 ran is produced by the
Metasomatism was driven by a fluid with a 8 18 OH 2 0 d-d transition of Fe3+, and the broad, weak bands at 640
value of 6%o and a 5 D H 2 0 value that is high in nm can be attributed to the Fe2+ —> Fe3+ charge transfer.
comparison with metamorphic fluids at the other high-P- The colour indices of Hetian jade are calculated from the
low-T localities of similar grade. It is inferred that the reflectivit and transmission ratio; this jade has low
fluid was originally sea-water that was entrained during saturation and low brightness. EPMA results and cell
subduction either as mineral-bound H 2 0 , or as free pore parameters are given for tremolite in the Hetian jade.
waters. The fluid drove serpentinization reactions in R.A.H.
ultramafic rocks, possibly leading to deuterium
enrichment of H 2 0 , prior to forming the jadeites and Exotic origin of the ruby d e p o s i t s of the Mangari
albitites at a depth of 29 ± 11 km. There are isotopic and
area i n SE K e n y a .
fluid-inclusion similarities to rodingites, which are Ca-
rich metasomatites found at other serpentinite localities. A. MERCIER, P. DEBAT AND J.H. SAUL. Ore Geology Reviews,
The results suggest that the serpentinization process, 14,1999, 83-104
whether it occurs within subduction zones or on the The Mangari gem-quality ruby deposits occur as
flanks of oceanic spreading ridges, may produce residual lenses and veins associated with ultrabasic bodies of the
fluids that are H 2 0 rich, have 1-8 wt.% eq. NaCl, and have Proterozoic Mozambique belt. Representative chemical
high, perhaps sea-water-like 8D values. P.B.L. compositions are presented for the following minerals
associated with corundum (ruby): sapphirine, chlorite,
spinel, zoisite and plagioclase. Data are also presented for
On the identification of various emerald filling the following minerals from the sillimanite gneiss,
substances. country rocks: biotite, garnet at plagioclase. The P-T
M.L. JOHNSON, S. ELEN AND S. MUHLMEISTER. Gems & conditions for the gneisses, based on mineral
Gemology, 35(2), 1999, 82-107. thermobarometric methods, are within the ranges 5.4 to

Gems and Minerals

 6.7 kbar and 605 to 670°C. Comparable P-T estimates for extension, whereas the growth sectors consist of a single
corundum-bearing rocks are within the ranges, 8 to 10.5 ruby phase and show Cr zoning parallel to the growth
kbar and 700 to 750°C. The Mangari deposits are surfaces. Element partitioning in the earlier dendritic
fragments of a deeper crust brought u p to their present- growth is governed by thermodynamic parameters,
day level by ultrabasic bodies during emplacement as whereas that of the latter layer-by-layer growth by
thrust sheets. It is suggested that the rubies were formed kinetics. The present size of trapiche ruby crystals was
under granulite conditions but were tectonically attained in a very short duration, i.e. that required to
emplaced into country rocks of lower metamorphic grade complete the skeleton by dendritic growth. I.S.
and P-T conditions. A.H.R.

[The identification of a f i l l e d ruby.] (Chinese with

G e m Trade Lab n o t e s . English abstract)
T. MOSES, I. REINITZ AND S.F. MCCLURE (eds). Gems & H. W A N . KUANGWU YANSHI (Bulletin of Mineralogy,
Gemology, 35(1), 1999, 42-6. Petrology and Geochemistry), 18(4), 1999, 410-11.
Items noted include green faceted ovals purporting to An EPMA examination of a secondary inclusion in a
be Chinese peridotite which were found to be glass, and a faceted ruby showed that its main component is a silica
cat's-eye taaffeite in which the chatoyancy was due to the glass. R.A.H.
presence of parallel reflective planar inclusions with
striations. R.A.H.
[The enhancement and treatment of pearl's
colour.] (Chinese with English abstract)
Achat i n Osterreich.
J. WANG, J. LIANG AND M. PENG. Kuangwu YANSHI (Bulletin
G. NIEDERMAYR. Mineralien Welt, 10(6), 1999, 52-6. of Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry), 18(4), 1999,
Fine ornamental-quality specimens of agate are found 407-9.
at several locations in Austria. A number of formations It is argued that since the colour of neither natural nor
are described, notably the Bohemian Massif where the cultured pearl can meet people's demands, the colour
agate is found in serpentinites. Agate is also found in needs enhancing. After being bleached, dyed and
volcanic rocks. M.O.D. irradiated the colour of pearls is more satisfactory. R.A.H.

Sapphire and garnet from Kalalani, Tanga T h e colour of s t o n e s .

129 Province, Tanzania. M. WILSON. Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society. 62,
A.V. SEIFERT AND J. HYRSL. Gems & Gemology, 35(2), 1999, 27-37,1999, illus. in colour.
108-20.
Describes the usage of and names given to hardstones,
Reddish-orange gem-quality sapphire, pyrope- exclusive of the jades, used in Chinese artefacts. Rock
almandine and tsavorite occur in desilicated pegmatites crystal, amethyst, smoky quartz and rose quartz names
cutting serpentinite massifs surrounded by amphibolite- are described with explanations of the Chinese characters
facies rocks in the Kalani area (~ 3 km S of the Umba area). used. M.O.D.
Gemmologically, the sapphires are virtually identical to
those from Umba, but the garnets are different. The dark
red to brownish-red pyrope-almandine from Kalalani is [Discussion on character of the rough jadeite
distinct from the pink-purple rhodolite found at Umba, crust.] (Chinese with English abstract)
and tsavorite is not known from the Umba area. Optical E. ZHANG, X. YIN and M. PENG. Kwangwu Yanshi (Bulletin
and physical properties are reported together with EPMA of Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry), 18(4), 1999,
values for pyrope-almandine. R.A.H. 400-2.
The natural rough jadeite crust can be distinguished
Texture formation and element partitioning in from man-made crust by EPMA, XRD and IR techniques.
trapiche ruby. Chemical analyses (9) and IR spectra of three different
depth zones in the sample are presented. R.A.H.
I. SUNAGAWA, H.-J. BERNHARDT AND K. SCHMETZER. Journal
of Crystal Growth. 206,1999, 322-30, 5 figs., 1 table.
Based on textural and compositional investigations on [Rossmanite, olenite, elbaite and the 50% rule as
ruby single crystals which show textures with six arms a basis for distinguishing between mineral
and six growth sectors (trapiche ruby from Mong Hsu, species in Li-Al tourmalines.] (Russian with English
Myanmar), the mode of formation of the unique texture abstract)
has been determined, and the element partitioning was A.A. ZOLOTAREV AND A.G. BULAKH. Proceedings of the
related to the growth mechanism. The arms and the Russian Mineralogical Society, 128(2), 1999, 32-8.
branches were formed earlier by dendritic growth on
New structural formulae for liddicoatite, rossmanite
rough interfaces, and the growth sectors by lateral growth
and olenite have been calculated using a uniform
on smooth interfaces. The arm and branch portions
approach. The compositions of the Li-Al tourmalines are
consist of plural mineral phases but show a low and
plotted on vector diagrams; on these the composition of
almost uniform Cr content in corundum throughout the

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3,171-175

rossmanite plots in the olenite field, and there seems no products. These experiments can be regarded as a
difference between properties and XRD data for simplified model for the formation of some types of
rossmanite and olenite. This work indicates that, for the natural diamond during the interaction of reduced fluids
Li-Al tourmalines, new mineral species cannot be with carbon-bearing mantle rocks. R.A.H.
distinguished only on the basis of atomic occupancy at a
particular structural site; all interdependent substitutions
[Study o n inclusion in synthetic diamond.]
for atoms in the various structural positions must be
considered. R.A.H. (Chinese with English abstract)
B. LIN, H. WAN AND M. PENG. Kuangwu YANSHI (Bulletin of
Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry), 18(4), 1999,
308-9.
An inclusion in a synthetic diamond was shown by
Russian synthetic ametrine.
EPMA and XRD to be 'melnikovite' (greigite, A2+ B%+ S4).
V.S. BALITSKY, T. LU, G.R. ROSSMAN, LB. MAKHINA, A.A. It is suggested that the growth conditions in a specific
MAR'IN, J.E. SHIGLEY, S. ELEN AND B.A. DOROGOVIN. oxidation-reduction environment allowing the
Gems & Gemology, 35(2), 1999,122-34. coexistence of Fe2+ and Fe3+. R.A.H.
Gem-quality synthetic ametrine has been produced
commercially in Russia by hydrothermal growth in Gem Trade Lab notes.
alkaline solutions. The faceted material mostly resembles
T. MOSES, I. REINITZ AND S.F. MCCLURE (eds). Gems &
the Bolivian natural ametrine, but colour zoning and
twinning are distinctive in the synthetic stones. XRF Gemology, 35(2), 1999,136-41.
showed higher K, Mn, Fe and Zn than in natural ametrine. Items noted include a 19.64 ct faceted orange-brown
IR spectra of the synthetic citrine portions showed more bastnasite, a 0.29 ct black synthetic diamond, and cobalt-
intense absorption in the 3700-2500 c m 4 range and the doped synthetic forsterite whose strong pleochroism
synthetic amethyst zones showed a weak diagnostic peak makes it a convincing tanzanite imitation. R.A.H.
at 3543 cm-1. R.A.H.
Some diagnostic features of Russian
Controlled crystallization of emerald from the hydrothermal synthetic rubies and sapphires.
flux melt. K. SCHMETZER AND A. PERETTI. Gems & Gemology, 35(1),
1999,17-28.
S.N BARILO, G.L. BYCHKOV, L.A. KURNEVICH, N.I. LEONUK,
V.R MIKHAILOV, S.V. SHIRYAEV, V.T. KOYAVA AND T.V. Most Russian hydrothermal synthetic rubies, and
129
SMIRNOVA. Journal of crystal growth, 198/199,1999, 716- pink, orange, green, blue and violet sapphires (coloured
22, 3 figs., 3 tables. by Cr a n d / o r Ni), reveal diagnostic zigzag or mosaic-like
Gem-quality emerald single crystals, with small growth structures associated with colour zoning. After
dichroism, uniform distribution of colour throughout, proper orientation, these internal patterns are easily
and weighing as much as 150 ct, were synthesized from recognized using a standard gemmological microscope in
flux melt, using seed plates cut parallel to (1010) and conjunction with immersion or fibre-optic illumination;
(1120). The optimal concentration ratio of the solute near pleochroism is also useful for separating Cr-free blue-to-
the crystallization front was maintained through green synthetic sapphires from their natural counterparts,
adequate stirring by a platinum crystal holder rotated at a but this requires the determination of orientation of the
rate of 30 rpm and seed positioning. Laser experiments optic axis in a faceted sample. Samples coloured by a
and threshold measurements were made to examine the combination of Cr, Ni and Fe are also described. R.A.H.
emerald quality. Lasing was achieved at an absorbed
pump energy threshold of less than 0.6 mj. I.S.
Epitaxial d i a m o n d g r o w t h o n s a p p h i r e i n an
oxidizing environment.
Diamond formation during reduction of oxide M. YOSHIMOTO, K. YOSHIDA, H. MARUTA, Y. HISHITANI, H.
and silicate-carbon systems at high P-T KOINUMA, S. NISHIO, M. KAKIHANA AND T. TACHIBANA.
conditions. Nature, 399(6734), 1999, 340-2.
A.I. CHEPUROV, LI. FEDOROV, V.M. SONIN, D.G. The nucleation and growth of diamond by vapour
BAGRYANTSEV AND N. YU. OSORGIN. European Journal of deposition in a hydrogen-free, pure-0 2 environment to
Mineralogy, 11(2), 1999, 355-62. form hetero-epitaxially aligned crystallites on single-
Diamonds have been synthesized in fayalite + crystal synthetic (0001) sapphire wafers, are reported. The
graphite and magnetite + graphite mixtures by partial growth of the diamond occurs where the oxidative
reduction of the samples with hydrogen and metallic etching of C must compete with its formation. By
titanium at 1300-1400°C and 45-55 kbar. Hydrogen choosing a T-range that results in preferential oxidation of
provided local reduction of the samples with separation graphite to that of diamond, accumulation of the latter
of metallic iron, which catalysed the transformation of occurs. Diamond crystals grew at ~ 600°C under 0 2 P of
graphite into diamond. Iron reacted with other elements 0.1-0.2 torr. An SEM photograph shows diamond crystals
and was not found in the free state in the experimental on the sapphire substrate. R.K.H

Synthetics and Simulants

 BOOK REVIEWS
The diamond formula System of mineralogy but on a read-through some of them
A.S. BARNARD, 2000. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, have shown up; cuprum lazureum (azurite), oculus
pp x, 166. Illus. in black-and-white. Softcover. ISBN 0 mundi (opal) are examples. Many names appearing
7506 4244 0. £24.99. unfamiliar at first sight are later seen to consist of non-
English forms and on the whole the author has traversed
Useful and brisk round-up of the present position in this minefield successfully. Gemmologists with an interest
the synthesis of gem-quality diamond with the first in minerals should buy this very reasonably-priced book.
chapters giving an account of how the different processes M.O'D.
developed. Some of the early pioneers are introduced and
a large section of the text is devoted to developments in
gemmological testing. For all sections references are made Minerals of Broken Hill
to a list at the end of the book and a number of W.D. BIRCH (Ed.), 1999. Broken Hill City Council,
photographs show persons and apparatus of diamond Broken Hill, p p xii, 289. ISBN 0 9599486 9 4.
synthesis history. A good deal of useful information is Price on application.
given on De Beers synthetic industrial diamond and a This is the second large, full coloured survey on the
chapter discusses the possible use of chemical vapour minerals of Broken Hill to appear in the last 17 years: in
deposition (CVD). Details of gemmological laboratory 1982 Australian Mining and Smelting Ltd published a
testing are well-written and easy to read. good quality survey under the same title. Considerable
In compiling such a book the author accepts that most work has taken place on the site since that time and all
of the text should be 'stop press', so fast is the serious mineral collectors will want to be able to consult a
development of gem diamond synthesis! Details of the copy of the present book, if not to buy it. The text begins
high pressure/high temperature altered diamonds and with a geological and historical survey of the area,
the story of GE POL must wait for the next edition of an including a close study of the main ore-body, and then
excellent, readable and affordable book which is very continues with the main descriptive section in which
suitable for diamond course students as well as the mineral species are arranged alphabetically. The text
general reader. M.O'D. includes notes on species no longer validated: this type of
129 information is always necessary and should never be
discarded even when the species is discredited. Future
Glossary of obsolete mineral names workers may have lost sight of type specimens, thus
P. BAYLISS, 2000. The Mineralogical Record, Tucson, pp viii, making work cited in earlier reports uncertain so it is well
235 + extra leaves for additional notes. Hardcover. worth knowing why a particular theory is advanced.
ISBN 0 930259 04 1. US$32.00 plus $3 postage and References are given to significant papers where the
packing. occurrence of a particular species is especially
With two columns per page and a small though noteworthy.
legible typeface, this book is a companion to Fleischer's The descriptive section is followed by a complete list
glossary of mineral species (Mandarino, eighth and latest of recognized minerals from the Broken Hill deposit, by a
edition 1999) and to Hey's mineral index (Clark, 1993). It is first-class bibliography of 25 pages and by a glossary. The
also something of a successor to the now rare Dictionary of editor and publishers are to be congratulated for
the names of minerals (Chester, 1896) and A catalogue of producing so fine a book: the photographs are for the
minerals and synonyms (Egleston, 1892). The present work most part of outstanding quality though I found the odd
aims at the inclusion of all names used for mineral one slightly (but only slightly) out of focus. Several of the
substances throughout history, which are not now species could have been taken as having ornamental
considered valid or current [author's preface]. Varietal potential and more would make collectors' gemstones.
names of the gem minerals (e.g. ruby, sapphire) are not M.O'D.
included. Further details on group, supergroup,
subgroup, family, superfamily and subfamily are defined
by Smith et ah in Advances in X-ray analysis 41 (1998) and Symmetrielehre der Kristallographie
notes on structural formulae can be found in Smith et ah R. BORCHARDT AND S. TUROWSKI, 1999. Oldenbourg Verlag,
American Mineralogist, 83(126), 1998. Miinchen. pp viii, 108, pi 32, softcover. ISBN 3 486
The entries in this book are brief, consisting of name, 24648 8. DM 63.00.
present equivalent, if any, source and author of Clear and useful guide to mineral crystals with 32 cut-
information, thus Alumina hydrate = diaspore, Egleston out models of the simpler examples, the book is unusual
8 (1892): taprobanite = red Cr-rich taaffeite-#H, American as it is arranged in descending orders of symmetry, the
Mineralogist, 69 (215), 1984. I have noted a few typos but text relating specifically to the models at the end but also
on the whole the entries have been carefully transcribed. I providing crystallographic descriptions and examples of
have not attempted to check the Linnean-style names mineral species whose crystals take, or can take, the
proposed for minerals in the earlier editions of Dana's particular forms depicted. M.O'D.

© Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain ISSN: 1355-4565
The Desmond Sacco collection: focus on wulfenite and orange cadmium-rich smithsonite
southern Africa (Tsumeb). The book is not cheap but try to see a copy
somehow, somewhere! M.O'D.
B. CAIRNCROSS, 2000. The author, Marshalltown,
Johannesburg, pp 408, illus. in colour. Hardcover.
ISBN 0 620 24340 6. Price on application. Gemme: dati per l'identificazione
This magnificent book catalogues a part of the P. De STEFANO, R. MARCON AND S. MORABITO, 1993.
Desmond Sacco mineral collection, covering southern Finpreziosi Italia s.r.l., Milan, for the Istituto
Africa. Though many of the specimens depicted would Gemmologico Italiano. pp xii, 99. Absorption spectra
have gemstone potential, faceted stones, though forming in colour. Softcover, ring-bound. ISBN 88 86279 00.
part of the complete collection, are specifically excluded price on application.
from the book. The countries covered apart from South Large-format (34 x 24 cm) tabular guide to the major
Africa, are Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia and the gemstones arranged by colour. All major constants are
Democratic Republic of the Congo. Introductory material given and consolidated individual tables of refractive
gives a brief biography of Desmond Sacco and the index and specific gravity are provided at the end of the
development, housing and growth of the collection. Sacco main text. There is a short though useful bibliography
trained as a field geologist and the various positions he and an index. Presentation is very clear and the whole
has held have greatly assisted both the collection and the production reflects credit on the compilers and
public awareness of the beauty and importance of fine publishers. M.O'D.
African minerals. Perhaps the greatest highlight in a
fascinating career was Sacco's discovery of rhodochrosite
at his own company's mine, N'Chwaning 1 in the south
Gems: a lively guide for the casual collector
African Kalahari manganese field. This material is, of D.J. DENNIS Jr, 1999. Harry N. Abrams Inc., New York,
course, well-known to gemmologists. pp 192, illus. in colour. Hardcover. ISBN 0 8109 4126
0. £18.95.
Tributes to the collection and its founder follow and
many of the displays are illustrated before the section on This is a book like many other general enthusiastic
introductions in that it does not aim to be gemmologically
Namibia begins: as with the other countries covered the
text opens with a map before examining the major accurate, nor is it. This would only be of concern to the 129
pedant, perhaps, as the book is quite attractive, with small
mineral deposits in detail. The mineral photographs are
colour photographs of gemstones placed in the text
so arranged that there are never more than six in a single
margins in place of larger ones in a separate central
opening and may occupy a whole page: dimensions of the
section, a commoner practice today. This may not be the
specimens are given and, even better, each location has its
happiest way of introducing gemstones when details of
own bibliography. From the gemmological point of view
the text are a little vague on occasion. The reader new to
some of the finest specimens in the Namibian section are the subject needs more illustrations - some of stones set in
translucent yellow smithsonite (from Berg Aukas), jewellery would be welcome - but on the whole the book
amethyst (Brandberg), blue and yellow-green tourmaline succeeds quite well in its stated aims. There is some
(the Karibib-Usakos pegmatites), topaz (Klein pleasing eccentricity which surfaces most prominently in
Spitzkoppe), cerussite and nambulite (the Kombat mine), the section on the care of jewellery: it is suggested that
fluorite (Okorusu), cuprite (Onganja) and yellow toothpaste is not an ideal cleaning medium - this instantly
transparent mimetite (Tsumeb - naturally the location brings to my mind one way in which a piece of jewellery
with the most species). From South Africa are the (never loose stones of course) might in ignorance of the
rhodochrosites from the Kalahari and prismatic purple book's strictures be cleaned in haste before a dinner party,
sugilite (Wessels mine): gold deposits and diamond with alarming consequences. It would be better not to
crystals are not included. From Mozambique are dwell on this! M.O'D.
manganotantalites and very large topaz crystals from the
Alto Ligonha pegmatites, transparent yellow-green beryl
and red tourmaline from Nampula. Gemmy specimens
Einkaufsfuhrer 1999
from Zimbabwe include a fine heliodor from the Green Sudwestdeutsche Verlagsanstalt, Mannheim, 1999.
Walking Stick mine, Miami, gemmy aquamarine from pp 748. ISBN 3 87804 276 0. Softcover, DM79 +
Karoi and both ruby and blue sapphire crystals from the DM17.50 post and packing.
south of the country. Cuprite and cobaltian calcite crystals Latest edition of an established guide to the watch,
feature in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. jewellery, precious stone and silver goods industries of
Reading through the book the reader will come across Germany, this well-produced directory is invaluable with
several examples of minerals large and clear enough to anyone wishing to get in touch with gemstone dealers and
facet ~ but this would really be vandalism! Here are some others who in many cases have included most attractive
of them, none the less: orange sturmanite, colourless advertisements of their products. Entries are classified
thaumasite and bright yellow ettringite (N'Chwaning), and cross-referenced. M.O'D.

Book Reviews
 Boron: mineralogy, p e t r o l o g y and g e o c h e m i s t r y O'Donoghue, 1999. Grange Books pic, Rochester.
E.S. GREW AND L.M. ANOVITZ, 1996. Mineralogical Society Series of four books, each with 96 pages, illus. in
of America, Washington, pp xx, 862, softcover. ISBN 0 colour. Hardcover. ISBN 1 84013 259 0:1 84013 258 2:
939950 41 3 (series ISSN 0275 0279) (Reviews in 1 84013 261 2: 1 84013 260 4. £3.99 each.
Mineralogy. 33). Price on application. Attractive tall-format presentations of four major
Gemmologists as well as mineralogists and geologists gemstones set in major items of jewellery which have
will find a great deal of useful information in this large featured in Christie's sales catalogues of the past few
multi-author study of the role of boron in the earth years. A short gemmological introduction to each species
sciences. From page 503 to page 623 attention is focused is provided by the present reviewer. For the most part the
on tourmaline group minerals and this will be of jewels have reproduced well: the descriptive text is
particular interest to the student of the gem minerals and selected from the sales catalogue entries and the whole
their geochemistry but there is also much to say about all series, let alone each book, is amazingly cheap for what
boron-bearing species. Comprehensive bibliographies you get and would make a starter gift for anyone
accompany all sections. M.O'D. developing an interest in jewellery and gemstones. The
dust covers are particularly attractive when seen in
combination with the tall format. Each book is available
Naming gem garnets separately. M.O'D.
W.W. HANNEMAN, 2000. The author, Poulsbo, WA, U.S.A.
pp xii, 103. Includes colour charts. Ring-bound,
Gems and gem industry of India
softcover. ISBN 0 9669063 1 4. US$20.00.
R.V. KARANTH, 2000. Geological Society of India,
Passing on a warning from the author that the print
Bangalore, pp ix, 405. Illus. in colour. [Memoirs of the
run will be short, try to get this excellent overview of
Geological Society of India, 45.] Hardcover. ISBN 81
garnet nomenclature before too long.
85867 410. US$75.00.
There has always been a problem over 'what to call
Despite history, India remains the sleeping giant of
the garnets?'. Hanneman gives a useful conspectus of
Asiatic gemstone production. Rumours abound of
previous work on garnet nomenclature and adds, to
specimens of the highest quality turning up but there
summarized papers by various authors, copies of letters
seems never to have been a consistent supply. This
to the editors of gemmological journals in which he
reviewer has spoken to a number of gem miners who
comments upon the papers. Hanneman feels that some at
have worked in India who bear out these possibilities.
least of the nomenclature schemes postulated by
India has a varied geology which is well described in this
129 mineralogists are unhelpful and that some of the names
(which may have arisen through trade sources) are both of
standard text. The preface correctly remarks that there
has been no book on Indian gemstones since the
equal validity through assumption and also help to
publication of Iyer's Indian precious stones (1946) [and this
promote the wider acceptance of the newer gem species
book has many weaknesses] so the appearance of this one
and varieties among the general public. The use of such
is timely to say the least.
names would in no way detract from mineralogical
precision since quite different ends are sought by The reader may be surprised to find that the first 188
gemmologist and mineralogist. Perhaps one analogy pages comprise in fact a treatise on gemmology with no
might be with coats-of-arms, some of which are so ancient particular reference to India. Details of specifically Indian
that no documents record their granting: none the less stones and conditions begin almost apologetically during
they are accepted just because everyone has long the section on diamond which appears as the first of the
recognized them. This is in fact what seems to be isotropic minerals (the descriptive text is arranged as
happening: if it is, a certain common sense would seem to isotropic, uniaxial and biaxial). While the descriptions of
be operating. Probably the two sides might never agree the materials are what the reader would expect, the real
but why should they need to? treasure (in that the details have never appeared in
monograph form before) is the comparative wealth of
In pointing out the steps by which garnet
locality information, much of which is referred to
classification and nomenclature have reached their
coordinates. It is here that we find some indication of the
present state, Hanneman has performed a useful service
potential gem wealth of the country. Entries also describe
and the book deserves a wide readership. In his journey
the significant geology and mineralogy of the major
quite a number of other topics arise, all throwing light
deposits with some notes on mining practices; some
upon his main thesis: in addition he includes colour charts
historical references are also given and extracts from
and tables listing properties taken from a number of
correspondence giving up-to-date information occur here
different sources. A note describing the operation of the
and there. There are also notes on simulants in the
Hanneman Garnet Refractometer is included (it will
appropriate places.
measure refractive indices up to 1.90). Like all the author's
instruments and this book, it works well and the cost is The descriptive section and the book close with a
minimal. M.O'D. fairly extensive bibliography and a set of identification
tables. While three maps are provided they are too small
in scale to be much more than a rough guide to the
Rubies (diamonds, emeralds, sapphires) are a whereabouts of the major sites. There could well have
girl's best friend been more and better maps and their absence detracts
SUE HEADY with gemmological introduction by Michael from the general usefulness of the book. While thoroughly

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 176-181

appreciating the difficulties that would be encountered if There are over 400 superb colour photographs and
a long-term study of current deposits was undertaken it each is explained with a detailed and lucid caption. The
might have been better to have gone all-out for that, whole text is very user-friendly for the beginner, but there
rather than trying to make a gemmological textbook out is also much 'meat' for the specialist, who will find the
of at least one third of the text. Nevertheless, the book is excellent bibliographies at the end of each chapter
of real value, but when I think what it could have particularly useful. The standard of production is
been...! M.O'D. commendably high. At US$95 the book is not cheap, but
its cost could easily be retrieved by any jeweller or
gemmologist who avoids an expensive mistake with an
The Micro World of Diamonds enhanced diamond or synthetic moissanite as a result of
JOHN I. KOIVULA, 2000. Gemworld International Inc., studying this admirable and artistic work. E.A.J.
Northbrook, 111., U.S.A. pp xxiii, 157, Illus. in colour.
Hardcover. ISBN 0 964 17335 2. US$95.00. De wondere Wereld van de Edelsteen
The author (an internationally acclaimed gemstone R.C. LITJENS, 1998. Vakschool voor Edelsmeden en Fijne
inclusion photographer and researcher) hopes that this Techniek, Schoonhoven, The Netherlands, pp 153,
book will open 'a doorway providing an introductory hardcover. Dfl 49.50.
look at the colourful, fascinating and highly educational
Attractively produced gemmological textbook for
microworld of nature's diamonds, and the microclues to
students with no colour pictures but quite good ones in
diamond enhancement, synthesis and simulation.' It goes black-and-white. The text follows an acceptable pattern,
much deeper and could well serve as a reference text and placing theory and instrumentation before discussing the
laboratory manual for all gemmologists whether they be gem species. Diagrams and photographs (I have not seen
tiros or experienced researchers. them before and a very interesting one of emerald mining
There are twelve chapters of varying length and in Zimbabwe caught my eye) are often arrestingly placed
importance. The first four describe the Virtues; the famous in the margins of the text and the various tables and notes
4 C's; the tabulation of properties; and diamond notes ~ a on nomenclature seem to be accurate. There is a shortish
mini textbook of general information. In Chapter 5 on bibliography whose entries for the most part refer to
inclusion identification the author suggests that his Level respectable literature. Altogether this would make a good
One may be seen as observing and mentally analysing; it introductory text for Dutch speaking students. M.O.D.
requires considerable experience and is time consuming.
Level Two as identifying with instruments, which may be
highly sophisticated and expensive and Level Three as
Miller's jewellery antiques checklist
129
179
Miller's, London, 1997. pp 192, illus. in colour. Hardcover.
providing a complete chemical and structural analysis for
ISBN 1 85732 816 7. £9.99.
serious research papers; it is seldom performed in most
gemmological laboratories. Chapter 6 on microscopy A pocket-sized guide in which all objects are shown
describes all the standard techniques as well as many in colour, this attractive book aims at helping first-time
innovative procedures which the author himself has customers in the antique jewellery market. After an
developed over the years. In Chapter 7 the micro-surfaces introduction in which the commoner gemstones are
on nature's diamonds are explained as being largely due described, together with notes on stone measurement and
to etching and dissolution and are dealt with under the the care of jewellery, the text is arranged by type of object:
headings of surface graining, knots and naats, nuances of thus brooches, bracelets, cameos, mourning jewellery and
stickpins all have their individual though small sections.
polishing, burn marks, radiation stains and etched
In each section the descriptions are roughly chronological.
dislocations and channels. The next 34 pages of text
There is a short bibliography and an equally short list of
(Chapter 8) with over a hundred colour photographs are
major designers and manufacturers. Read with care, this
probably a very appropriate illustration of the author's
makes a good introduction to jewellery studies. M.O.D.
real passion ~ inclusions in gemstones and in diamonds in
particular. He explains how these inclusions tell us about
their host's place of origin and its journey through the Pietre pretioase fine ornamentale, perle
earth and how they are our only real window through the A. MIRCEA-DRAGOMIR AND K. HEINZ, 1997. Editura Ipunct
crust and into the mantle. Chapter 9 explains how Bucuresti. pp 146. Softcover. IISBN 973 99265 0 9.
evidence of the enhancement of natural diamonds can be Price on application.
detected by the study of micro-surfaces and interiors. In
Pleasantly produced and well-illustrated guide to
contrast Chapter 10 details the micro-features of gem-
gemstones and pearls with general notes on a wide range
quality synthetic diamonds, whilst Chapter 11 describes
of species, identification tables and a bibliography in
the corresponding features of the various diamond
which entries are arranged chronologically. The book is
simulants. In his short Chapter 12 the author concludes
claimed to be the first professional book on gemstones to
that from what he can determine this work is the largest
be published in Romania: readers with a classical
single published compilation of photomicrographs on the
background will find little language difficulty. A second
subject of diamonds; he also comments that 'the book is as
edition might well incorporate colour photographs and a
much a work of natural art as it is of natural science' (the little more information on European and other localities
reviewer agrees). but this book is a good start. M.O'D.

Book Reviews
 T h e t r i u m p h of love: j e w e l l e r y 1530-1930 Revised edition of a guide to Swiss gold localities first
G.C. MUNN, 1993. Thames & Hudson, London, pp 104, published in 1996, this survey will be of considerable
interest to those gemmologists with an interest in
illus. in colour. Hardcover. ISBN 0 500 23661 5.
minerals and in gold itself. Types of occurrence,
£18.95.
mineralogy and geology are generally described and the
A beautifully-produced book in which the jewellery main body of the text, in which locations are given, is
of romance, courtship, liaisons, marriage and fidelity are arranged on a geographical basis. Details of the different
celebrated, as these qualities (or some of them) were occurrences and illustrations of some notable specimens
celebrated in their time, which in the context of the book and mines go to make up an invaluable guide, in which
takes the reader to the middle of the 20th century. The up-to-date references are also given. Most sites are
arrangement of the text is chronological: there is a indicated on maps in the text and the quality of the
bibliography and the history of many of the artefacts illustrations is excellent. M.O'D.
described is noted, as are the biographies of many of the
designers and owners. This is a book of scholarship
lightly worn and of great charm. M.O'D. The simpler? polyhedra. Part 3
P. TAYLOR, 1999. Nattygrafix, Ipswich, pp 79, softcover
Gold and platinum jewelry buying guide ISBN 0 9516701. £6.00.
The third part of this interesting presentation of
R. NEWMAN, 2000. International Jewelry Publications, Los
possible answers to the question 'What constitutes a
Angeles, pp 156, illus. in colour. Softcover. ISBN 0
uniform polyhedron?' deals with those polyhedra which
929975 29 4. US$19.95.
are essentially assemblies of polygons, similar to tilings
Many gemmologists will be concerned professionally of the plane but with fewer or lesser valued polygons at
or more loosely with the use of gold and platinum in each vertex. M.O'D.
jewellery. This reviewer, with an interest in some aspects
of gold and other precious metals, found the book set at
exactly the right standard for both professional sales staff Von Ammoniten und Zwillingen (catalogue of
and for those who come across gold and precious metals the 1999 Miinchen Mineralientage)
less often, with chapters on terminology, manufacturing Oberhaching, Germany, 1999. pp 287, illus. in colour,
methods, mounting and setting techniques and their softcover. Price on application.
evaluations, chains (and how cheap or fake ones
The catalogue of the annual Miinchen Mineralientage
frequently kink), determination of fineness and of fakes,
is always a beautiful production. In 1999 the theme of the
129180 colours, coin jewellery and bullion coins, valuations and
care of jewellery. As always the text is very easy to read
show was fossils, with special attention given to
ammonites, and to twinned crystals which are described
and the pictures succeed very well, considering that most
and discussed by several authors on pages 29-111, this
gold artefacts are of similar colour. There is a useful
large section thus forming a serious study of twinning,
bibliography and the price is amazingly low, as always
with many high-class photographs and diagrams. Sources
with this publisher. Both publisher and author must be
of especially fine examples are identified: some of the
highly commended once more. M.O'D.
crystals highlighted are of gem and ornamental quality
(chrysoberyl, quartz). The different types of twinning are
Gold in der Schweiz 2 Auflage clearly shown both in diagrams and photographs.
P. PFANDER AND V. JANS, 1999. Ott Verlag, Thun. ppl88, Readers should try to obtain these catalogues: with a
illus. in colour, hardcover. ISBN 3 7225 6300 3. different theme each year and the wealth of directory and
DM43.80. advertising information it is hard to see why more
gemmologists do not possess them. M.O'D

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 276-282

 Proceedings of the Gemmological
Association and Gem Testing
Laboratory of Great Britain
and Notices

Photographic Competition
The 2000 Photographic Competition on the theme The Light Fantastic: optical effects
in gems drew a record number of entries of a very high standard.

First Prize
Dennis Durham, Kingston upon Hull
Rock crystal (15.86 ct) depicting twelve reflections of a single hexagonal crystal now
transformed to secondary minerals (illustrated on front cover).
181129

Second Prize Third Prize

Anthony de Goutiere, Victoria James, Orem, Utah, USA.
Victoria, BC, Canada
Opal
Trigons on diamond crystal

© Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain ISSN: 1355^565
 OBITUARY

Dean Stirling Mark Field

Members of the Canadian Gemmological
Association were saddened recently to learn of the
sudden death of the founder of the CGA, Dean
S.M. Field (D.1955). Dean was born in Cape D'Or,
Nova Scotia, on 1 June 1917 and died in Toronto on
7 May 2000.

His interest in gemstones began at an early age

when a local jeweller and watchmaker befriended
him and gave him a small phial of stones
consisting of a seed pearl, a small diamond, an
emerald, a ruby, a sapphire and several other small
gemstones. Later Dean and his mentor hunted for
zeolites, amethyst crystals and agate pebbles
which he sold to tourists.
Like many young men of his age Dean suffered
as a result of the stock market crash in 1929 and a
university degree was denied him. He moved back Dean Field, Founder of the Canadian
and forth between home and Montreal, Toronto
Gemmological Association, at the CGA Gem
and Vancouver seeking work wherever he could
find it. A breakthrough for him came with the
conference, Toronto, in October 1993.
publication in 1941 of Robert Webster's Practical Photo: Willow Wight.
Gemmology. He read the whole book in not much
more than one night and then went back to study
129 it in detail. In 1947 he began his studies toward a Company, a major Canadian department store
Fellowship Diploma. As a result of continuing featuring outlets from coast to coast as well as a
work with National Security Dean was not able to mail order service. With his formidable
complete his studies until 1955. Had he been able knowledge, his wealth of anecdotes, his wonderful
to complete his theory and practical examinations sense of humour and his enthusiasm, Dean was a
the same year he would have passed with welcome speaker at many of the CGA meetings
distinction. which he continued to attend as recently as April
of this year. In recent months he had begun a
Dean had begun to work in 1947 for the compilation to mark the discovery of deposits of
Toronto Gem Lab and when he completed his gem diamonds in the North West Territories of
studies he prepared a series of twenty semi-formal Canada which he had predicted in an article he
lectures on gems and gemmology which he offered wrote for The Canadian Mining Journal in July
to 32 students from the Toronto area. The of 1950.
disadvantage of these private lectures was that his
students did not have recognized documents of Dean was able to bridge the generation gap
achievement so he began negotiations to coach the and was a mentor to many of us in his later years.
established course of the Gemmological All at the CGA had hoped that he would be here to
Association of Great Britain. In 1958 Dean founded celebrate the 50th anniversary of the association
the Canadian Gemmological Association to, in his that he founded.
words, 'foster the friendship and camaraderie that
was built up during the years of study and ***
discovery' (see The Canadian Gemmologist, 10(1), 8-
12). Dean served as president from 1958 to 1960 Hugh B. Crawford (D.1978), Castle Douglas,
and again from 1980 to 1981. Kirkcudbrightshire, died in January 2000.
Later Dean Field became the official Dr William G. Cross (D.1965), Christchurch,
gemmologist and gem buyer for the T. Eaton Dorset, died on 16 January 2000 after a long illness.

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 181-189

 GIFTS TO THE ASSOCIATION
The Association is most grateful to the following for
their gifts for research and teaching purposes:
Arild Andersson, Oslo, Norway, for a 2.73 ct Eiko Ito for a blue-grey cultured pearl, a flower of j
faceted oval peridot and two thulite cabochons, all from cultured pearls, a packet of ground coffee containing j
Norway. ground-up cultured pearl and an article on 'Circle
Mrs Afzal Fatima Ali, South Norwood, for a pearls' by Eiko. j
[ collection of books and instruments presented in Dr George Harrison Jones, Burnham, |
memory of her late husband, Syed Jafer Ali Abedi. Buckinghamshire, for two blue chalcedony cabochons.
Professor Hermann Bank, ldar Oberstein, Ronald F. King, Maidenhead, Berkshire, for a box j
Germany, for 9 quartz soudes and 14 synthetic spinels of miscellaneous stones and a set of slides. I
imitating moonstone. Charles McShane for a stained quartzite. j
Friedrich August Becker, ldar Oberstein, Germany, Keith Palmer, Sphinx & Femina Ltd, Chiswick, i
! for three tourmaline pieces each with one facet, cut London, for seven bead bracelets ~ imitation turquoise/ - j
during the GAGTL trip to ldar Oberstein, and ten hematite, calcite, tiger's-eye and three quartzite, two of "j
posters. which are stained. j
K.C. Subhash Chandra of the Geological Society of Stephane Salerno, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, for I
| India, Gavipuram, Bangalore, for Gems and gem a 3.35 ct chatoyant agrellite cabochon. ]
industries in India by R.V. Karanth. Pierre Vuillet a Ciles, Villards d'Heria, France, for i
John R. Fiihrbach, Amarillo, Texas, U.S.A., for two a 2.95 ct langasite, a yellow-green synthetic stone. j
[ pieces of tumbled Brazilian amethyst and a
faceted stone.

129
MEMBERS' MEETINGS On 18 May at the GAGTL Gem Tutorial Centre
Corinna Pike gave an illustrated talk entitled The
London Rose - nature's jewel as a decorative emblem.
On 7 April a visit was arranged to the School of
On 14 June a visit was arranged to the Treasures
Geological Sciences, Kingston University. As well
of the 20th Century, the Millennium Exhibition at
as learning about the current research on fluid
inclusions in minerals from Professor Andy Goldsmiths' Hall.
Rankin and his team, the group visited the the
School's new laboratories which house equipment
Midlands Branch
such as the Raman and electron microprobes. On 31 March at the Earth Sciences Building,
University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Dr Rob Ixer
On 19 April at the GAGTL Gem Tutorial
gave a talk entitled All that glitters is not gold.
Centre, Professor Alan Collins gave a lecture
entitled The colour of diamond and how it can be On 28 April at the Earth Sciences Building,
changed. silversmith Martyn Pugh gave a review of 20 years
On 27 April members visited De Beers, where in the art of design and manufacture of jewellery,
they were given a talk on the diamond trade today official pieces and objets d'art. The talk was
and were able to view the displays in the Diamond followed by the Branch Annual General Meeting
Information Office. at which David Larcher, Gwyn Green, Elizabeth
Gosling and Stephen Alabaster were re-elected
On 4 May at the GAGTL Gem Tutorial Centre President, Chairman, Hon. Secretary and Hon.
John Nels Hatleberg, visiting the UK from New
Treasurer respectively.
York, gave a talk on the replicas of famous
diamonds that he produced and also his On 21 May at the Earth Sciences Building,
conceptual jewels. Samples of his work had been jewellery designer Memory Stather talked about
displayed in a temporary exhibition at the Natural her choice of materials, sources of inspiration and
History Museum, South Kensington. displayed samples of her work.

Proceedings and Notices

 FORTHCOMING EVENTS
13 Septemb er London. Front geology to jewellery - tile platinum III illenniu III. Dr [udith Kinnaird

20 September North West Branch. History of English watches [rom verge to lever. Peter Mcl uor

29 September Midlands Branch. Gelll lllology and Gelll Testing Qniz

18 October North West Branch. Minerals and gelllsat the Great Exhibition of 1851.
David Lancaster
27 Octob er Midlands Branch. The works of PeterCarl Faberge. Stephen Dale

GAGTL ANNUAL CONFERENCE

Sunday 29 October - Barbican Conference Centre, London
Keynote speaker: Professor Al Levinson, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Diamonds in Canada - geology to gel1llllology

Paul Spear, DTC Research Centre, Ma iden head

Synthetic and treated diamonds

Dr Judith Kinnaird, University of Witwatersrand, South Africa

Tile sparkle in Somaliland

Robert Fawcett, The Cultured Pearl Company Ltd.

184 South Sea cultured pearls - their place in the market

Harry Levy, Pres ident of the CIBJO D iamond Commission

What's in a name?

CONFERENCE VISITS
27 Octob er: De Beers
30 October: T he Gilbert Co llection at Somerset House
Full details and application forms available from the GAGTL on 020 7404 3334

30 October Presentation of Awards

15 November North West Branch. AGM followed by Gem collection and anecdotes. [ohn Puke Snr

23 November London. A mber- /IOS the bubble burst? Helen Fraquet

24 November Midlands Branch. The minerals of Pakistan. Michael O'Donoghue

2 December Midlands Branch. An nual Branch Dinner

For further information on the above eve nts contact:

London: Mary Burl an d on 020 7404 3334

Midlands Branch: Gwyn Green on 0121 445 5359

North West Branch: Deanna Brady on 0151 648 4266

Scottish Branch: Ca triona McInn es on 01316672199

f. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3, 181-189

 North West Branch past Chairman of the Trade Liaison Committee.
The event was generously sponsored by Malca-
On 21 June at Church House, Hanover Street, Amit (U.K.) Ltd.
Liverpool 1, Memory Stather gave a talk entitled
Pocket sculptures - gemstone carving? A full report of the Dinner and Gary Ralfe's
speech was published in the June 2000 issue of
Scottish Branch Gem and Jewellery News.
On 27 March at the British Geological Survey,
Edinburgh, Brian Jackson gave a talk entitled The
lore of gemstones. ANNUAL REPORT
The Annual Conference of the Scottish Branch The following is the report of the Council of
was held in Perth from 28 April to 1 May. A report Management of the Gemmological Association
was published in the June 2000 issue of Gem and and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain for
Jewellery News. 1999.

The Gemmological Association and Gem

MILLENNIUM TRADE DINNER Testing Laboratory of Great Britain (GAGTL) is a
company limited by guarantee and is governed by
To celebrate the 75th anniversary of the
founding of the Laboratory and to renew the Council of Management. The president,
confidence and optimism in the jewellery trade at Professor R.A. Howie, and the Vice Presidents
the start of the millennium, the GAGTL joined E. Bruton, A.E. Farn, D.G. Kent and R.K. Mitchell
with the London Diamond Bourse and Club to continued in office. C.R Cavey resigned from
hold a dinner at Goldsmiths' Hall in the City of the Council of Management in January;
London. The guest speaker was Gary Ralfe, J. Monnickendam and E. Stern joined the Council
Managing Director globally of De Beers. in April and I.F Mercer in June.

Freddy Hager, President of the LDBC, Dr G. Harrison Jones retired from the Board of
welcomed those present and GAGTL Trade Examiners and Miss C M . Woodward was elected
Liaison Committee Chairman, Jeffrey Chairman. The GAGTL is indebted to Dr Jones for 185129
Monnickendam, introduced Gary Ralfe. The vote his guidance and wisdom in examination matters
of thanks was given by Terry Davidson, immediate for more than 24 years. At the AGM in June,

Millennium Trade Dinner held at Goldsmiths' Hall in the City of London. Centre, Gary Ralfe,
Managing Director globally of De Beers, with Jeffrey Monnickendam, Chairman of the GAGTL
Trade Liaison Committee and his wife (left) and Freddy Hager, President of the London Diamond
Bourse and Club with his wife (right).
Proceedings and Notices
 R.G. Fuller resigned from the Members' Council For all examinations, pass rates were better this
and J. Kessler and J. Monnickendam did not seek year than for several recent years although no
re-election; the Council continued to be chaired by student quite reached the levels required for the
C. Winter. J. Monnickendam was elected Chairman Tully and Bruton medals. In the Diploma in
of the Trade Liaison Committee and the new Vice- Gemmology examinations, the Anderson-Bank
chairman is J. Kessler. prize was awarded to Miss Jie Yang of Wuhan, PR
of China, and the Diploma Trade prize was
At the Gem Tutorial Centre in Greville Street,
the Gemmology and Gem Diamond courses were awarded to Miss Yurika Tachibana of Tokyo,
well subscribed with a good mix of students Japan. The Anderson Medal for the best candidate
coming from home and overseas. Correspondence of the year in the Preliminary examination went to
courses (or distance learning) have been made Miss Liu Jiewen of Guilin, PR of China, and the
very much more effective with establishment of a Preliminary Trade prize was awarded to Miss Yan
gemstone library, regular gem practical tuition or Wei of Shanghai, PR of China.
refresher courses, and seminars on examination Once again, the Presentation of Awards was
technique. New sections have been added to the held at Goldsmiths' Hall; the President presided
Gemmology Diploma course to improve guidance and the prizes and diplomas were presented by
and productive homework, and a new supplement the Guest of Honour, Mr E. Alan Jobbins.
with information on the latest treatments was
added at the end of the year. The laboratory continued to issue both London
and CIBJO Diamond reports, origin of colour
Gem Diamond course students now have the reports for coloured diamonds, identification and
option of training in the evenings over eight treatment reports for coloured stones and pearl
months, training for one day a week over four reports. Growing numbers of treated gems and
months, or by correspondence. New options are non-nucleated cultured pearls in the gem trade
being prepared for 2001. have meant that the balance of work in the
New Allied Teaching Centres (ATCs) have been laboratory has changed to respond. Staff have
established in Montreal, the Caribbean, Singapore participated in developing guidelines for the best
and Taiwan, and numbers of students overseas nomenclature in the CIBJO standard books, and S.J
129 taking our courses now exceed those in the UK. Kennedy represented GAGTL at the annual
conference in Bern, Switzerland.
Comprehensive training in gems for the
jewellery trade is available through a growing GAGTL again exhibited at the International
number of focused short courses and custom- Jewellery Fair at Earl's Court in September, and
made tutorials. Topics range from pearls to jade, daily seminars run by D. Garrod and L. Stather
synthetics, enhancements and diamond. attracted full houses. GAGTL also exhibited at the
In addition to the Gem Tutorial Centre courses Las Vegas Jewellery Fair in June (M. Burland and
held in London, the education team has run D. Garrod), and at the Hong Kong Fair in
courses in other major cities in the UK and in September where B. Hunt, L. Stather and A.J.
Finland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden and the USA Clark promoted education, instruments and
(Chicago and Washington). In association with De membership to Far Eastern visitors. I.F. Mercer
Beers D. Garrod ran a series of tutorials entitled visited Hong Kong, Wuhan and Shanghai in
'Diamond or not' to inform trade personnel on March to coordinate Allied Teaching Centre (ATC)
how to detect synthetic moissanite. activities, and in November R.R. Harding visited
Wuhan to present an Honorary Fellowship to
Practical handbooks have been written for
Professor Chen and to present a prize and
nearly all of these courses, and one of them, the
diplomas to students successful in GAGTL exams.
Gem observation guide, has been developed and
Diplomas were also presented to successful
produced for sale. Plans are in hand to develop
students in Hong Kong at the Annual Dinner of
other handbooks in a similar way.
the Hong Kong Gemmological Association on
Through study at the ATCs, students can train 11 November.
to take diplomas in gemmology or gem diamond.
The Preliminary gemmology examination has In the UK, the GAGTL branches in
recently been augmented with a practical element, Birmingham, the North West and Scotland
and the Diploma can now be taken in nine continued with a variety of lectures, seminars and
languages in addition to English: Chinese, Dutch, field trips.
Finnish, Greek, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, The theme of the 1999 Members' Photographic
Spanish and Swedish. Competition was 'Gems of the Century', the

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3,181-189

winner being R. Huddlestone of London. We are Developed over many years by P.G. Read, and
most grateful to Quadrant Offset Limited, who latterly with the collaboration of N.W. Deeks, the
design and print both the calendar and the Journal Brewster Angle Meter was introduced to members
of Gemmology, for sponsoring the prizes. A at the Annual Conference. Work continues on
selection of entries was made for the 2000 calendar refining the Megger tester for synthetic moissanite
which is circulated free to members. identification.
The Annual Conference was held at the Whilst the GAGTL managed a slightly
Barbican Centre in London on the theme 'New increased turnover in 1999, it finished the year
developments in the gem world'. The keynote with a deficit of £116,000, which is very
speaker was Dr James Shigley of the GIA who disappointing for all concerned when one
spoke on diamond identification. New African considers the hard work put in by the staff in an
gemstones were comprehensively discussed by endeavour to achieve a better result. A large
Campbell Bridges of Bridges Exploration Ltd., and proportion of our business is now outside the UK
a thought-provoking perspective on the retail gem and the strong pound has made it difficult to
trade was provided by Dr Jack Ogden, Chief achieve realistic margins and remain competitive.
Executive of the NAG and Secretary General of However, a number of new projects have been
CIBJO. Over 130 participants from twelve different formulated during the year, which should improve
countries attended the lectures and our prospects in 2000. Measures have since been
demonstrations where synthetic moissanite, a GE taken to reduce costs.
POL treated diamond and the new Brewster Angle
Meter could be examined. Gemmological Instruments Ltd. achieved an
increase in turnover, but only returned a small
In the Journal of Gemmology 22 papers were surplus on the year. During the year work
published in 1999 with topics ranging from proceeded with the development of some new and
trapiche rubies to colour changes in alexandrite improved instruments, which should boost trade
and tourmaline, and from black jadeite to the in 2000 as they become available.
diamond industry in India. A total of 171 abstracts
and 81 book reviews were also published and the During the year Miss J. Holness and Miss
Council express their sincere thanks to the V. Adams resigned and Miss L. Halton and Miss
E. Rolph joined the staff. Miss M. Keating joined
187 129
Assistant and Associate Editors for their
invaluable help and advice during the year. under a European Union scheme and Miss
Y. Yoshitake assists with various educational
Gem and Jewellery News is published jointly activities. To all staff, the Council of Management
with the Society of Jewellery Historians and in 1999 extend their thanks for the effort and dedication
contained a wide range of comment on such topics demonstrated in the success of many activities.
as synthetic and treated diamonds, the new eternal The Council also pays tribute to the work of the
cut diamond, Society lectures, the International committees and appreciates the expertise
Gemmological Conference in India, and voluntarily offered in advising the GAGTL on its
Millennium marketing. The contributions of future course of action. Lastly the Council would
editors C. Johns, H. Levy, M. O'Donoghue and like to thank all those individuals who have
C. Pike are very much appreciated. donated gems, books, instruments and other
Gemmological Instruments is a wholly-owned gemmological items; these are much appreciated
subsidiary of GAGTL and in the last few years has and actively used in many of our courses.
pursued a policy of introducing a range of The Council of Management, May 2000
equipment which is simple, robust and effective.

1950 - 2000
CONGRATULATIONS
to the Norwegian Gemmological Association
on their 50th Anniversary

Proceedings and Notices

 GEM DIAMOND EXAMINATIONS Fellowship and Diamond Membership
In the Gem Diamond Examinations held in (FGA DGA)
January 2000, 45 candidates sat the examination Walton, Brian, Oldham, Lancashire, 1972/1973
and 40 qualified, 5 with Distinction. The names of
the successful candidates are listed below: Fellowship (FGA)
Qualified with Distinction Bawa, Mohammed Shah Riza, Harrow,
Rose, Neil R., Wetherby, North Yorkshire Middlesex. 2000
Keating, Michelle, London Brown, Mary J., Yangon, Myanmar. 2000
Li Peng He, Beijing, RR. China Criado Friesch, Romina, Madrid, Spain. 2000
Lv Jie, Beijing, RR. China Dickson, Rebecca B., London. 2000
Song Huagiang, Beijing, RR. China Dwane, Christine, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. 2000
Ehlenbach, Richard J., Carlisle, Massachusetts,
Qualified U.S.A. 1984
Chawla, Upkaran Singh, Wimbledon, London Ellis, Nigel, Tasmania, Australia. 2000
Chen Shu-Chen, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O. China Fukushima, Hideaki, Chiba City, Japan. 1991
Chen Shu-Chuan, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O. China Geung Wan Yin, Hong Kong. 2000
Comar, Ankush, Bushey, Hertfordshire Jiang Wen, Jing Zhou, Hubei, RR. China. 1999
Domercq, Sandrine, London Johnson, James P., Friern Barnet, London. 2000
Du Juan, Beijing, RR. China Koers, Jessica M., Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 2000
Du Min, Beijing, RR. China Poon Wai Kong, Singapore. 2000
Fengmei Lu, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China Rambukkange, Timothy P., Kandy,
Garbis, Nikolaos, Argostoli, Kefalonia, Greece Sri Lanka. 1999
Gordon, Carole A.M., Richmond, Surrey Sedore, John D., Richmond, British Columbia,
Guan Da Wei, Beijing, P.R. China Canada. 2000
Hengyi Zheng, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
Hsu Miao Chu Taipei, Taiwan, R.O. China Diamond Membership (DGA)
Jang, Yunsil, Staines, Middlesex
Chawla, Upkaran S., Wimbledon, London. 2000
129 188 Kamil, Ruzwan, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Katada, Mitsuru, Ivanhoe, Victoria, Australia
Chen Li Li, Ashfield, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia. 1998
Katz, Joslynne, R, Johannesburg, South Africa Nanda Sareen, Shaunali, London. 2000
King, Kumi, London Wang Cheng An, Nan-tou County, Taiwan, R.O.
Kote, Satomi, London China. 2000
Langton, R., Marton, Lancashire Wu Sung-mao, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O. China. 2000
Lei Shi, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China Yu Kam Chi, Hong Kong. 1997
Li Lung Hsing Jerry, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O. China
Lin Yeong Leh, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O. China Ordinary Membership
Linjun Fu, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China Anderson, James I., Southampton, Hampshire
Nanda Sareen, Shaunali, London Apostolatos, Panos, Patras, Greece
Qi Chen, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China Beattie, Alan P., Glenageary, Co. Dublin, Ireland
Wang Cheng-An, Puli Town, Nan-tu County, Black, Valerie, London
Taiwan, R.O. China Boillat, Pierre-Yves, Geneva, Switzerland
Wu Rong, Beijing, PR. China Bond, Eileen, Braughing, Hertfordshire
Wu Sung-Mao, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O. China
Cedeno, Leonor, Sutton, Surrey
Xie Hao, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
Cheng, Helen S.F., St John's Wood, London
Xunxiao Qian, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
Di Fonzo, Antonio, Ridgmont, Bedfordshire
Yang Hui-Ning, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O. China
Feely, Martin, Galway, Ireland
Yihua Wu, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
Fenton, Sarah, Battersea, London
Yuanfeng He, Wuhan, Hubei, RR. China
Gammon, Linda, Cowes, Isle of Wight
Zhu Ming, Beijing, RR. China
Gravier, Denis M., Hauterive, France
Irwin, Cyan, Dublin, Ireland
Maher, John K., Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland
MEMBERSHIP Mathews, Fiona, Amersham, Buckinghamshire
The following have been elected to Meaden, Phillip A., Pakefield, Suffolk
membership during March, April and May 2000: Mitchell, Deborah J., Goffs Oak, Hertfordshire

/. Gemm., 2000, 27, 3,181-189

Mulligan, Ardythe, Dundee, Ohio, U.S.A. Diamond Membership (DGA) to
Ram, Satyen, Richmond, Surrey Fellowship and Diamond
Smith, Susanna M., London Membership (FGA DGA)
Tse, Jerry, Ilford, Essex
Whelan, Craig, Liverpool Balzan, Cortney G., Fairfax, California,
U.S.A. 2000
Laboratory Membership Ma Si Ji, Beijing, P.R. China. 2000
Elka SA, Athens, Greece Simpson, Peter R., Richmond, Surrey. 2000

TRANSFERS Ordinary Membership to

Fellowship (FGA) to Fellowship (FGA)
Fellowship and Diamond Ancemot, Alexandre, Nantes, France. 2000
Membership (FGA DGA) Chambers, Sara L., Cardiff. 2000
Chen Shu-Chuan, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O. Cheong-Ly Karine, London. 2000
China. 2000 Johnson, Janet M., Friern Barnet, London. 2000
Domercq, Sandrine, London. 2000 Joyner, Louise, London. 2000
Kamil, Ruzwan, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 2000 Pratt, Jonathan J., Guildford, Surrey. 2000
Rose, Neil, R., Wetherby, North Yorkshire. 2000 Sharpies, James, Bolton, Lanes. 2000
Yang Hui-Ning, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O. China. 2000 Zini, Grazia, Ferrara, Italy. 2000

189129

Your FGA in only Sixteen Months

A programme of fast-track evening classes providing the
efficient way to gain your Diploma in Gemmology
The Accelerated Evening Programme provides full theory and practical tuition preparing
students for the Preliminary and Diploma Examinations in gemmology.
Take the classes and examinations at the GAGTL's London Gem Tutorial Centre.

Next start date: 7 September 2000

Examinations: Preliminary 15 January 2001; Diploma 21 and 23 January 2002

The price of £1180 includes:

Two evening tutorials per week - Course notes - Preliminary
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For further details and an application form contact the

Education Department on 020 7404 3334 (Fax: 020 7404 8843)

Proceedings
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Guide to the preparation of typescripts for publication in
The Journal of Gemmology

The Editor is glad to consider original articles Illustrations Either transparencies or

shedding new light on subjects of gemmological photographs of good quality can be submitted
interest for publication in The Journal. Articles for both coloured and black-and-white
are not normally accepted which have already illustrations. It is recommended that authors
been published elsewhere in English, and an retain copies of all illustrations because of the
article is accepted only on the understanding risk of loss or damage either during the printing
that (1) full information as to any previous process or in transit.
publication (whether in English or another Diagrams must be of a professional quality
language) has been given, (2) it is not under and prepared in dense black ink on a good
consideration for publication elsewhere and (3) quality surface. Original illustrations will not be
it will not be published elsewhere without the returned unless specifically requested.
consent of the Editor. All illustrations (maps, diagrams and
Typescripts Two copies of all papers should be pictures) are numbered consecutively with
submitted on A4 paper (or USA equivalent) to Arabic numerals and labelled Figure 1, Figure
the Editor. Typescripts should be double spaced 2, etc. All illustrations are referred to as
with margins of at least 25 mm. They should be 'Figures'.
set out in the manner of recent issues of The Tables Must be typed double spaced, using
Journal and in conformity with the information few horizontal rules and no vertical rules. They
set out below. Papers may be of any length, but are numbered consecutively with Roman
long papers of more than 10 000 words (unless numerals (Table IV, etc.). Titles should be
capable of division into parts or of exceptional concise, but as independently informative as
importance) are unlikely to be acceptable, possible. The approximate position of the Table
whereas a short paper of 400-500 words may in the text should be marked in the margin of the
achieve early publication. typescript.
The abstract, references, notes, captions and Notes and References Authors may choose
tables should be typed double spaced on one of two systems:
separate sheets. (1) The Harvard system in which authors'
On matters of style and rendering, please names (no initials) and dates (and specific
consult The Oxford dictionary for writers and pages, only in the case of quotations) are given
editors (Oxford University Press, 1981). in the main body of the text, e.g. (Gübelin and
Koivula, 1986, 29). References are listed
Title page The title should be as brief as is alphabetically at the end of the paper under the
consistent with clear indication of the content of heading References.
the paper. It should be followed by the names
(2) The system in which superscript numbers
(with initials) of the authors and by their
are inserted in the text (e.g. ... to which Gübelin
addresses.
refers.3) and referred to in numerical order at the
Abstract A short abstract of 50-100 words is end of the paper under the heading Notes.
required. Informational notes must be restricted to the
minimum; usually the material can be
Key Words Up to six key words indicating the incorporated in the text. If absolutely necessary
subject matter of the article should be supplied. both systems may be used.
Headings In all headings only the first letter References in both systems should be set out
and proper names are capitalized. as follows, with double spacing for all lines.
A This is a first level heading Papers Hurwit, K., 1991. Gem Trade Lab notes.
Gems & Gemology, 27, 2,110-11
First level headings are in bold and are flush
left on a separate line. The first text line Books Hughes, R.W., 1990. Corundum.
following is flush left. Butterworth-Heinemann, London, p. 162
Abbreviations for titles of periodicals are
B This is a second level heading
those sanctioned by the World List of scientific
Second level headings are in italics and are periodicals 4th edn. The place of publication
flush left on a separate line. The first text line should always be given when books are
following is flush left. referred to.
 Volume 27 No. 3 [ulv 2000

Contents

Journal of
The
Gemmology
A new find of spessartine garnets in Nigeria 129
T. Lind and U. Henn

Imperial topaz from Ouro Preto, Brazil: chemical 133

character and thermal behaviour
G.M. da Costa, A.C.S. Sabioni and CM. Ferreira

Somaliland - a potential gem producer in the 139

Mozambique Belt
J.A. Kinnaird and B. Jackson

The Hanneman Refractometer 155

W.W. Hanneman

The cause of colour of the blue alexandrites from 161

Malacacheta, Minas Gérais, Brazil
M.V.B. Pinheiro, M.S. Basilio, K. Krambrock,
M.S.S. Dantas, R. Paniago, A.L. Assunçào and
A.C. Pedrosa-Soarcs

Abstracts 171

Book Reviews 176

Proceedings of the Gemmological Association 181

and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain
Cover Picture and Notices
Rock crystal (15.86 et)
depicting twelve reflections
of a single hexagonal crystal
now transformed to
secondary minerals.
Copyright © 2000
Photograpli by
The Gemmological Association and
Dennis Durham G e m Testing L a b o r a t o r y of G r e a t Britain
(First Prize in Photographic Registered Office: Palladium House, 1-4 Argyll Street, l.oiuion VVI V 21.0
Competition, see p. 181)

ISSN: 1355-4565 Designed & Produced by Harlcy UK