Renewable Energy Resources(RER)

Unit 1

Introduction and Solar Cells

 Contents

Various Non Conventional Energy Resources

Availability of Non Conventional Energy Resources
Classification of Non Conventional Energy Resources
Relative Merits and Demerits
Theory of Solar Cells, Solar Cell Materials
Solar Cell Array
Solar Cell Power Plant
Limitations
 Conventional Energy Resources
1. It is also known as Non-Renewable Energy Resources.
2. These are the sources of energy which are exhaustible i.e.,
cannot be replaced if once they are used.
3. Example :Coal, Petroleum products, Natural gas etc.

Characteristics
1. Limited Supply: They will run out because there's only a set amount.
2. Environmental Impact: They can harm the environment.
3. Longtime Usage: People have used them for a while, but we need
greener options.
 Non-Conventional Energy Resources
1. It is also known as Renewable Energy Resources.
2. These are the sources of energy which are inexhaustible i.e., can be
used to produce energy again and again.
3. Example: Sun, Water, Animal dung, Agro-waste etc

Characteristics
1. Inexhaustible: They don't run out, ensuring long-term sustainability.
2. Renewable: Naturally replenished over time.
3. Environmentally Friendly: Generally have lower environmental
impacts than conventional sources.
 Fossil Fuel as a Conventional Energy Source
1. Coal Energy
1.Coal is a conventional energy source.
2. It is formed due to degradation of trees and plants buried under layers of silt.
3. It is composed of mainly carbon and hydrocarbons.
4.Coal is found in Jharkhand, U.P., M.P., Bihar etc. in India.

Uses:

i) Generates electricity in power plants by heating water to produce steam.

ii) Various industries use coal heat for making plastics, tar, synthetic fiber, etc.
iii) Heated in furnaces to produce coke for melting iron in steel production.
Environment Problems:
a.Combustion produces carbon dioxide, contributing to global warming.
b. Sulphur dioxide emissions from coal combustion contribute to acid rain.

2. Natural gas
1. Natural gas formed by decomposition of dead animals and plants
buried under the earth.
2. It is mainly composed of methane (CH,) with small amount of propane
and ethane.
3. Natural gas is the cleanest fossil fuel.
Uses of natural gas :
1. Used as domestic and industrial fuel.
2. Utilized in thermal power plants for electricity generation.

Advantages:
1. High calorific value.
2. Burns without producing smoke.
3. Easily transportable through pipelines.
 Various Sources of Renewable Energy

A. Solar Energy
Solar energy is clean, cheap, and abundant.
It helps reduce the greenhouse effect by being non-polluting.
Solar energy uses include direct conversion through photosynthesis and
electricity generation via photovoltaic and thermo-electric systems.
The sun's continuous fusion reactions release a vast amount of energy.
20
Earth receives solar radiation at a rate of 3.7 x 10 MW.
11
However, the intercepted energy by Earth is about 1.85 x 10 MW, several
times more than all energy produced.
Merits of Solar Energy:
Noiseless operation.
Compact, requiring minimal floor space.
Lower initial cost and no need for fuel storage.
Demerits of Solar Energy:
Inoperable during nights, cloudy days, or rainy seasons.
Requires a large space for effective energy collection.

B. Biomass
1. Green plants convert solar energy to biomass via photosynthesis.
2. Bio-energy comes from burning wood, charcoal, and agricultural waste, or
decomposing cow dung and garbage.
3. Dried animal dung, like cattle dung cakes, is used as fuel in rural areas but
causes smoke and has low efficiency.
Merits of Biomass:
1. Lower cost than obtaining energy from fossil fuels.
2. Continuous energy supply from the ongoing growth of plants.
3. Biomass growth absorbs more CO2 than released during combustion,
producing oxygen.

Demerits of Biomass:

1. Water accumulation in pipelines needs periodic removal.

2. Inefficient design of gas appliances.
3. Seasonal variation in gas production due to temperature changes.
 C. Hydro Energy
1. Renewable source for electricity generation.
2. Obtained from flowing or falling water.
3. Potential energy in dam-stored water converted to mechanical and
electrical energy.
4. Falling water, driven by gravity, rotates hydraulic turbines.
5. Generators attached to turbines produce electricity.

Advantage of Hydropower:
1. Pollution-free operation; no water or air pollution, and no waste products.

Limitation of Hydropower:
1. Electricity generation can cause pollution and ecological disturbance,
including flooding and harm to flora and fauna.
 D. Wind Energy
1. Renewable and non-polluting with substantial energy potential.
2. Around 2% of total solar energy converts to kinetic energy in the atmosphere.
3. The lowest 1000 m contains 30% of this kinetic energy, ideal for electricity
generation.
4. Devices extracting wind energy need to slow down the wind due to its motion-
based energy.
Merits of Wind Energy:
i. Abundantly available for free.
ii. Suitable for electricity generation in remote locations.
iii. Non-polluting and eco-friendly.
Demerits of Wind Energy:
i. Less favorable in urban areas where wind is higher at elevated locations.
ii. Unreliable and intermittent, not consistently available.
iii. Modern wind energy systems contribute to significant noise pollution.
 E. Tidal Energy
1. Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the sun and moon.
2. Tidal energy is captured with tidal barrages.
3. Energy is harnessed from both high and low tides.
4. High tides fill the reservoir, operating turbines for electricity.
5. During low tides, stored water flows back, continuing turbine operation.
6. This method captures energy from both high and low tides.
Merits of Tidal Energy:
i. Minimal space requirement in bays.
ii. Pollution-free with no harmful waste.
iii. No production of gases, ash, or refuse.
Demerits of Tidal Energy:
i. Relies on availability of natural sites.
ii. High capital costs.
iii. Small-scale utilization not economically viable.
 F. Ocean Thermal Energy
1. OTEC plants convert ocean heat to electricity through temperature differences.
2. Electricity is generated by exploiting the temperature contrast between warm
surface sea water (28 - 30°C) and cold deep sea water (5 - 12°C).

Merits of OTEC:
i. Exploits constant temperature difference for electricity, advantageous in India.
ii. Inexpensive electricity transmission within 30 km of the sea shore.

Demerits of OTEC:
i. Higher transmission costs beyond 30 km from the sea shore.
ii. OTEC technology is in an early stage.
iii. OTEC technology is costly and challenging.
 G. Wave Energy
1. Energy is derived from the motion of the sea surface in the form of wind
waves.
2. Floating propellers near shores capture wave motion, converting it into kinetic
energy to drive turbines.
3. A cheap, clean, and inexhaustible source of energy.
Merits of Wave Energy:
i. Renewable and cost-free ocean energy source.
ii. Waves have continuous patterns with short intervals.
iii. Wave machines have smaller collector sizes than solar devices.
Demerits of Wave Energy:
i. Risk of material corrosion.
ii. Possibility of marine algae growth.
iii. Potential obstruction to ships.
 H. Geothermal Energy
1. Energy from hot rocks inside the Earth.
2. Earth's temperature increases with depth.
3. Radioactive material fission in rocks contributes to the heat.
4. Hot molten rocks (magma) in the Earth's core can cause volcanic action.
5. Geothermal energy is harnessed using steam from hot rocks to generate
electricity.
6. Artificially, hot water from drilled pipes into rocks can turn turbines for
electricity generation.
Merits of Geothermal Energy:
i. Cheap and environmentally friendly.
ii. Geothermal plants need little land.
Limitations of Geothermal Energy:
i. Air pollution from gases in steam waste.
ii. Noise pollution from drilling operations.
 I. Hydrogen Energy
1. Considered a future alternative energy source.
2. Non-conventional energy resource.
3. Abundantly produced from water.
4. Formed in the sun's core through fusion reactions, sustaining life on Earth.
5. Separated from water using electrical energy or obtained from fossil fuels.

Advantages :
i. Its burning is non-polluting.
ii. Hydrogen energy has very high energy content.

Disadvantages :
i. Highly flammable.
ii. It is more expensive.
 Importance of Non-conventional Energy Sources in
the Context of Global Warming
1. Global warming is the phenomenon of rise in temperature of environment due
to the rise in concentration of the various gases like CH4, C02, aerosols, NOx, etc
which is caused by the burning of conventional fossil fuels in industries.
2. Non-conventional energy resources like solar energy, wind energy, ocean
thermal energy, etc are eco-friendly resources and do not produce any kind of
pollutants or harmful gases like CO2,CH4, S0x, NOx, etc.
3. Thus, we can say that non-conventional energy resources are playing an
important role in context of global warming by not producing harmful gases
which increases the temperature of environment.
Prospects of Non Conventional Energy Sources in India

1. India heavily relies on fossil energy, prompting a pursuit of alternative

sources like solar, wind, biofuels, and small hydro.
2. Ranks 4th globally in renewable energy capacity with wind, hydro,
biomass, and solar as main sources.
3. Enormous potential for 90,000 MW from commercially exploitable
sources.
4. India among top 5 destinations for solar energy, with the Jawaharlal
Nehru National Solar Mission targeting 20 GW by 2022.
5. Wind energy, the fastest-growing sector, holds nearly 15 GW capacity.
6. Coastal areas offer substantial potential for wind development.
7. Globally 4th in biomass power generation, with 773.3 MVW capacity
installed.
8. Biomass power attracts significant investment, generating over 9 billion
units annually.
9. Surplus agricultural residues could generate over 16,000 MW of grid-quality
power through biomass.
10. Small hydro presents a significant opportunity, with an estimated potential
of 15,000 MW.
11. Over 674 projects with 2,558.92 MW capacity set up, mostly in Himalayan
states and on irrigation canals.
 Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is India's nodal ministry for
new and renewable energy matters.
Aims to develop and deploy new and renewable energy to supplement the
country's energy needs.
Creation CASE and ministry:
a. Commission for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE) in 1981.
b. Department of Non Conventional Energy sources (DNES) in 1982.
c. Ministry of Non Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) in 1992.
d. Ministry of Non Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) renamed as ministry
of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in 2006.
New and renewable energy's role gains significance for India's energy security.
Energy self-sufficiency became a priority post the oil shocks in the 1970s.
 The Commission for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE) was established in
1981 to formulate policies, implement programs, and coordinate R&D in new
and renewable energy.

MISSION
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission launched on January 11, 2010, by the
Prime Minister.
Ambitious target: Deploy 20,000 MW of grid-connected solar power by 2022.
Aims to reduce solar power generation costs through:
i. Long term policy,
ii. Large scale deployment goals,
iii. Aggressive R & D, and
iv. Domestic production of critical raw materials, components and products,
as a result to achieve grid tariff parity by 2022.
Mission focuses on creating an enabling policy framework to establish India as a
global leader in solar energy.
 Classification of Energy Resources
Primary Energy Resources : These resources are obtained from the environment.
Example: Fossil fuels, solar energy, hydro energy and tidal energy.

These resources can further be classified as :

1. a). Conventional Energy Sources: b). Non Conventional Energy Sources :

Example :Thermal power. Example : Wind energy, geothermal,
ocean energy, solar energy and tidal
energy.

2. a). Renewable: These sources are b). Non Renewable : These are finite
being continuously produced in and exhaustible.
nature and are inexhaustible. Example: Coal, petroleum etc
Example: Wood, wind energy,
biomass, biogas, solar energy etc.
Secondary Energy Resources: These resources do not occur in nature but are
derived from primary energy resources.
Example: Electrical energy from coal burning, H, obtained from hydrolysis of
H20.
Advantages of Non conventional Energy Resources

Renewable energy is abundant in developing nations, offering significant

economic impact.
Its use can conserve foreign exchange and generate local employment.
Competitive in remote areas with high transmission costs or abundant
biomass, hydro, or geothermal resources.
Flexible and modular conversion technology allows rapid deployment and
easier capacity addition.
Scientific and technological advancements will expand the economic range
of renewable energy applications.
International decision makers should stay aware of these developments for
effective planning.
Limitation of Non conventional Energy Resources

Limited documentation and data, unclear priorities, and weak

institutions impede renewable energy progress.
Insufficient financing policies hinder commercialization.
Technical and economic uncertainties, high costs, and skepticism
among energy planners are challenges.
Shortage of qualified personnel.
Inadequate donor coordination limits information exchange on project
outcomes.
 Solar Cells
1. Photovoltaic energy converts sunlight into electrical energy using
solar cells.
2. Solar cells are solid-state electronic devices converting solar
radiation into direct current electricity.
3. Sunlight hitting the cell releases electrons, creating an electron
imbalance.
4. When connected by a wire, electric current flows between the
cell's negative and positive sides.
5. These individual solar cells are arranged together in an array.
 Solar Cell Materials
1. Solar cells are typically made of materials, with silicon being the primary
choice for about 90% of applications.
2. Material selection depends on band energy gap, efficiency, and cost
considerations.
3. Maximum efficiency is achieved with a band gap energy in the range of 1.12
eV to 2.3 eV.
4. Materials like aluminum silicon, aluminum antimonide, cadmium telluride,
zinc telluride, cadmium sulphide, etc., are suitable for solar cells.
5. A smaller energy gap allows a larger number of solar spectrum photons to
produce the required energy for electrons to jump the band gap.
 Principle of solar photovoltaic

1. Solar photovoltaic utilizes solar radiation to generate electrical energy

through a device called a photovoltaic cell or solar cell.
2. Solar cells are composed of semiconductor materials like silicon (Si) or
gallium arsenide (GaAs).
3. Semiconductors, such as silicon or gallium arsenide, allow electrons to
move freely when extra energy is supplied.
4. This property enables the semiconductor to conduct current, forming
the basic principle of how solar cells work to generate power.
 Photovoltaic Effect
1. When a solar cell is illuminated, electron-hole pairs are generated and the
electric current I is obtained.
2. I is the difference between the solar light generated current IL, and the diode
dark current IJ ,
Mechanism of Photoconduction in a PV cell
1. In a p-n junction, after photons are absorbed, free electrons from the n-side
move to the p-side, and holes from the p-side move to the n-side.
2. This creates an electric field (E) from the n-region to the p-region.
3. The field reaches equilibrium (Vt), the sum of diffusion potentials for holes
and electrons.
4. When electrical contacts connect the semiconductor materials, free
electrons flow from n-type to p-type through an external conductor.
5. This flow constitutes an electric current, the basis of photovoltaic
conversion.
6. Photovoltaic cells convert solar energy into electrical energy.
7. N-type and p-type semiconductors form a photovoltaic (PV) cell.
8. PV cells generate direct current, convertible to alternating current if needed.
 Limitations of Solar Photovoltaic Energy

1. Sunlight striking the solar cell sees some reflection (30%).

2. Photons with energy less than the semiconductor bandgap (Eg) cannot
contribute to the photoelectric current.
3. Direct sun exposure heats the cell, causing increased leakage and reduced
power output.
4. Efficient cells require better design for 95% photon absorption and electron-
hole pair production.
5. Optimal bandgap semiconductors maximize efficiency in photovoltaic cells.
 Solar Cells Classified by Crystal Type

According to type of crystal, the solar cells are of three types:

1. Monocrystalline silicon cells (band gap 1.12 eV),
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells (band gap 1.12 eV), and
3. Amorphous silicon cells (band gap 1.75 eV)

1. Monocrystalline Silicon Cells:

Doping: Silicon doped with boron (p-type).
Production: Rods extracted, sawed into wafers,
upper layer doped with phosphorous (n-type).
Efficiency: Maximum 24%.
2. Polycrystalline Silicon Cells:
Production: Liquid silicon poured into blocks, sawed
into plates, varying crystal sizes formed.
Efficiency: Maximum 17.8%, lower cost.

3. Amorphous Silicon Cells:

Production: Silicon film deposited on glass or substrate.
Thickness: Less than 1 μm, cost-effective.
Efficiency: Maximum 13%, used in low-power devices.
 Efficiency of Solar Cell
1. The electrical characteristics of a solar cell are expressed by the voltage
current (V-D curves plotted under a given illumination and temperature
condition as shown in Fig,

2. In Figure, the maximum useful power of the cell is represented by the

rectangle with largest area.
3. When the cell yields maximum power, the current and voltage are
represented by the symbols I and V respectively.
4. Leakage across the cell increases with temperature which reduces voltage
and maximum power.
5. Cell quality is maximum when the value of fill factor' approaches unity,
where the fill factor (FF) is expressed as

6. Maximum efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of maximum electric

power output to the incident solar radiation.
Mathematically,

7. Maximum power output,

 Solar Photovoltaic System
1. Solar Photovoltaic System involves diverse solar electricity setups.
2. Uses silicon solar array for converting sunlight to electricity.
3. Components, excluding PV array, form the Balance of System (BOS).
4. BOS includes storage batteries, electronic charge controller, and inverter.
5. Batteries with charge regulators offer backup power during low sunlight.
6. Battery capacity measured in ampere-hours, with lead-acid cells of 2 volts.
7. Microprocessor-based charge regulator monitors voltage and temperature.
8. Regulates input and output currents, preventing overcharging and excessive
discharge.
9. Inverter converts DC power from battery/PV array to AC power.
10. Inverter features automatic switch-off for low or high array output voltage.
11. Inverter safeguarded against overloading and short circuits.
 Solar Cell Array
1. Solar cells are strung in series, forming a solar module or array.
2. Arrays can be tracking or fixed; tracking arrays mechanically follow the sun.
3. Tracking arrays maximize isolation by staying perpendicular to the sun-
array line.
4. They require movement mechanisms and are more complex than fixed
arrays.
5. Fixed arrays, oriented east-west, are tilted at an angle near the site's
latitude.
6. Array designs fall into two classes:
a). Flat-Plate Arrays
b). Concentrating Arrays
Array designs fall into two classes:

a). Flat-Plate Arrays:

1. Solar cells attached with adhesive to a semi-rigid substrate to
prevent cracking.
2. Derived from space-related photovoltaic technology.

b). Concentrating Arrays:

1. Combine suitable optics (Fresnel lenses, parabolic mirrors, CPC,
etc.) with photovoltaic cells in an array.
2. Relatively new in terms of hardware development, with fewer
actual implementations.
 Autonomous Solar Power Plant
1. This plant also known as grid independent or stand alone PV system for
supplying the current having no connection with grid.
2. It is located at the load centre and dedicated to meet all the electrical loads
of a village or community or a specific set of loads.
3. Energy storage is generally essential.
4. It is most relevant and successful in remote and rural areas having no access
to grid supply.
5. Indicative capacity of such a system is 10 W - 100 kW.
6. The main components of a general stand-alone solar PV system are shown in
Fig.
7. The MPPT senses the voltage and current outputs of the array and adjusts the
operating point to extract maximum power under the given climatic conditions.
8. The output of the array after converting to AC is fed to loads.
9. The array output in excess of load requirement is used to charge the battery.
10. If excess power is still available after fully charging the battery, it may be
shunted to dump heaters.
11. When the sun is not available, the battery supplies the load through an
inverter.
12. The battery discharge diode Db prevents the battery from being
overcharged after the charger is opened.
13. The array diode Da, is to isolate the array from the battery to prevent
battery discharge through array during nights.
14. A mode controller is a central controller for the entire system.
15. It collects the system signals and keeps track of charge or discharge state
of the battery, matches the generated power and load and commands the
charger and dump heater on-off operation.
 Combined Solar Power Plant or Hybrid PV System

1. A hybrid PV system is essentially a system that employs at least one more

source, other than the PV, to meet the electrical power demand of the
loads.
2. The other sources that are generally used in conjunction with the PV source
are diesel generators, wind generators, micro-turbines, fuel cells, etc.
3. The hybrid PV system can be classified depending on the type of source it
uses, e.g., PV-wind hybrid system, PV-diesel hybrid system and PV fuel cell
hybrid system.
 PV-Wind Hybrid System
1. In the case of the PV-wind hybrid system, the variation in the wind velocity
results into large changes in the frequency and output power of the
generator.
2. As a result, it is advisable to convert the AC output to the DC and then
convert it back to AC through the inverter.
3. The PV and the rectified output of the wind generator are connected in
parallel forming a DC link.
4. Drawback: Both sources are unreliable, requiring a large battery bank.
 Advantages of Solar Energy System
1. Noiseless and cheap energy conversion system.
2. Low cost of maintenance.
3. Highly reliable.
4. Environment friendly.
5. Having long life.
6. Suitable for mobile loads such as cars, buses etc.
7. No fuel is required.
8. These systems are suitable for rural, remote and isolated areas.
9. Modularity in operation.
10. Enables users to start with small systems and expand as needed.
 Limitations

1. Higher initial cost.

2. Irregular supply of solar energy and do not generate power during cloudy
season.
3. Require storage batteries for supply power during night.
4. Efficiency is low.
5. Large area required for plant.
 Applications of Photovoltaic Systems
A. Solar Street Light
It comprises of a compact fluorescent lamp, two 35 watt solar arrays and an
80 ampere-hour tubular cell battery as shown in Fig.
B. Home Lighting System :
1. These are the most popular solar PV units, typically designed to work
with two light points and one TV point.
2. When necessary, a small DC fan can also be run from this system.

C. Water Pumping System:

1. It is another important application of photovoltaic systems. These systems
are mainly, employed in rural areas for agricultural applications, where
power is not available easily and economically.
2. Farmers use an 1800 watt PV array to operate a 2 hp DC motor pump set.
3. It can give water discharge of 140,000 litres per day from a depth up to 7
meters which is sufficient to irrigate 5-8 acres of land holding several
crops.
D. Solar Vehicles:
1. Solar photovoltaic systems are also used in solar vehicles like solar cars,
tractors etc. But solar vehicles are not used on commercial level until
now.
2. Research and development is continuously trying to increase the
efficiency of solar vehicles and to make it commercially workable.
 Previous year Questions
2 Marks:
1. State the importance of solar cells. (2022-23)
2. Define the scope of Renewable energy.(2022-23)
3. Describe photovoltaic effect.(2021-22)
4. Write down the properties of polycrystalline silicon cell.(2021-22)

10 Marks:
1. Discuss briefly about various conventional energy resources with
renewable energy.(2022-23)
2. Explain Renewable Energy and its classification with the help of flow
chart also State Solar absorption radiation and the conversion process
happening directly from the sun. Enlist the parameters for achieving high
efficiency. (2022-23)
3. Discuss in detail about Solar Thermal Power plant and its methodological
process with suitable process flow diagram. (2022-23)
4. Discuss the main features of various types of renewable and non-
renewable energy sources. Also explain the importance of non-
conventional energy sources in the context of global warming. (2021-22)
5. Describe various direct and indirect application of solar energy. (2021-22)
6. Write a short note on PV arrays and System Charge controllers. What are
the advantages and disadvantages of photovoltaic solar energy
conversion?(2021-22)
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