sampling

Module 9
 Sample
• A sample is a subset of people, things, or units chosen
from a larger population for research methods
purposes.
• By using a sample, one can obtain information and
make inferences about the population without having
to examine every individual in the population.
• In order to ensure that any conclusions or insights
obtained from the sample may be confidently
extrapolated to the broader community, samples are
meticulously selected to be representative of the
population.
• Samples are used in statistical testing when population
sizes are too large for the test to include all possible
members or observations.
 Sample
• Example: In the study of household incomes in a city,
the researcher might select a sample of 500
households to represent the entire population.
• Characteristics:
• The sample is smaller than the population but should
still be sufficiently large to be representative.
• It should be selected in a way that minimizes bias and
accurately reflects the diversity of the population.
• Findings and conclusions drawn from analyzing the
sample are then generalized back to the population
from which it was drawn.
 Population
• The population refers to the entire group of individuals,
items, or elements that share a common characteristic or
set of characteristics and are of interest to the researcher. It
stands for the entire group that the researcher is trying to
get information on.
• Example: If a researcher is studying the average income of
all households in a city, the population would consist of
every household in that city.
• Characteristics –
• Large diverse populations are the norm.
• It can have a finite number (like all university students) or
an infinite number (like all possible outcomes of a dice
rolls).
• It is the study's focus, and the findings can be applied to the
entire group.
 Sampling
• Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting a subset
of individuals or items from a larger population to
represent the whole.
• There are various sampling techniques, such as random
sampling, stratified sampling, convenience sampling,
etc., each with its own advantages and limitations.
• Sampling Design: Sampling design refers to the
method used to select individuals or items for inclusion
in a sample.
• It involves decisions about the sampling technique,
sample size, and the procedures for data collection.
• A well-designed sampling plan is crucial for ensuring
that the sample is representative of the population and
that the results can be generalized with confidence.
 Sample versus Population
• A sample is a portion of the population that is taken for
analysis; the population is the full group or collection
of people, things, or events that are the subject of the
study.
• While the sample is a subset of the population, the
population as a whole represents the interest group.
• To get valid results, sampling entails choosing a sample
that fairly represents the population.
• To guarantee the validity and generalizability of study
findings, the sample's size and characteristics are
important.
Importance of sampling in Research and Data analysis
• Cost and Time Efficiency: It is often impractical or prohibitively expensive to
collect data from every individual or item in a large population.
• Feasibility: In many cases, the population may be too large . Sampling enables
researchers to study a manageable subset of the population while still drawing
meaningful conclusions.
• Generalizability: By ensuring that the sample is representative of the
population, researchers can make accurate inferences about the population as
a whole.
• Reduced Bias: Sampling techniques help mitigate biases that may arise in the
selection process.
• Statistical Analysis: Applying statistical techniques to data analysis is made
easier by sampling. By using statistical approaches, researchers can estimate
population parameters, test hypotheses, and make predictions based on the
premise that the sample accurately represents the population.
• Ethical Considerations: Sometimes gathering data from the entire population is
not feasible or morally acceptable, particularly when it entails unpleasant
procedures or privacy issues. Sampling minimizes the possibility of participant
harm while enabling researchers to collect data.
 Sampling and non sampling error
• Sampling and non sampling errors are two types of errors that can
occur in statistical analysis, particularly in the context of survey
research or data collection.
• Sampling error arises when the sample that is selected from the
population is not perfectly representative of the entire population.
It occurs due to the inherent variability that exists when taking a
sample from a larger population.
• various factors such as random chance, biases in the sampling
method, or inadequacies in sample size can results in sampling
error.
• It affects the accuracy and reliability of statistical estimates derived
from the sample. It can lead to deviations between the sample
statistics and the true population parameters.
• Example: If a political poll surveys only a certain demographic group
and not the entire population, any conclusions drawn from the poll
results may be subject to sampling error because they may not
accurately represent the opinions of the entire population.
 Non sampling error
• Non sampling error refers to errors in survey data that are not
related to the process of sampling. These errors can arise at any
stage of the research process, from data collection to data
processing and analysis.
• It occurs due to various reasons such as measurement errors,
respondent errors (e.g., misunderstanding questions), data
processing errors, nonresponse bias, interviewer bias, etc.
• It can significantly affect the quality and validity of survey results.
They can introduce biases and inaccuracies that distort the true
characteristics of the population being studied.
• Example: Inaccurate or inconsistent responses from survey
participants can result in measurement error and non-sampling
error if a survey question is poorly phrased or unclear.
 Sample versus Census
• There are two distinct methods for gathering data from a
population: sample surveys and census surveys.
• A sample survey involves collecting data from a subset, or
sample, of the population rather than the entire
population.
• In a sample survey, a representative sample of the
population is selected using various sampling techniques
such as simple random sampling, stratified sampling,
cluster sampling, etc.
• Sample surveys are often conducted when it is impractical
or too costly to collect data from the entire population.
They provide estimates and insights into the characteristics
of the population based on the information gathered from
the sample.
 Census
• A census survey involves collecting data from every
individual or unit in the entire population.
• census survey aims to gather information from every
member of the population.
• Census surveys are typically conducted when it is
feasible and necessary to obtain information from the
entire population. They provide a comprehensive and
complete picture of the population's characteristics.
• In comparison to sample surveys, census surveys are
usually thought to yield more reliable population
estimates because they seek to gather information
from the complete population. But carrying out a
census survey can be expensive and resource-intensive.
 Sample
• Advantages:
• Surveys can be less expensive compared to other data collection
methods like interviews or observations, especially when
conducted online.
• Surveys can gather data from a large number of respondents
quickly, making them efficient for studying large populations.
• Standardization: Surveys allow for standardized questions and
response options, ensuring consistency in data collection and
analysis.
• Flexibility: Surveys can be adapted to various formats, including
paper-and-pencil, online, or phone surveys, making them suitable
for different populations and research objectives.
• Anonymity: Respondents may feel more comfortable providing
honest answers to sensitive questions when their identity is
protected.
 Sample
• Disadvantages:
• Sampling issues
• Nonresponse bias
• Respondents may provide inaccurate or socially
desirable responses, particularly on sensitive topics,
affecting the reliability of the data.
• Surveys often provide limited opportunities for
respondents to elaborate on their answers or clarify
misunderstandings compared to qualitative methods
like interviews.
• Questionnaire design challenges.