DoL

FARMERS’ TRAINING MANUAL ON

DAIRY FARMING

Cow Milk is nutrient-rich, excellent

source of protein & vitamins

A.I is the best choice for breed

improvement

Training Guide to Trainers

Regional Livestock Development Centre, Kanglung

Department of Livestock
© 2019 Regional Livestock Development Centre, Kanglung, Trashigang
Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture & Forest

Published by:
Regional Livestock Development Centre, Department of Livestock. MoAF
Kanglung Trashigang: Bhutan

Compiled by:
1. Dr. Sangay Letho
2. Mr. Yonten Dorji
3. Mr. Sonam Zangpo
4. Mr. Thukten

Reviewed by:
1. Dr. NB Tamang
2. Dr. Tshering Dorjee

Layout and illustration: Mr. NamgayDorji, PPO (Head IMS)

For copies and information:

Regional Director
RLDC, Kanglung
Trashigang

Tel. No. 00975-4-535274/535296 Fax: 535203

Email address: [email protected]
FARMERS’ TRAINING MANUAL ON DAIRY FARMING

Training Guide to Trainers

Regional Livestock Development Centre, Kanglung

Department of Livestock
i
iii
Overview of Training manual on Dairy Production
Session Topic Time Session Number Remarks
Day one
Registration 30 minutes
Introductory to
Session 1 1 hour Theory
dairy farming
Tea break
Session 2 09:00 -10:00 Am Session 1:
3 10:00 -10:15 Am Tea break
4 10:15 - 01: 00 Pm Session 2: Dairy Housing
5 01:00 - 02:00 Pm Lunch Break
Session 3: Care and management
6 02:00 - 03:00 Pm
of dairy cattle
7 03:00 - 03:15 Pm Tea break
8 03:15 - 05:00 Pm Session 3: Continue…
Day Two
1 09:00 - 10:00 Am Session 4: Breeding management
2 10:00 -10:15 Am Tea break
3 10:15 - 11:15 Am Session 4: Continue…
Session 5: Common diseases in
11:15 - 01:00 Pm
cattle
4 01:00 - 02:00 Pm Lunch Break
5 02:00 - 03:00 Pm Session 5: Continue…
6 03:00 - 03:15 Pm Tea break
7 03:15 - 05:00 Pm Session 5: Continue…
Day Three
Session 6: General management in
1 09:00 -10:00 Am
dairy farm
2 10:00 -10:15 Am Tea Break
3 10:15 - 01:00 Pm Session 6: Continue…
4 01:00 - 02:00 Pm Lunch Break
Session 7: Disposing of waste and
5 02:00 - 03:00 Pm
carcass
6 03:00 - 03:15 Pm Tea Break
7 03:15 - 03:45 Pm Session 8: Record keeping
8 03:45 - 04:15 Pm Session 9: Manure Management
9 04:15 - 05:00 Pm Session 10:Training Evaluation
10 05:00 - 05:15 Pm Closing remarks of the Training

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................2
1.1. Breeds of cattle available in Bhutan.................................................................2
1.1.1. Native breeds.........................................................................................3
1.1.2. Exotic breeds.........................................................................................4
2. Dairy housing...........................................................................................................6
2.1. Site selection ....................................................................................................6
2.2. Plan an layout...................................................................................................6
2.3. General considertation for cattle housing.........................................................6
2.3.1. Floor space requirement........................................................................7
2.3.2. Feeding and watering space..................................................................7
2.3.3. Air and ventilation................................................................................8
2.3.4. Lighting.................................................................................................8
3. Care and management of dairy animals .............................................................10
3.1. Care and management of newborn.................................................................10
3.1.1. Feeding of calves................................................................................10
3.1.2. Common calf diseases.........................................................................11
3.1.3. Dehorning in calves............................................................................13
3.2. Care and management of heifers....................................................................13
3.3. Care and management of Dry cows...............................................................14
3.4. Care and management during pregnancy and parturition..............................14
3.5. Care at calving. ..............................................................................................16
3.6. Care and management of lactating cows........................................................16
3.7. Water requirement..........................................................................................16
4. Breeding management ..........................................................................................18
4.1. Service period.................................................................................................18
4.2. Heat detection and time of service.................................................................18
4.3. When to serve after heat detection.................................................................19
4.4. How to improve breeding performances........................................................19
4.5. Breeding methods...........................................................................................19
4.5.1. Natural service....................................................................................19
4.5.2. Artificial insemination.........................................................................19
5. Body Condition Score (BCS) ...............................................................................21
5.1. Reason for Condition Score ..........................................................................21
5.2. Adverse affects of bad Body Condition Score...............................................21
5.3. Importance of Body Condition.......................................................................21

vii
 5.4. Target Scores..................................................................................................22
5.5. Description of the score..................................................................................22
6. Common diseases of cattle....................................................................................25
6.1. Mastitis...........................................................................................................25
6.1.1. Clinical signs include: ........................................................................25
6.1.2. Prevention of mastitis..........................................................................25
6.2. Ketosis............................................................................................................27
6.2.1. Clinical signs:......................................................................................27
6.2.2. Prevention of ketosis...........................................................................27
6.3. Milk fever.......................................................................................................27
6.3.1. Prevention of milk fever.....................................................................28
6.4. Bloat...............................................................................................................28
6.4.1. Causes of bloat:...................................................................................28
6.4.2. Signs of Bloat......................................................................................28
6.4.3. Prevention:..........................................................................................28
6.5. Acidosis..........................................................................................................29
6.5.1. Causes of Acidosis..............................................................................29
6.5.2. Clinical Signs......................................................................................29
6.6. Worm infestation............................................................................................30
6.6.1. Signs of worm infestation...................................................................30
7. Other general managements.................................................................................32
7.1. Vaccination.....................................................................................................32
7.2. Castration of scrub bulls.................................................................................32
7.3. Daily monitoring of animals...........................................................................32
7.4. Trimming Hooves...........................................................................................33
7.5. Milking management .....................................................................................33
7.6. How to manage wounds.................................................................................33
7.6.1. Steps to treat wounds:.........................................................................34
8. Record keeping in the farm..................................................................................35
8.1. Several types of records ................................................................................35
9. Disposing of waste and carcass.............................................................................36
9.1. How to burn a carcass....................................................................................36
9.2. Disposal by burying........................................................................................36
10. Management of manure........................................................................................38
11. Bibliography...........................................................................................................39

viii
 LIST OF FIGURE

Fig. 1. Nublang bull..........................................................................................................3

Fig. 2. Mithun...................................................................................................................3
Fig. 3. Holstein Friesian cross...........................................................................................4
Fig. 4. Jersey Cross...........................................................................................................4
Fig. 5. Brown Swiss Cross................................................................................................5
Fig. 6. Mangers for cattle..................................................................................................7
Fig. 7. Healthy calves......................................................................................................10
Fig. 8. Feeding of calves at different age........................................................................11
Fig. 9. Calf displaying signs of calf scours.....................................................................12
Fig. 10. Calf showing signs of pneumonia.....................................................................12
Fig. 11. Dehorning in calf...............................................................................................13
Fig. 12. Jersey heifer.......................................................................................................13
Fig. 13. Pregnant jersey cow...........................................................................................14
Fig. 14. Early Sign of calving.........................................................................................15
Fig. 15. Jersey cow giving birth......................................................................................16
Fig. 16. Signs of heat......................................................................................................18
Fig. 17. Cow showing signs of mastitis..........................................................................25
Fig. 18. Risk factor for mastitis......................................................................................26
Fig. 19. Cow with ketosis...............................................................................................27
Fig. 20. Cow with milk fever..........................................................................................27
Fig. 21. Cow with bloat..................................................................................................28
Fig. 22. Sings and symptoms of acidosis........................................................................29
Fig. 23. Calf with signs and symptoms of worm infestation..........................................30
Fig. 24. Vaccine...............................................................................................................32
Fig. 25. Castrating scrub bull..........................................................................................32
Fig. 26. Farmer milking..................................................................................................33
Fig. 27. Benefits of biogas..............................................................................................38

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Floor space requirement......................................................................................7

Table 2. Manger space required........................................................................................7
Table 3. Feed required at different production level.......................................................16
Table 4. Signs of heat......................................................................................................18
Table 5. Time for serving cow........................................................................................19
Table 6. Advantages and disadvantages of Natural service............................................19
Table 7. Advantages and disadvantages of Artificial Insemination................................19
Table 8. Requirement of good BCS................................................................................22
Table 9. Description of the score....................................................................................22

x
Day 1.
Session 1: Introductory to dairy farming
Duration: 1 hour
Target Group: Dairy farmers

Learning objective - Introduce to dairy farming systems

Learning outcome - Should be able to explain the farming systems
- Should be able to understand and identify different breeds
of cattle and their characteristics.
Content - Introduction to dairy farming system
- Introduction to dairy breeds
- Breed characteristics and Production parameters
Methodology - Lecture
- PPT presentation
- Videos clips(where available)
Materials/tools - Posters
- Projector
- Markers
- White board
- Chart papers
Assessment criteria - Q&A session after the presentation

1
1. Introduction
Bhutan is predominantly an agriculture country with agrarian population of 70% of
which 90% of the house hold depend on the livestock dairy farming. Animal husbandry
is an adjunct to crop agriculture and cattle are kept for various reasons including milk,
food, and manure production, draught power, as a source of income, and as assets. The
animals are generally maintained on agriculture byproducts and crop residues. Livestock
rearing is done mostly by small and marginal farmers with an average 2- 5 animals per
farm household. Livestock rearing provides employment and supplementary income to
the vast majority of the rural household and marginal farmers.

The dairy industry has picked up its pace in the recent years. There has been a steady
increase in the total milk production in the country mainly due to the increased number
of crossbred cattle and imports of high yielding cattle from neighboring countries such as
India. However it is not able to fulfill the increasing demand for dairy products resulting
in the import of from other countries.

Despite the fact that most dairy farmers have good quality of imported cross breeds of
cattle cows, milk production is low despite their potential. This low productivity has
been attributed
to:
1. Poor management especially inadequate feeding
2. Poor health management
3. Poor breeding management that leads to long calving intervals.

This farmers’ training manual covers an overview of general principles of livestock

management which could assist farmers to better understand and contribute to successful
operation of a dairy farm.

1.1. Breeds of cattle available in Bhutan

The predominant local cattle in Bhutan is Siri, which is found all over the country.
Although a poor milk producer, this breed has survived over the centuries as a result
of its adaptability to different agro ecological systems, and its usefulness as a draught
animals. Siri cattle are used as the base of stock for developing composite breeds like
Jersey, Brown Swiss and Mithun. The population of crossbreed cattle increased by 100%
where as the population of the indigenous cattle decreased by 9% and over all cattle
population decreased by 2.4%. There are six breeds of cattle used for milking purpose in
Bhutan. The breeds of cattle and their characteristics are described as follows.

2
1.1.1. Native breeds
1.1.1.1. Siri
The male is called Nublang and female
is called is Thrabam. This breed of cattle
is found in hilly areas of Sikkim and
Bhutan.

The animal has massive body, small

head, square cut, wide and flat forehead.
It has sharp horns, relatively small ears
and well placed humps covered with
bunch of hairs.
Fig. 1. Nublang bull
The color most frequently seen is black and white or extensive solid black and in color
patterns similar to that of Hosltein Friesain.

Average milk yield is 0.75 L/day and the butter fat content is 5.08%. The male animal
is used for draft purpose.

1.1.1.2. Mithun
This breed is usually found in north east
Indian states, Bhutan, Myanmar and
China.

A Mithun bulls may exceed occasionally

1.7 meters at the shoulder and weigh
1000 Kg, but the average bull is about 1.5
meters and weighs about 540 Kg. Cows
are shorter and weigh less.

Most calves and females are brown but

adult males are generally black with
white stockings (white pattern) on all
Fig. 2. Mithun four legs.

Mithuns are used for fieldwork and draft animals. The mithun and their crossbreds are
usually found in lower temperate subtropical regions.

In Bhutan, Mithun is used for cross breeding with Sire to produce male Jatsa and female
Jatsam. Jastsa is used for draft purpose and Jatsam is usally valued for its high milk fat
percentage. The first back cross hybrids are called as Yangka for male and Yangkum for
female.
.

3
1.1.2. Exotic breeds
1.1.2.1. Holstein Friesian cross
The breed is originated from
Holland and Friesland. They have
sharply defined black and white
spotted markings and are believed
to have been bred for their dairy
qualities for 2,000 years.

Holstein cow usually has black

ears, white feet, and white end of
the tail.

A mature Holstein cow weighs 500

to 750 kg and stands 130 cm tall at
the shoulder.
Fig. 3. Holstein Friesian cross
Holstein heifers can be bred at 15 months of age, when they weigh over 360 kg. In milk
production the cows average a higher yield than that of any other breed. A crossbred
Holstein Friesian can produce up to 15 to 20 liters of milk under good rearing management.

1.1.2.2. Jersey cross

Jersey is orginated from island of jersey
in England.

The colour varies from light red to

black and from white spotted to solid in
marking.

The muzzle is black with light encircling

ring.

It is one of the smallest dairy breeds

and considered comparatively an
economical milk producer.
Fig. 4. Jersey Cross
Adult cows weigh about 500Kg and males about 600 to 700Kg.The average gestation
period of Jersey cows is 280 days and yield about 4000 litres of milk on average in a
lactation period of 305 days.

They are usually found in lower temperate and subtropical regions of the country.
A Jersey cross produce about 6 to 12 liters of milk.

4
1.1.2.3. Brown swiss cross
Brown Swiss is orginated from Switzerland.The
colour varies from a light fawn (yellowish brown)
to almost black. The muzzle (nose region) and a
strip (line) along with backbone are light in colour.
The nose, switch and horn tips are black.

The animals are fairly large in size and have

extremely strong constitution and hardiness.
Adult males weigh about 700 to 800 Kg and adult
Fig. 5. Brown Swiss Cross females weigh about 500 to 600 Kg.

The breed is quiet, docile and easily manageable. Brown swiss crossbreds are more
found in higher altitudes of temperate regions of the country. A cross Brown Swiss
produce about 5 to 7 liters of milk.

Session 2: Dairy Housing

Duration: 3 hours
Target group: Dairy farmers

Learning - To impart knowledge on dairy housing

objective - To introduce the general considerations for construction of dairy
shed
Learning - Should be able to identify suitable sites for dairy shed construction
outcome - Will be able construct/guide proper dairy shed construction
Content - Dairy housing system
- Site selection
- Plan and layout
- Feeding and watering space
- Ventilation
- Lighting
Methodology - Lecture
- PPT presentation
- Videos clips
- Field visits
Materials/ - Posters
tools - Projector
- Markers
- White board
- Chart papers
Assessment - Quiz
criteria - Group work presentation
- Q&A session

5
2. Dairy housing
The principal functions of housing for a livestock are:
- For sustaining good health and comfortable environment to the animals.
- Desirable working conditions for the labours or supervisory staffs.
- Integration of housing with feeding, watering, cleaning and restraining including
milking and manure removal systems.

2.1. Site selection

- The site should provide good drainage, plenty of fresh air and sunshine.
- It should have protection from strong winds.
- Avoid water-logging, marshy and heavy rainfall areas.
- Water should be availaible in cheap and plenty.
- Should be on dry and raised ground
- It should not be located in the town or densely populated areas.
- Site must not be too distant from the market and road connectivity;
- It should not be too close to the residence.

2.2. Plan an layout

- Proper layout and plan can make housing comfortable to animals and
management eaiser.
- It can also reduce labour and time of operation
- The plan and layout should depend on number of animals to be housed, facilities
to be provided for feeding, collection and disposal of manual, cleaning and
wahsing.
- Store houses, hay stacks , silo pits and manure pits should be located conveniently
so that transportation of materials are minized.
- For a commercial dairy farm, depending uopn the climatic zones and the number
of cows, the shed should be planned as single row or double row.
- In hot humid regions it is advantagous to have single row housing, if the number
of animals are animals are not too large.
- If the number of the animals is large the double housing with the cows facing
outside(tail to tail arrangement) is recommeded.

2.3. General considertation for cattle housing

It is important to note the few general considerations for constructing a new dairy
shed. Animal in nature has plenty of space for expression of their natural behaviour.
Domestication has led to the process of confinement and subsequent moves to close
confinement and individual confinement resulting in shrinkage of their behavioural
space. Understanding the general considerations will help to guide construct a shed with
behavioural and welfare needs for animals.

6
2.3.1. Floor space requirement
The space requirement for different individauls of animals are given in the table.

Table 1. Floor space requirement

Animal Minimum space requirement/animal (m2) Height (cm)
Breeding bull 12 175-220
Cows 3.5 175-220
Pregnant cows 4 175-220
Young calves
- Upto 3 months of age 1
- 3-6 months of age 175-220
1
- Older calves 2

- The floor should be hard, even non-slippery, well sloped and properly drained to
remain dry and clean.

2.3.2. Feeding and watering space

The dimensions and design of the mangers
and water troughs are important aspects in
animal hosing form the point of view of
hygiene, cost and animal comfort.

The corners in mangers, troughs, drains and

walls should be rounded for easy cleaning.

Fig. 6. Mangers for cattle

General recommendations for feeding and watering space are:

Table 2. Manger space required

Types of animals Length(m) Width(m) Depth(m) Height of inner wall (m)

Adult animal 0.6 -0.75 0.6 0.4 0.5

Calves 0.4-0.5 0.4 0.15 0.2

7
2.3.3. Air and ventilation
Plenty of fresh air is necessary for maintaining the health of the animals.

In hot regions since the houses are open type ventilation is not a problem but in the
colder regions where the shed are enclosed type, proper ventilations should be ensured.

2.3.4. Lighting
Housing should be located and designed to take full advantage of natural light.
Construction of the shed with the long axis in the north- south direction ensures getting
of maximum light.

Roof lighting is the most efficient form of getting natural light and is done by evenly
spacing a transparent roof in the shed.

Better lighting can be also achieved through by white washing all the upper parts of the
walls and ceilings.

Various advantageous of natural lighting (sunlight) are that the sunlight is a source of
vitamin D, has germicidal effect and therefore becomes a material factor in the practice
of hygiene as well as a necessary pre-requisite for efficient management.

8
Session 3: Care and management of dairy animals
Duration: 3 hours
Target Group: Dairy farmers

Learning - Impart knowledge on principles of livestock management

objective - Explain the feed and nutrient requirement for dairy cattle
Learning - Should be able to understand the management of dairy animals
outcome at different stages
- Should be able to understand the feed, nutrient and water
requirement
- Care and management of new born
- Feeding of calves
Content - Common diseases of calves
- Dehorning in calves
- Care and management of heifer, dry cows, pregnant cows, and
milching cows
- Water requirement
Methodology - Lecture
- PPT presentation
- Videos clips
- Field visit and practical demonstration
Materials/tools - Postures
- Projector
- Markers
- White board
- Chart papers
- Dehorning machine
- Potassium hydroxide(KOH)
Assessment - Q&A session and practical
criteria - Group work presentation

9
3. Care and management of dairy animals
3.1. Care and management of newborn
The furtue of a dairy farming depends upon
the calves and therefore care and management
of the calves should truly begin before they
are born.

Immediately after the birth, any membrane or

mucus adhering to the mouth, nostirls, eyes
and ears of the newborn should be carefully
removed and facilitae normal breathing. A dry
cloth can be used fot cleaning.
Fig. 7. Healthy calves
Usually the cow will lick her calf dry and to
induce licking, sprinkle little common salt on the calves.

If the calf does not start to breath, artificial breathin is done by pressing and relaxing
alternatively the chest wall or the calf should be be held by hind legs upside down and
swing several times.

The umbilical cord should be disinfected using disinfectant (iodine). The navel cord of
the calf is tied 2.5cm away form its body and cut one cm below the ligature. The stump
should be disinfected.

A healthy normal calf should get up within 30 minutes. Weaker calves should be given
assiatance.

3.1.1. Feeding of calves.

3.1.1.1. Colostrum phase
The calves should be fed with colustrum within the first hour of life. Colustrun feeding
should continue for the first 3-4 days of life. Calves need 3-4 litres of colustrum daily in
3 equal feeds.

The primary function of colustrum is to fortify the calf’s disease resistance due to the
presence of meternal antibodies. It also contains minerals and vitamins which acts as
laxative and helps in clearing the meconium.

Within two hours of suckling meconium is passed. If the meconium is not passed rectal
enema with one teaspoon of soda bicarb in one litre of lukewarm water should be given.

If the colostrum is not availaible from the mother, colostrum from other cows could be
given or an artificial colostrum can be prepared. Artificial colostrum can be prepared
with 2 eggs in 30 ml of castor oil.

10
3.1.1.2. Preruminant phase
Fresh warm whole milk is fed to calves @1/10th of its body weight or 10% of the the
body weight.

Milk and milk subsitute should not excede 4.5 kg per day.

Green fodder can be given after 15 days onwads.

This phases last from 5th day to 30 days.

3.1.1.3. Transition phase.

In this phases small qualtities of dry meal (calf starter) should be fed to calves.

Example of good meal can be, one part of linseed meal, 2 parts of of oat meal, 2 parts of
crushed maize and one part of bran with little common salt added to it.

Sufficient quantity of milk with calf starter of high quality protien and low fibre content
should be given for the first 3 months.

Calves should be liberally fed as the are continously growing, over feeding however
should be avoided.

Fig. 8. Feeding of calves at different age

3.1.2. Common calf diseases

Most of the calf diseases are due to poor feeding management and housing leading to
high mortality of calves. Some of the common diseases associated with calf management
are:

11
3.1.2.1. Calf scours (diarrhea)
Caused by nutritional disorders, bacteria or viruses.

It can be minimized through:

Receiving adequate amount colostrums

within 6 hours of birth and therefore acquire
some natural immunity.

Feeding the correct amount of milk.

Early recognition, isolation and treatment

of scouring calves.

Maintenance of hygiene and cleanliness of

Fig. 9. Calf displaying signs of calf scours feeding utensils and the environment.

Not rearing calves continuously in pens, dirt yards or small paddocks that become
heavily contaminated.

Separation of sick animals to avoid cross infection.

Most scour incidents can be treated simply by:

- Feeding water with salts.
- Avoiding milk for 1-2 feeds. Give fresh water, concentrates and forage.
- Antibiotics should not be used to treat scours resulting from over feeding or
digestive upsets. Blood scours (mostly caused by Coccidia) require veterinary
treatment and management changes to improve hygiene.

3.1.2.2. Pneumonia
One cause of pneumonia in young calves is
fluids going to the lungs via the windpipe
(trachea). The first feeding of colostrum can
cause problems if the feeding rate is faster
than swallowing rate.

Greedy calves swallow large quantities

of milk from the bucket, some of which
may end up in the windpipe leading to
pneumonia.

Unhygienic and low ventilated calf pen also

Fig. 10. Calf showing signs of pneumonia
leads to pneumonia.

Need to seek aid from animal health service provider.

12
3.1.3. Dehorning in calves
Dehorning of calves in the dairy farm
should be done within 15 days of age.

Dehorning of calf is important because of

following reason:

Can cause more severe injury to other

cattle, especially in yards, feedlots and
transports.

It is harder to handle the horned animals

and can be potentially more dangerous to
Fig. 11. Dehorning in calf handlers.

Require more space at a feed trough and on cattle trucks.

May suffer discounts at sale.

3.2. Care and management of heifers.

Care and management of the heifers in a
dairy farm is important as the productive
and reproductive performances of dairy
cows depends on it.

Female who has not given birth yet (1 to

2 years old).

Rearing period of heifers can be divided

into two stages, viz. from weaning to first
service and from first service to calving.

Heifers should be provided with the floor

Fig. 12. Jersey heifer space of 2.5 to 3 sq. m each.

The heifers should be fed with concentrate daily with gradually increasing up to 1.5kg/
day with better quality Pasture.

Feeding hay with concentrates will be necessary as a supplement when pasture is in short
supply.

On an average the body weight of heifer should be 200 to 250kg for crossbreds at first
service. The heifers should be 15 to 18 months of age at first service.

Observing the heifers at least 3 times a day for signs of behavioral heat is important once
the heifer has attained the weight and age for first mating.

13
One should observe especially in the morning. The heifer in heat will be awake and be
on feet quite ahead of other animals. Standing heat is the best sign of heat in which the
heifer will stand and allow other animals to mount her.

If underfed, diseased or have parasites, then puberty is delayed. Low energy will lead to
ovarian inactivity. Low protein will cause irregular or silent heats.

Pregnant heifers must be provided with grain mix to ensure proper development and
provide minerals and vitamins.

High protein food allows for cow to “carry” her calf nutritionally.

Final 3 months of pregnancy heifer will need extra nutrients for developing calf.

3.3. Care and management of Dry cows

This is a “rest” period. Cows should be dry (stop milking) about 60 days before the next
expected calf. Dry cows should be fed a diet of forages. They should be often fed grain
to provide vitamins, minerals and salt.

The farmers should:

- Discontinue milking 30 to 60 days before calving.
- Observe for mastitis after 10 days of dry off period.
- Cow should be milked intermittently in the dry period to avoid mastitis in high
yielding breeds.
- Cows with no dry period result 25% decrease in production.
- Mostly roughage based ration and low-quality (bulk) forage is preferable.
- Dry matter intake is about 2% of body weight and reduce to 1,6% of BW
during last 3 weeks of dry period.
- Dry matter intake should be reduced to 30% prior to calving. Forage intake
should be at least 1%of body weight.

3.4. Care and management during pregnancy and parturition.

Pregnant animal ration should contain all the
nutrients in adequate quantity.

They should be spared from all the forms of

violent exercises. They should not be made to
walk long distances, run fast, chased, frightened
or allowed to fight.

Usual signs of pregnancy are cessation of

oestrus, alteration of temperament, fattening
Fig. 13. Pregnant jersey cow tendency, enlargement of abdomen, enlargement
of mammary gland and increase in weight.

14
The gestation period in cattle is 280 to 285 days.

In cattle, 0.5 to 1kg extra concentrate mixture depending on the condition of the animals
should be given from sixth months of pregnancy to meet the demand of the developing of
the foetus, building up the reserves during preparation for ensuring lactation and growth.

It is also usual to start with 1.5 kg of concentrate/day from two months before calving
and increase it to 4 to 5 kg two to three days before calving (steaming). This steaming
up increases daily milk yield, lengthens the lactation period and also increase butter fat
percentage.

As the animal approaches to the parturition the calcium should be decreased to begin to
use stored Ca to prepare for lactation changes.

As a preparation to calving, the animals should be moved to a quite, comfortable,

hygienic and well bedded place at least one week before calving.

The pregnant animal should be kept on light, laxative diet and given water throughout.
The feed should not be reduced too much before or after calving.

Fig. 14. Early Sign of calving

Common signs of approaching parturition are swelling of external genitals with a clear
mucus discharge, enlargement of udder, engorgement of the teats, relaxation of pelvic
ligaments and muscle around the tail head and pin bones. Temperamental changes are
also observed.

15
3.5. Care at calving.
The animal should not be interfered at the
time of calving process.

In unnatural presentation or difficulty in

parturition always sought for help from
animal health service providers.

Animals should not be allowed to eat placenta

as it may cause indigestion.

Fig. 15. Jersey cow giving birth Normally placenta is expelled within 4 to 8
hours of parturition. In case of retention of
placenta it can be removed manually after 12 to 18 hours. In case of retention of placenta
farmers should seek the aid of animal health service provider.
The cow can be returned to milking after 3 0r 4 days of parturition.

3.6. Care and management of lactating cows.

Lactating cows require high quality food to sustain good milk production

Normally lasts about 10 month Nutritional needs dependent on body size and milk
production.

Table 3. Feed required at different production level

Body Level of Milk Concentrated Dry Total Dry

Greens
Sl.# weight Production Mixture fodder Matter%
(kg) (kg/day) Type Quality (kg/day) (kg/day) (kg/day)
I 350-400 20 Green Forage 40 3.3 4.0 3.5
Fodder Maize 45 5.1 2.0 3.5
15 Green Forage 40 1.6 2.5 3.5
Fodder Maize 40 5.0 1.0 3.5
Green Forage 30 1.3 2.5 3.0
10 3.66 4.0 3.0
30 3.20 1.0 3.3
II 300-350 5-8 Greens 10 2.5 – 3.75 6.8 3.1
Greens 3.5 – 5.00 7-9 2.9

3.7. Water requirement.

Water constitutes about 70% of the body weight and almost 87% of milk. A lack of water
will cause more loss than deficiency of any other nutrients. A loss of 7 to 10% of water
will result in death.

Dairy cows under average feeding conditions require 27 to 28 liters of water per day for
maintenance and 1 litre of water for each 0.5kg of milk produced.

16
Day: Two
Session 4: Breeding management
Duration: 2 hours
Target group: Dairy farmers

Learning - Explain the importance of breeding management in dairy farm

objective - Explain the types of breeding
Learning - Should be able to understand the managements during the breeding
outcome of animals
- Should be able to understand the timings and duration of breeding
of the animals
- Should be able to understand the signs of heat
- Should be able to understand the advantages and disadvantages of
different breeding methods
Content - Service period
- Heat detection and insemination timing
- Improvement of breeding services
- Methods of breeding
Methodology - Lecture
- PPT presentation
- Videos clips
- Field visits
Materials/ - Postures
tools - Projector
- Markers
- White board
- Chart papers
Assessment - Quiz
criteria - Group presentation
- Q&A session

17
4. Breeding management
4.1. Service period
- From calving to successful conception. This period should last between 45 to
90 days.
- During this period the cow expected to come in heat and be bred.

4.2. Heat detection and time of service

- Average heat interval is 21 days with the range of 18 to 24 days. In exotic
and crossbred animal, the duration of heat is 18 to 36 hours.
- If missed there will be a waste of 21 days.

Table 4. Signs of heat

Early heat Standing heat After heat

Increased nervous/
Standing to be mounted Dried mucus on the tail
restlessness
Mounting other cows Clear mucus discharge Roughened tail head
Sharp decline in milk
Swollen vulva The animal refuse to mount
production
Streaks of saliva or signs of
Licking other cows Tail bend away from vulva
leaking on her flanks
Sniffing other cows The animal may stop eating
Being sniffed
Reduced feed intake
Early signs: watch the cows Best sign: take the animal
Late sign: keep record
closely for service

Fig. 16. Signs of heat

18
4.3. When to serve after heat detection
The AM-PM rule
Table 5. Time for serving cow

Standing heat observed Time for mating or insimination

Before 9 am Late evening the same day
Late afternoon or evening Early next morning

4.4. How to improve breeding performances

- Serve cows 50 to 75 days after calving
- After insemination, check 19 to 21 days later for any signs of heat
- Maintain good nutrition with balanced ration and adequate minerals
supplement to maintain good fertility.

4.5. Breeding methods

4.5.1. Natural service
Table 6. Advantages and disadvantages of Natural service

Advantages Disadvantages
Has opportunity to serve more than To a small holder farmer, rearing a farmer is not
once economical
Semen is fresh and good quality Risk of spreading diseases is high
Cost of service is lower than the AI Risk of inbreeding if the bull is not changed
if the owner does not own the bull frequently
No opportunity to select the type of bull as per
the farmers wants.

4.5.2. Artificial insemination

Table 7. Advantages and disadvantages of Artificial Insemination

Advantages Disadvantages
Requires accurate of heat detection and
Prevent venereal diseases
time of insemination
Good quality bulls are used to enhances
The inseminator must be trained
genetic quality
Small scale farmers can get good bulls’
It requires high investment in equipments
semen
Cost effective since the farmers don’t
have to rear the bull

19
Day: Two
Session 4: Body score conditions
Duration: 2 hours
Target group: Dairy farmers

Learning - Explain the importance and needs of body scoring in dairy farm
objective - Explain the scoring system
Learning - Should be able to understand the need and importance of body
outcome scoring in the dairy farm
- Should be able to score the animals
- Body condition score
- Reasons for body condition scoring
Content - Adverse affects for bad body condition
- Importance of body condition score
Methodology - Lecture
- PPT presentation
- Videos clips
- Field visits/practical demonstration
Materials/tools - Postures
- Projector
- Markers
- White board
- Chart papers
Assessment - Quiz
criteria - Group presentation
- Q&A session

20
5. Body Condition Score (BCS)
Body condition is an indicator of the nutritional status of each animal. Low BCS in cow
leads to longer calving intervals, which in turn leads to decreased income per cow. Body
condition scoring (BCS) is the numerical (1-5) scoring system that visually evaluates
the amount of condition (subcutaneous fat) an animal is carrying. Most producers use
a modified system that categorizes animals as thin, moderate, or heavy. For dairy cows
the crucial periods are at calving and during early lactation. Achieving correct body
condition at calving is important in order to avoid calving difficulties and losses.

5.1. Reason for Condition Score

Evaluation of the nutritional status of an animal.

Body condition scoring allows you to coordinate feed resources with animals that need
supplemental feed or restrict intake in those animals that need less feed.

To achieve a balance between economic feeding, good production and good welfare.

5.2. Adverse affects of bad Body Condition Score

- Calving interval will be longer
- Lactation performance will be decreased
- Pregnancy rate will be low
- Health/vigor of calf will be diminished
- Supplemental feed costs
- Dystocia in heifers

5.3. Importance of Body Condition

Pre-calving Condition should be “fit not fat”, and (drying off) should be such
to allow a moderate level of supplementation to prepare cows
for early lactation.
At calving Cows should not calve in an excessively fat condition. Fat cows
may develop fatty liver disease or ketosis and are more prone to
milk fever, mastitis, lameness and infertility.
Early Lactation Dairy cows are under considerable nutritional stress and adequate
feeding is essential to avoid excessive weight loss. Excessively
thin cows can suffer discomfort in a housing environment such
as cubicles.
At service Dairy cows should not be in energy deficit by this stage as this
may result in low fertility.

21
5.4. Target Scores
The target scores of desire BCS are as follow:

Table 8. Requirement of good BCS

Dairy Cows Cows Heifers
Pre-calving 2.5 – 3.0 2.5-3.0
Pre-service 2-3 2-2.5
Drying off 2. 5 -3

5.5. Description of the score

Table 9. Description of the score

Score Condition Detailed description

1 Poor Tail head - Deep cavity with no fatty tissue under skin. Skin fairly
supple but coat condition often rough.
Loin - Spine prominent and horizontal processes sharp.

2 Moderate Tail head - Shallow cavity but pin bones prominent; some fat
under skin. Skin supple.
Loin - Horizontal processes can be identified individually with
ends rounded.

3 Good Tail head - Fat cover over whole area and skin smooth but pelvis
can be felt.
Loin - End of horizontal process can only be felt with pressure;
only slight depression in loin.

22
4 Fat Tail head - Completely filled and folds and patches of fat evident.
Loin - Cannot feel processes and will have completely rounded
appearance.

5 Grossly fat Tail head - Buried in fatty tissue, pelvis impalpable even with firm
pressure.

23
Session 5: Common diseases in cattle
Duration: 5 hours
Target group: Dairy farmers
Learning - Explain the signs, symptoms and prevention of common diseases
objective in cattle
Learning - Should be able to explain and understand the clinical signs of
outcome common cattle diseases caused
- Should be able to understand the preventive measures for the
common clinical diseases in cattle
- Should be able to indentify sick animals in the dairy herd
- Examination of animals for any sickness/diseases in the herd
- Mastitis
Content - Ketosis
- Milk fever
- Bloat
- Acidosis
- Worm infestation
Methodology - Lecture
- PPT presentation
- Videos clips
Materials/tools - Posters
- Projector
- Markers
- White board
- Chart papers
Assessment - Quiz
criteria - Group presentation/Group work
- Q&A session

24
6. Common diseases of cattle
It is important for the dairy farmers to understand and know about the common disease
conditions in dairy animals caused due to nutrition, management or disease causing
organism. A farmer should be able to identify sick animals from normal and healthy
animals.

A sick animals will show different signs of sickness and behave differently than normal
animals. A common signs of sickness includes;
- Reluctant to eat and drink
- Staying away from the herd
- May show abnormal gait
- Dry muzzle
- May show diarrhea and constipation
- May show respiratory distress

6.1. Mastitis
Inflammation of the udder and teat.

Causes greatest economic loss to the dairy

farmers.

Caused by bacteria, fungi

95% of the mastitis cases are subclinical

and will flare only when the animal is in
stress so it is important to test the milk
routinely.
Fig. 17. Cow showing signs of mastitis

6.1.1. Clinical signs include:

Mild signs include flakes or clots in the milk and may have slight swelling of infected
quarter.

Severe signs include secretion of abnormal milk: hot, swollen quarter or udder; cow may
have a fever, loss of appetite, dehydration and death may occur.

It is important for the farmer to know that the mastitis can permanently damage the
quarters so should immediately seek the help of animal health service provider.

6.1.2. Prevention of mastitis

The goal of every mastitis control program is to prevent bacteria from entering a normal
and healthy mammary gland. This means that each step involved in proper milking
procedures must occur at each milking every day for each cow in the herd.

25
 Fig. 18. Risk factor for mastitis

This can be achieved through several ways:

Proper milking hygiene:
- Bacteria are transmitted from infected to uninfected through hands of the milker.
Thus the milkers’ hands should be washed thoroughly with soaps before milking
and clinically infected cows should be milked last.
- Teats should be cleaned and dried before milking.

Dipping the teats.

- Teat dipping reduces the rate of new infection substantially in a suitable
disinfectant.

Dry cow therapy:-

- Effective use of infused antibiotic into each quarter can reduce considerably
the occurrence of mastitis in dry cows. This treatment is also very effective
in clearing chronic and subclinical mastitis that are difficult to treat during
lactation.

Nutritional deficiencies like of selenium and vitamin E in feed have been associated with
increased cases of mastitis.

26
6.2. Ketosis
Metabolic disorder in cattle associated
with an inadequate supply of the nutrients
necessary for the normal carbohydrate
and fat metabolism during high milk
production in early lactation.

During early lactation, the energy intake

is insufficient to meet the energy output
in milk and the animal is in a negative
energy balance.

Ketosis affects high producing cows

during the first 6-8 weeks of lactation
when cows are in negative energy
Fig. 19. Cow with ketosis balance.

6.2.1. Clinical signs:

- In many cases, the disease is sub-clinical, but there will be drop in milk
production and loss in condition, but without obvious clinical signs.
- Lack of appetite (refusal to eat even concentrates).
- Sudden drop in milk output. There is a sweet smell of acetone in the urine,
breath and milk.
- There is a gradual loss of body condition over several days or even weeks.

6.2.2. Prevention of ketosis

- Avoid sudden changes in feed type to newly calved animals.
- Ensure cows in body condition 4.0 or less prior to calving.
- Ensure that any health problems that may cause reduced feed intake are
treated as early as possible.

6.3. Milk fever

Common metabolic disease affecting
generally the old and high producing cattle.

Caused by Imbalance of calcium and

phosphorous.

In the beginning of lactation, high yielding

cows experience a sudden rise for calcium to
replace the large amount lost through the milk
which will lead to deficiency of calcium.
Fig. 20. Cow with milk fever

27
If the calcium is not replenished the animal will get milk fever. The disease usually
develops within 48 to 72 hours.

Clinical signs include:

- At first, cow experiences muscle tremors, lack of appetite, and unsteadiness.
- Eventually, cow is unable to rise, body temperature falls, and constipation
occurs.
- Cows go down to a sitting position often with a kink in her neck. Death can
occur if he cow is not treated promptly.

6.3.1. Prevention of milk fever

- Diets providing less than 15gcalcium/cow/day and fed for at least 10 days
before calving will reduce the incidence of milk fever.
- High risk cows can be injected with Vitamin D3 2-8 days prior to calving.

6.4. Bloat
Abnormal accumulation of gas in the rumen.

When bloat occurs, gases cannot escape and they

continue to build up causing severe distention of the
abdomen, compression of the heart and lungs, and
eventually death.

Fig. 21. Cow with bloat

6.4.1. Causes of bloat:

- Grazing in young, lush legume pastures(clover).

6.4.2. Signs of Bloat

- Animal stops grazing and is reluctant to walk.
- The left side of abdomen is distended.
- The animal strains to urinate and defecate.
- Rapid breathing — mouth may be open with tongue protruding.
- Staggering.

6.4.3. Prevention:
- Legumes should be introduced into the diet gradually over several days.(not
at once in large quantity).
- Initially, cows should only be allowed access to the pasture for short periods

28
 (one hour or so) and monitored closely during grazing and immediately after
removal.
- A sharp knife can be used to puncture the rumen on the left side of the animal
(at the farm level as an emergency).

6.5. Acidosis
- Syndrome related to a fermentative disorder and is related to feeding
management, where the ration has high levels digestible carbohydrates and
low effective fiber.
- Acidosis commonly occurs when switching from a high fiber to high concentrate
diet (that is rich in fermentable carbohydrates (starches and sugars)).

Fig. 22. Sings and symptoms of acidosis

6.5.1. Causes of Acidosis

- Diets very high in readily fermentable carbohydrates and low in roughage.
- Very fast switch from high forage to high concentrate.
- Feeding of large amount of grains or food waste.

6.5.2. Clinical Signs

- Diarrhea (accumulation of acid causes an influx of water from the tissues into
the gut resulting in diarrhea. The feces are foamy with gas bubbles. There is
an appearance of mucin/fibrin casts in feces).
- For treatment the farmer should seek the help of the animal health service
provider.

29
6.6. Worm infestation
Worms are internal parasites found in the digestive system of the animal.

Worms cause several types of damage to the host:

- They suck the blood of animals and this
may lead to death from anemia (shortage
of blood in the body).
- They consume nutrients causing
deficiencies and leading to poor health,
growth and production. This is the
major negative effect of worms on farm
animals.
- Some worms may block the intestines and
small passages in the body interfering
with movement of food and flow of
Fig. 23. Calf with signs and symptoms of
worm infestation digestive enzymes.

- Irritation to cells of the gut may cause diarrhea and loss of body fluids leading
to dehydration, abdominal pain (colic) and loss of appetite.

6.6.1. Signs of worm infestation

- Weight loss.
- Decreased milk production.
- Lacks of appetite.
- Poor body condition.
- The animal appears pale around the eyes (anemia).
- Has a dry, dull coat.
- Animal may appear to be swollen around the jaws owing to accumulation of
body fluid (referred to as ‘bottle jaw’).
- In some cases, adult worms or tapeworm segments may be seen in the feces.
- Diarrhea (may be bloody), loss of weight, and death may occur.
- For treatment the farmer should seek the help of animal health service provider.
- To control, deworming is required routinely every three months.

30
Day: Three
Session 6: Other managements in dairy farm
Duration: 4 hours
Target Group: Dairy farmers

Learning - Explain about the importance of other management aspects like

objective vaccination, castration, monitoring of herd, hoof trimming, milking
and wound management
Learning - Should be able to explain and understand the importance of
outcome vaccination, castration of scrub bulls, monitoring of herd, hoof
trimming, milking and wound management
- Vaccination
- Castration of scrub bulls
Content - Monitoring of dairy herd
- Trimming of hooves
- Milking management
- Management and treatment of wound
Methodology - Lecture
- PPT presentation
- Videos clips
- Field visit/practical
- Group works
Materials/ - Posters
tools - Projector
- markers
- White board
- Chart papers
- Burdizzo castrator
Assessment - Q&A session after presentation
criteria - Group work presentation

31
7. Other general managements
7.1. Vaccination
Timely vaccination of the dairy
animals in a dairy herd is important.
Routine vaccination is an integral
part of an effective herd health and
bio-security reason.
To control the unnecessary
outbreak of the diseases.
Farmers should cooperate and allow
their animals to be vaccinated every
year.

The vaccines available are against

Foot and Mouth Disease, Black
Fig. 24. Vaccine Quarter, Hemorrhagic septicemia,
Anthrax

7.2. Castration of scrub bulls

It is important for the farmer to know
about the disadvantages of having
scrub bulls in the farm. Therefore it is
important to castrate the scrub bulls to
prohibit indiscriminate breeding with
the dairy cows in the farm.

Fig. 25. Castrating scrub bull

7.3. Daily monitoring of animals

- Daily observe the animals for signs of illness such as reduced feed intake, fever,
abnormal discharge or unusual behavior.
- Consult the nearest veterinary aid centre for help if illness is suspected.
- Protect the animals against common diseases.
- In case of outbreak of contagious disease, immediately segregate the sick, in-
contact and the healthy animals and take necessary disease control measures.
- Deworm the animals regularly.
- Wash the animals from time to time to promote sanitation.

32
7.4. Trimming Hooves
Animals confined too long and have no freedom of movement develop big misshapen
hooves. In some cows, hooves are hard which do not wear out easily. Hooves if neglected
weaken legs causing lameness and lowers milk production. Therefore, hoof trimming is
necessary for well being of cows.

Trimming of hooves should be done largely from sides, front and bottom with hoof knife
and leveled with rasp.

After this, turpentine oil should be applied on hooves. Care should be taken not to cut
too deep to cause lameness.

7.5. Milking management

Proper management in milking
is important in a dairy farm is
important to obtain good quality
milk and maximum milk.

The animals should be milked two

to three times a day and should be
done at fixed times.

As far as possible, milking should

be done by the same person
regularly.

Fig. 26. Farmer milking

Milk the animal in a clean place.

Wash the udder and teat with antiseptic lotions/luke-warm water and dry before milking.

Milker should be free from any contagious diseases and should wash his hands with
antiseptic lotion before each milking.

Milking should be done with full hands, quickly and completely followed by stripping.

Sick cows should be milked at the end to prevent spread of infection.

7.6. How to manage wounds

- Break in the skin, usually caused by a sharp object. Wounds are caused
accidentally or by parasites and other animals (e.g. fights and bites). When left
untreated, the exposed tissues may become infected.

33
7.6.1. Steps to treat wounds:
- Stop any bleeding.
- Clip hair or wool way from the edges of the wound.
- Remove all foreign objects. Wash the wound thoroughly with plenty of clean
water (the water should have been boiled, cooled and salt or a mild antiseptic
added).
- Dry the wound with a clean cloth.
- Put a wound dressing or antibiotic powder on the wound.
- When there are a lot of flies about, use a wound dressing that repels flies or kills
fly eggs and larvae.
- Encourage wounds to drain and pus to come out by pressure and incision if
necessary.
- If the wound does not heal, becomes black and smells bad, the dead flesh must
be cut away. Wash the wound with antiseptic and treat with antibiotic powder.

Session 8: Record keeping

Duration: 0.5 hours
Target Group: Dairy farmers

Learning - Explain the types and importance of record keeping in the farm
objective
Learning - Should be able to keep all types of records
outcome
Content - Importance of record keeping
- Types of records
Methodology - Lecture
- PPT presentation
- Farm visits
Materials/ - Posters
tools - Projector
- markers
- White board
- Chart papers
Assessment - Q&A session
criteria - Group work presentation

34
8. Record keeping in the farm
- Record keeping is an important activity in any dairy enterprises. Farmers should
therefore ensure that all farm activities are recorded promptly.

8.1. Several types of records

- Genetic records- These include the maternal and paternal records.
- Breeding records -sire, date of breeding, pregnancy confirmation, date of
calving, and particulars of calf.
- Veterinary records - disease type, date and treatment.
- Production - amount of milk (daily, weekly or monthly), butter fat, drying date.
- Feed records - these could be amount of concentrate fed for pasture grazed
animals or the totals amount fed for zero grazed animals.
- Financial records - all financial transactions should be recorded.

Session 7: Disposing of waste and carcass

Duration: 1 hour
Target Group: Dairy farmers

Learning - Explain the importance and method of carcass disposal

objective
Learning - Should be able to understand and explain how and where to dispose
outcome the carcass
- Should be able to explain the methods of disposals
Content - Importance of Carcass disposal
- Carcass disposal methods
Methodology - Lecture
- PPT presentation
- Videos clips
Materials/ - Posters
tools - Projector
- Markers
- White board
- Chart papers
Assessment - Q&A session after presentation
criteria - Group work presentation

35
9. Disposing of waste and carcass
Before handling a carcass, consider the diseases that can be passed to humans (anthrax,
brucellosis, rabies, ringworm and mange are the most common ones). If the animal
died unexpectedly, a post-mortem will reveal the cause of death and guide the means of
disposal. Post-mortems should be performed by qualified veterinarian.

If anthrax is suspected the carcass should be burned and no post-mortem should be

carried out.

9.1. How to burn a carcass

- Dig two trenches (2 m long, 40 cm wide and 40 cm deep) in the form of a
cross. The trenches will provide oxygen to the fire.
- Place two iron bars so they lie across one of the trenches.
- Place strong wooden posts across the bars.
- Place the carcass and a heap of fuel (wood and straw soaked in waste oil) on
the wooden posts.
- Light the fire and burn the carcass.

9.2. Disposal by burying

- Dig a hole 2 m long by 1.5 m wide and 2 m deep.
- Put the carcass in the hole and cover with soil and logs or large stones to stop
wild animals or dogs digging it up again.

36
Session 9: Manure Management
Duration: 0.5 hour
Target Group: Dairy farmers

Learning - Explain the importance of waste management

objective
Learning - Should be able to understand and explain the importance and
outcome benefits of proper waste management.
Content - Importance of waste management
- Manure utilization
- Biogas technology
Methodology - Lecture
- PPT presentation
- Videos clips
- Field visit
Materials/ - Posters
tools - Projector
- Markers
- White board
- Chart papers
Assessment - Q&A session after the presentation
criteria - Group work presentation

37
10. Management of manure
Dung , urine and bedding materials are the main waste of dairy farm. It must be properly
disposed in the collection pit which is connected to the irrigation channel or can be
directly used to the agriculture fields.

A biogas plant construction near the dairy shed will be appropriate for the utilization of
dung and other farm waste.

Biogas has picked up its pace in the recent years in most part of the rural parts of the
Bhutan.

It is one of the efficient use of farm waste which is sustainable and eco friendly. The
benefits of biogas cover a range of sectors from energy, agriculture, health, sanitation,
gender, environment and private sector strengthening.

It will also help reduce human and animal diseases by improving sanitary conditions,
reduce green house gas emissions through improved manure management systems,
reduce indoor air pollution, and reduce the workload in collecting firewood and organic
fertilizer to increase agriculture yield.

Fig. 27. Benefits of biogas

38
11. Bibliography
Dorji, P. (1999). Critical analysis of cattle producion in the smallholders mixed farming
system in Bhutan. Scotland: University of Aberdeen.

Dorji, T. (n.d). Management of Dairy cows. Bhuan: College of Natural Resources,

Lobesa.

Dorji, T., Hanotte, O., Arbenz, M., Rege, J. E., & Woder, W. (2003). Genetic diversity
of indigenous cattle populaions in Bhutan: Implications for conservation . Asian Austr
Journal for Animal Science , 946-951.

Muriuki, H. G. (2011). Dairy development in Kenya. United Nations: Food and

Agriculture Organization.

Phanchung, & Roden, J. A. (n.d). Characterization of the Siri breed and the Mithun cross
Siri in Bhutan.

Phanchung, Dorji, P., Sonam, T., & Pelden, K. (n.d). Smallholders dairy farming in
Bhutan. Bhutan: Lobesa.

Shisode, M. G., Khanvilkar, A. V., Kulkarni, M. D., Samant, S. R., Yadav, G. B., &
Bawaskar, M. S. (n.d). Mithun: The pride animal of North-Eastern hilly regionof India.
Veterinary World , 480-481.

Trivedi, T. P. (2008). Handbook of Animal Husbaandry. New Delhi, India: Indian Council
of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan.

Tshering, L., & Rai, D. B. (n.d). Conservation of Nublang cattle. Bhutan: South Asia
Pro-poor livestock policy program.

Wangdi, J., Dema, T., Karma, M., & P, B. (2014). The compositional quality of cows
milk in Bhutan. Biological Sciences and Pharmaceutical Research , 62-68.

39