1. Limitations of Hooke’s Law.

• Linear Behavior: Hooke's Law assumes that the relationship between force and
displacement is linear. This is only true for small deformations. For large deformations,
materials may no longer behave elastically, and the force-displacement relationship
becomes nonlinear.

• Elastic Limit: Hooke's Law is only valid within the elastic limit of the material. If the
material is stretched or compressed beyond its elastic limit, it may undergo plastic
deformation, and the force no longer follows Hooke's Law.

• Material Dependence: Not all materials follow Hooke's Law. Some materials, like
rubber or biological tissues, do not exhibit linear elastic behavior over a wide range of
deformation. These materials may follow different stress-strain relationships, such as the
non-linear models (e.g., hyperelastic models).

• Temperature Sensitivity: The elasticity of materials can change with temperature. If

the temperature changes significantly, it may affect the stiffness constant k, making
Hooke's Law less accurate in such cases.

• Time Dependency (Viscoelasticity): Hooke's Law assumes instantaneous response of

materials to force (i.e., purely elastic behavior). In reality, many materials exhibit time-
dependent behavior, such as viscoelasticity, where stress and strain have time-dependent
characteristics (e.g., creep or relaxation).

• Not Applicable for All Types of Deformation: Hooke's Law specifically applies to
linear elastic deformation, typically involving stretching or compression. It does not
apply to materials undergoing torsion, shear, or bending unless these deformations also
maintain linear elasticity
2. Moment of Inertia Derivation of Triangle, Circle, Semi-Circle.
# Semi-Circle
# Circle
# Tirangle
3# Derivation of Torsional Equations
J.4. Simple Strut Theory . .
A long struc~ al member subject to a compressive load is called a strut. Struts .
with large cross sect10_ns c~m?ar~d with the length generally fail under compressive
stress and the conventional ~atlure criteria apply. When the cr~ss section area is not
lly
large compared to the length 1.e the member is slender, then the member will genera
fail by buckling well before the compressive yield strength is reached.
.1. Euler's Theory of. Buckling . .
3.4 1 •
The Euler' s theory Stf1tes that the stress in the column due to direct loads 1s
a
small compared to th~ bending stress due to buckling failure. Based on this statement,
is
fonnula derived to compute_the critical buc_kling load of column. So, the equation
n.
based qn bending stress and neglects direct stres·s due to direct loads on the ·colum
Euler's formula holds good for long column. . .
Euler's formula is given by ·,
· p 2 EI
Critical load (P) 2 1
,, •. , . l
·· ~ Cl
Where C is a constant r~presentative the ~nd ·conditions dfthe-cqluirin.
a) C = 1 for column both ~nds hinged' ' '
b) C = 4 for ·one' end fixed antl other end fre'e 1 .,r .. ,
1
.c)C= !ot aboth.endsfix~d • .:. . ,;:- • ·,,' - ., , ,

4 ' ' r ' I I ·

d) C = ! ~or one end fixed and ?~her end hinged.

2 . ' . .
I • •

❖ Assumptions .
. • The column fa initially perfectly. straight and of uniform lateral ·dimension.
• The material of the colij.Illll is homogenous, is9tropic-and!obey.'·s Hookes
law.
• The stresses in the-column are within the elastic limit. ·
• The applied compi essive load is axial ~nd passes through ,the centroid of
the section. \ , '"' ·J
• · The self-weight of the column itself i~ neglected.
• he failure of the colum
.
n occurs due toI buckling only. . ' '
• Length of column is large compared to its cross-sectional dimensions.
• The ends of the column are frictionless.
• The shortening of column due to axjal compression is n,egligible.
Limitations
• The possib ility 6f crookedness in cdlumn is not accounted for in this
theory, and the load may not be axi~l. .
• The axial stress is not considered in the formula derivel in Euler theory of
column buckling;·and the critical buckling load may be greater than the
actual buckling load. ·
• With resp_ect to slenderness -ratio,
Condions for Euler's formula is applicable, , . f I '

.. <
Crippling stress ~ Crushing stress or, a cr - a c
181
 :r 1 EAK2 min
or, ~ac
L1 eA

or, (-L;e .f ~'

K 2 min
:r2 E
or, --< :r2 E 12
A,2 - a C
or, --~IL
ac
.or, 1
IL >_ ✓K'E
ac
Substituting the value of E = 210000 N/mm 2 and Slenderness ratio (l) = 330
N/mm2 • Slenderness ratio (A) > 79 .25 Say 80. ·
So, Euler's formula is valid when SR >80
The value of the critical load ,depends upon the slenderness ratio and the
end fixing conditions. The slenderness ratio (l) is defin~d as the effective length
=Le / the least radius of gyration = k of the section. The principal end fixing
. . :r 1
conditions are listed below, Crzpllz ng load , ~, = -El le
- and A = ....1L.
L eft c k
The principal end fixing conditions and corresponding crippling load can
be calculated as fig.3.11. given below:-

. Fig.3.11. End condition of strut

Case A: Strut with pinned ends/hinged
Consider the axially loaded strut shown in Fig. 3.12 subjected to the crippling load

182
 producing a deflection Yat a distance x from one end. Assume that the ends are
:i~er pin-jointed or rounded so that there is no moment at either end.
r
C

Fig.3.12. Strut with axial load and pinned ed

The strut is assumed to be initially straight, the end load being applied axially through
centroid. .
Bending moment at C, Mc =-Pey
Further, we know that
d2y .
EI.- =Mc
dx.2
So,
d2
EI.-{-+~y=O
dx
Though this equation is in 'y' but we can't say at· this Stage where the deflection
would be·maximum or minimum. So the above differential ,equation can be arranged in
.} ~

the following fonn .

d2y + ~y =0
dx2 EI • I
rl i•

Let us define a operator

D =.!!_ ,j
. dx _,) •l
or, (D2 + n2)y = 0
p
Where n2 =- e
' EI
This is a second-order differential equation which has a solution of the fonn
Y = Acosnx + Bsinnx y = .,

{if x +Bsin✓ P, x ·
Y ~A cos
vm EI
Where, A and B are some constants.
In or~er to evaluate the constants A and B let us apply .the boundary conditions,
1) at x = O; y= o
A .
ii) at x = L·
'
y= o . I
.
pplymg the first boundary condition x=O y=O then A = 0
A I· ' '
PP Ymg the second boundary condition, x = L, y = 0

183
 Bsin(Lf¼)=o
Thus either B =O, or sin(L✓1/e 1 )=o
If B = 0 thert y = 0 and the strut ha~ not yet bu~kled. Thus the solution required is, :.

sin(Lf¼)=o
. ' ,

or, ( Lf¼}ff ' 1

or, nL =tr

or [P;"" ="
'VEi L
2
tr El
or, p e L2

It sh~uld ~e _qoted that o~her ~olutions .~xist for the equation,

(s;ni~) ;,,o l.e, ~~ nL; ·o · · ' ··

The solution chosen of n L = rr is just one particular solution; the solutions nL = 2 ,
3rr, 5rr etc. are equally·as valid mathematica~ly and they do . .
Case B: Strut with Both ends are fixed
Consider the axially loaded strut shown in Fig. 3.13 subjected to the crippling load
P , producing a deflection y at a distance x from the centre. Assume that the ends are
either fixed so that there is moment at either end. . .

Fig.3.13. Strut with axial load ·and Both ends fixed

Due to the fixed end supports bending moment would also appears at the supports,
since this is the property of the support. Let M is the moment at fixed support then
Bending Moment at point C = M - P•y ·
.. d2y ~-
So, El dx 2 =M - Py
184
p

£J!_+!_=M
or, dx2 El El
M
(D2 +n2) y == El
2 _p _
- .
r
Where, n. - El
Here the particular so,ll!.tion is given by,
M M ·
y = n2Ef = I;
.' ! , 1 _'' • kf1 '1J 11 1,
or, y=A cosnx -+>Bsin nx +p
(,
dy
Now when x =0, dx =0 :. B = 0

M .'
y=Acosnx+p
L .
2,
;i• •
and when x= y=O I I, 't ... , J •

:. A=- M
p
M M
So Y=--cosnx+- \'
' p .P
I

-f
M r
Or, y=-(1-cosnx)
p I ••

M
Or, 0=-(1-cosnL) • I

. p .
Thus either M is.zero or (1- cos nL) · is zero. •I \ rj f-•

p • t
• 1' •
~
I
'
' '
.
I y I ~•· r
Obviously, (1- cosnL) = 0 ·
cosnL = I J_ J•., •.r.
Hence the least solution would be f I ,'('

I .
nL=2n u r '

f;;L=2n
Thus, the buckling load or crippling load is . '·
Pe 41Z"2.EI
Li ..
Case C: Strut with one end fixed and qther free . r ,.

p Cons!der the axially loaded strut shown in Fig. 3.14 subjected to the crippling load
' producing a deflection y at a distance x from the fixed end. Assume that the one end
185
is fixed and other free.

Fig.3.14. Strut with axial load and one end fixed and other free

Bending mome nt at the point C is given by, Mc= P (a-y)

Further, we know that

d2y
EI.- -, =Mc
dx-
Hence, the differential equation becomes,
d2y
EI dx 2 =P(a -y)
2
Or d y + Py =Pa
' dx 2 EI EI
2
or, D + n2 y=n 2a
p
Wher e, n 2 = - and D = .!!_
EI dx
The solution of the above equation would consist of complementary
solution and
particular solution.
:. y = A cos (nx) +B sin (nx) + Particular sqlution
.
Wher e, the particular solution is a particular value ofv y which satisti
e·s the above
equation in this case can be shown to be y = a
Therefore the complete solution becomes
Y ~ A cos (nx) + B sin (nx) + a
Now applying the boundary conditions to evaluate the constants A and
i3
Now at x = O; y = 0 then A = -a
and at x = O· dy =0 then B = 0
' dx
Now, substituting the value of A and B in
Hence, y == -a cos (nx) + a
But when x = L; y = a
:. a = -a cos (nL) + a
or, 0 = cos (nL)

186
 fundamental mode of buckling in this case would be n L = tr_
Nowthe . . 2
/[" L=!!_
2
{EI
Or, the Euler's crip~ling load is given as , ,, J

fberefore, 1i i El .
Pe. 4 L2
• J 1\ L f

. Str~t with one end fixed and other pinned _ ,

case o. ider the axially loaded strut shown in Fig. 3.15 subjected (o the· crippling load
cons ·ng a deflection
. y at a d"1stance x from
rou
d the fixed end. Assume that t h e one
. I en d
Pp Cl · ,
, d other pinned. . ·
is fixed an . . , . . . . , ·1ll ..., . .. !. . .• .
- I ~ ; .!
. J • • I ~J t ., J :.; ,..) .
M
p p

X
. F .,
L

Fig.3.15. Strut with· axial load and one end fixed and other pinned ,
- :J 11 :,· ·• _ " :. "· : •• ~r ,j O :' •·t :_,. .
Bending moment at the point C is given by, Mc = _py+F(L-x)
With the origin at the built in end, the., l3, l\.f at C is given as - .... • t ••

d 2y -
E l - = - Py+ F(L - x)
dx 2 . . h, ,.
di .
El dx; +Py =F(L-x)
. y
2
d y P F
Hence, - -2 + - y =-(L - x)
dx EI El

In the operator form the equation reduces to

• l •
(D2+n 2 )y=- F
(L - x)
Th El
e full solution is therefore
Y== A
cos rnx + B sin nx + -F ( L - x)
The bound .. p .
ary cond1tions relevants to the problem are at x = O; y = O
Bence A === - ~
p

187
Also at x = O· dy = 0
' dx
F
Hence B=-
nP
or y=- FL cosnx+_!._sinnx+!_(L-x)
' · P nP · P
y=~{si nnx-nL cosnx+ n(L-x)] ·
nP
Also when x.= L; y = 0
.:. nL coi; nL = sin nL
or, tan nL ·= nL
The lowest value of nL (neglecting zero) which satisfies this condition and which
therefore produces the fundamental buckling condition is nL = 4.49 radian.

or
'
✓ EIp L=4.49
· ..
p
or _ e L2 = 20.2
' EL
p = 2.05tr 2 EI S p
2
2tr EI
e L2 ay e L2

Euler's crippling load result are tabulated belo~:-

.
S.No. End condition Effective·lenirth Cripplin2 load

i) Both ends are hinged left=l · triEI

-
,2-
4tr2£/
ii) Both ends fixed Left=l/2
z2
iii) One end fixed & other free Left=21 tr 2 EI
--
4/ 2
iv) One end fixed & other 2tr 2EI
hinged Left = f fi
z2

188
 1.. Write short notes no:
a) Elasticity and Plasticity
nce
.b) Rejsi!i~~c.~;~nd,pfoq(re~jlie ,,.
I •

,
,c) _qreep.and dµ~t! !~ty .ii 111 ,,
,. ,·; ' I

~ 11~~1SP~1!'R?t~~1P~ :!b '.1 r, , ,. I ,I

2. 1 ' I
., '
• J

a)rC.~.~W1p.~~l ~drq~nVifp~aav !/orce , ; 1 'J

• ·•
b) Centroid and ce~tre of gr ity
t forces.
c) Concurrent and non-concurren ,.
ha t is. stres s? De sc rib e di£ rer ent type~ of stress.
3.. W -
t is differ en ce be tw ee n sti e.s s and strain? ·; .,,-
. 4. Wha tio ns of1 Hook's 'law?- ··'
sl aw : W ha t·a re tlie lim ita
5! Define·hoolf 6d ulu s O f Elasticity;:Modulus Of-Rigidity
Be ~ ee n M
6. .. 'Write·Tlie·Relatio ns hip
· . ·. . .·1 , 1· ·r, r ·

And Poiss on 's Ra tio ? by a

an 1elastic 1inaterial-·is•stretched
t'. ha pp en s wh en
7. What is' elastic cu.rve? Wha 1 ·; • • ,Ji ',.( '. ,; - , ,· : , . '

tensile force? .• ·

alculate the 'ratio 1of Modulus of

c-

raf lo ·o.f a iti. ate ria l-i s':0 .25 ,. -C

'-8. If th e ·Poissoil's 'J. .
1
, :

gid ity to the Yo un g's M od ulu s.

Ri les s rat ios . . ' ·:;• " I ; . , - '· • 2
rtia an d sle nd eri
· 9. Define nioinent of ine m of M .I: = I 00 00 cm4, Area:·=l00cm .
'o f the co hin
I0. Find the slenderness ratio , . ·I: : ~ '~ i... • . . · ·IJ
• ., & effectiv e len gth =3 .0m
and shear force::.> ' " ·
. 1 ,,
• • •• ,,

11. Define bending moment ly di~,tri~pte4 load yv.

1 CJ:,

~f sp an L ca rri es a un i(o rm
12. A simply supported beam 9-, t. ~ •, , ·.:, . · . 'J, . , r
xjm um be nd ing ll}~ nJ..e
T).ieP.,fing t~e ma ply su pp orted :9,eam ~aving ~pan 4 m an
d
pr od uc ed in ,a sim
13 : The ,Ill~~imum ~M . :, _,, ,·. ,,· , ., .. . ·.
kN /TT J .
subjectedtoaUDL_qf lO pes off?ram wi~ I}eat,sk~tch.
14. What is a be am '1 De sc tjb e
_ ..
.
dif
De
fer
riv
e~
e
t,ty
an e
, ~p ~e ssion. of _a ~trut wheIJ b9thJhe e~
~s
15. ,Define simple str ut the ory
,, , .. r
are hin ge d. .. ' -

..J
, ; ·.

" J,, )

• l

.189