Essential Physics Laboratory Investigations Copyright© 2019

PASCO scientific

ISBN: 978-1-937492-38-0
First Edition First Printing
Written, illustrated, published, and printed in the United States of
America PASCO Product Number: EC-6326
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 - LSC - 22 21 20 19 18

Purchase of PASCO's Essential Physics Laboratory Investigations includes a classroom license

entitling one teacher at one school campus to reproduce and distribute the student handouts for
use by his or her students. Each teacher is required to have his or her own licensed material, but
may use the material for any class he or she teaches. No part of these activities may be used or
reproduced in any other manner without prior written permission of PASCO scientific, except in
the case of brief quotations used in critical articles or reviews.

SPARKvue is a registered trademark of PASCO scientific in the United States. All other marks
not owned by PASCO scientific that appear herein are the property of their respective owners,
who may or may not be affiliated with, connected to, or sponsored by PASCO scientific.

All rights reserved. Published by PASCO scientific

10101 Foothills Blvd.
Roseville, CA 95747
800-772-8700
916-786-3800
916-786-8905 (fax)
www.pasco.com

ii
 Contributors
Dr. Tom Hsu, Chief Product Officer, PASCO scientific,
Author Dr. J.P. Keener, Educational Consultant, PASCO
Scientific
JJ Plank, Curriculum and Training Specialist, PASCO Scientific, Author
Jonathan Hanna, Curriculum and Training Specialist, PASCO Scientific,
Author Richard Berman, Honors Physics Teacher, Sheridan Technical
High School Matthew Bannerman, Curriculum and Training Specialist,
PASCO Scientific Glenn Starkey, Training Manager, PASCO Scientific,
Videos
Vivian Lemanowski, Manager of Curriculum and Training, PASCO
scientific, Editor Susan Watson, Program Administrator, PASCO
scientific, Project Manager
Brett Sackett, Physics Product Manager, PASCO Scientific
Brennan Collins, Graphic Artist, PASCO scientific, Illustration and
Design Dan Cohn, Graphic Artist, Illustration and Design
Sean Morton, Software Engineer, PASCO scientific, Technical Support and
Development Chris Murray, Software Engineer, PASCO scientific, Technical
Support and Development Phil Wong, Software Engineer, PASCO scientific,
Technical Support and Development

iii
iv
Comprehensive Physics
•Smart Cart (Blue) •1.2m Dynamics Track
Equipment •Friction Block •Track Feet (set of 2)
Forces & Motion •PAScar Cart Mass (set of •Tripod Stand
2) •Tripod Track Bracket
•Angle Indicator •Forces Accessories
•Track End Stop (set of 2) •Gratnells ® Storage Tray
•Super Pulley with Clamp

Simple Machines & Engineering

•10 N PASCO spring
•Gear spacers (12)
scales (2)
•20 cm levers (2)
•Tripod stands (2) &
crossrail •60 tooth spur gears (2)
•Universal spring hanger •40 tooth spur gears (2)
(2) •20 tooth spur gears (3)
• Right-angle •20 cm dia. large pulleys (2)
connector with •Weights
pulley (2)
•String
•Fixed triple pulley block •Gratnells ® Storage Tray
•Hanging triple pulley block
•Friction block
•Quick-attach gear hubs
(4)

Assembly shown with Forces and Machines Components.

iii
 Light, Color, & Optics
•1.2 m optics bench •50 mm convex
•50 mm optics mounts mirror (20 cm f.l.)
(3)
•Rechargeable •50 mm
wireless light concave mirror
source (50 cm f.l.)
•AC adapter/charger •50 mm screen
•Refraction tank
• Triangular prism • Diffraction grating
•Phosphorescent plastic
•
•50 mm convex lens (10 cm
Gratnells®
f.l.) Storage
Harmonic motion, •50 mm convex lens (20 cm Tray
f.l.)
Waves, and •Eyeglasses
•50 mm convex lens (50 cm
Sound f.l.)
•50 mm concave lens (20
cm f.l.)
• 1.8m Steel
“snaky” spring •Resonance tube
• Extra- •Tuning fork 256 Hz
large steel
“slinky”spring •Tuning fork 320 Hz
•25 cm •Tuning fork 284 Hz
extension •Tuning fork 512 Hz
spring
•Forces Accessories
•Pendulum/
spring hanger •Gratnells
® Storage
•Resonance Tray
lever
• 1″ dia.
aluminum
pendulum
bal•l

Modular Circuits
•Corner Wire Module Accessories
•Mini Launcher
•Leaded Resistors (6)
(4) •Aluminum Table Clamp
•Leaded Capacitors (2)
•Straight Wire Module •Rod
(5) •Magnets – 0.45″ x 0.25″ (8)
•Tee Module (2) •Plotting Compass
•Spring Module •Alligator Clip Jumper Wire
•Switch Module, SPDT •Wireless Current Sensor
•Switch Module, SPST Module
•Resistor Modules: •Wireless Voltage Sensor
10 Ω, 33 Ω, 100 Ω •1000 Turn Coil Module
•Capacitor Module •Battery Holder Module (2)
•Light Bulb Module (3) •Battery, AA (2)
•Potentiometer •Jumper Clips (45)
Module •Diode
•Motor Module •Gratnells ® Storage Tray
•LED Module

vi
V
SPARKvue quick-

SPARKvue quick-start

Build a SPARKvue Home Screen

lab or
custom
displays Start or join
start

Connect wireless a Settings:

sensors & devices connected language,
session updates, &
version
Open a
displays Help &
template Support
for
connecte Enable
d /
sensor(s) disabl
e
Open pre-
senso
built files
r

Open
files Sensors in this
list are Live sensor reading; click
saved in
Open files saved connected and anywhere across the row to
SPARKvu
on your available to show displays (1 per page:
e
computer collect data graph, digits, table, meter)
(Win/Mac/Chrom and record data
Open
e)
files
saved
in your
cloud

Many of the investigations use SPARKvue, PASCO’s award-winning

data collection and analysis software. SPARKvue runs on virtually all
platforms, including Windows, Mac OS X, Android, Chrome OS, iOS,
chromebooks, and most smart phones. For more information on
SPARKvue contact PASCO.
vi

V
 start
Sparkvue quick-
SPARKvue quick-start

SPARKvue Show Screen

Build a new
Exit lab and page after Delete this Start or join Save or share
return to the this page a connected file, data, or
Home screen one session image
Open Journal

Lock y-axis

Connect wireless Help

Take Snapshot
Change y-axis sensors & devices &
measurement or Suppor
units t
Click and drag Hide/show run
axis numbers
to manually
scale Make run
active for
Open/close analysis
graph Change x-
toolbar axis
measurement
or
Start/stop Experiment Tools units
data Menu
collection

Lock x-axis

Sampling
Zero All Navigate and
Options: mode,
Measurements rename pages
rate, & stop
(for select
condition
sensors)

Connect wireless bluetooth and wired Pasport

sensors Collect data from multiple sensors at
once
Display data in graphs, tables, meters, and digits
modes Easily analyze data using basic statistics
Configure sensors for remote logging, data rates, and more
Design and save experiment configurations as SPARKlab (.spk)
files Export data to all common platforms through CSV files
vii
content
s

Contents
Kinematics and Mechanics
Investigation 1A: Graphs of Motion...............................................1
Investigation 3B: Motion graphs...................................................3
Investigation 4A: Acceleration on a ramp...................................10
Investigation 4B: A model for accelerated motion......................12
Investigation 5A: Newton's second law.......................................15
Investigation 5B: Hooke’s law.....................................................17
Investigation 5C: Static and kinetic friction................................21
Investigation 6B: Projectile motion.............................................23
Investigation 6C: Acceleration on an inclined plane...................26
Investigation 8A: Static equilibrium............................................28

Work, Energy, and Momentum

Investigation 9A: Work and the force versus distance graph......32
Investigation 10A: Inclined plane and the conservation of energy35
Investigation 10B: Work and energy..........................................37
Investigation 10C: Springs and the conservation of energy......40
Investigation 10C: Work done by friction...................................43
Design Project: Crash barrier......................................................46
Investigation 11A: Conservation of momentum..........................50
Investigation 11B: Inelastic collisions.........................................52
Investigation 11C: Elastic collisions............................................55

Forces and Machines

Investigation 12A: Levers............................................................57
Investigation 12B: Pulleys...........................................................60
Investigation 12C: Ramps and inclined planes...........................62
Investigation 13A: Gear ratios....................................................65
Investigation 13C: Torque...........................................................69

viii
 s
content
Contents
Harmonic Motion, Waves, and Sound
Investigation 14A: Oscillators......................................................74
Investigation 14C: Resonance.....................................................78
Investigation 15A: Waves...........................................................81
Investigation 15C: Interference...................................................82
Investigation 16D: Resonance and sound..................................84
Design project: Design a musical instrument..............................88

Circuits, Electricity, and Magnetism

Investigation 17A: Electricity and circuits...................................90
Investigation 17B: Voltage and batteries....................................92
Investigation 17C: Resistance and Ohm’s law............................95
Investigation 17D: Series and parallel resistances......................98
Investigation 17E: Electrical Power...........................................101
Investigation 17F: Compound circuits.......................................105
Design project: Build a lemon battery......................................109

Light and Optics

Investigation 20A: Magnification of mirrors and lenses . . . . . . . 111
.....
Investigation 20B: Reflection in a plane mirror. . . . . . . . 114
...........
Investigation 21A: Refraction of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
.....
Investigation 21B: Creating real and virtual images with lenses 123
.....
Investigation 21C: Image formation for a convex lens . . . . . . . . 125
.....
Investigation 21D: Build a microscope and a telescope . . . . . . . 130
.....
Investigation 26B: Phosphorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
.....

These investigations include the laboratory-based

material from PASCO’s Essential Physics 3rd. Edition.
Third Edition The numbering corresponds to the numbering in the
Tom Hsu, Ph.D.
textbook and in the Sparkvue software. Contact PASCO
for more information about Essential Physics, which
also includes many interactive, simulation-based
investigations.

ix
 This page intentianally blank

x
Investigation 1A: Graphs of Motion
Essential question: What do graphs of motion look like?

The Smart Cart is a device that displays its motion—position, velocity, and acceleration—on your
computer in real-time while you move it! Look for the connection between the forces you apply to push
the Smart Cart and how the Smart Cart’s position and velocity change.

Part 1: Testing the Smart Cart to see graphs of its motion

1. Open the experiment file 01A_GraphsOfMotion, power-on the Smart Cart and connect it wirelessly
to your software.
2. Start data collection and move the Smart Cart back and forth on the table.
3. Watch how the position and velocity graphs of the Smart Cart change as you move it.

Questions
a. If you push the Smart Cart across the floor and let go, what happens to its velocity? What causes
this?

b. If you roll the Smart Cart down a ramp (such as a table propped up on one end), what happens to
its velocity? What causes this?

c. Try to move the Smart Cart across the table with a constant velocity. What is the shape of the
position versus time graph for a constant velocity?

d. How does the Smart Cart track its motion? Try spinning each wheel with a finger. Does
each wheel track its motion? What is the smallest distance the Smart Cart can record?

1
Part 2: The position versus time graph
1. Go to Page 2 in the experiment file, which displays a graph of position versus time.
2. Use the Smart Cart to create the graphs shown below.

Questions
a. How do you have to move the Smart Cart to create this graph?

b. What is different about the Smart Cart’s motion in this graph?

Part 3: Testing the Smart Cart to see graphs of force

1. Attach the hook to the force sensor on the Smart Cart.
2. Go to Page 3 in the experiment file, which displays a graph of force versus time.
3. Loop a rubber band around the hook and pull the cart with the rubber band while collecting data.

Questions
a. Is a pulling force positive or negative? If the cart moves in the direction of the pulling force, is
the cart moving in a positive or negative direction?

b. Attach the rubber bumper to the Smart Cart and push the bumper while the cart rests against a
heavy object, such as a textbook. Is a pushing force positive or negative? If the cart moves in the
direction of the pushing force, is the cart moving in a positive or negative direction?

c. Is it possible for the force on the cart and the motion of the cart to have opposite signs? For
example, can there be a positive force on the cart while moving in the negative direction?

2
Investigation 3B: Motion graphs
Essential Question: How do we predict and object’s position at a later time?
Graphs and equations are valuable methods for describing the motion of an object. Position versus time and
velocity versus time graphs can describe where an object is located, how fast it is going, and which
direction it is headed. In this activity, you will adjust the motion of a Smart Cart to match the velocity-
time graphs below.
Part 1: Matching the motion of a Smart Cart

1. Set up your equipment like the picture.

2. Open the experiment file 03B_MotionGraphs, and then power-on the Smart Cart and connect it
wirelessly to the software.
3. Do the following for each velocity-time graph below:
a. Sketch a prediction for the corresponding position-time graph. Label the prediction.
b. Find the page in the experiment file with the corresponding velocity-time match graph. Hide any
data so the position-time graph is blank and only the velocity-time match graph is shown.
c. Place the cart on the track and record data as you push, pull, roll, or use your hand to move the
cart so that its velocity-time data matches the velocity-time match graph.
d. Sketch the actual position-time graph in the same graph as your prediction.

Moving forward at
a slow speed

Moving forward at
a fast speed

3
Moving
backward at
a slow speed

Moving
backward at
a fast speed

Questions
a. How does the position graph for a high positive velocity differ from a lower positive velocity?

b. How does the velocity graph for a high positive velocity differ from a lower positive velocity?

c. How does the position graph for a negative velocity differ from positive velocity?

d. How does the velocity graph for a negative velocity differ from a positive velocity?

e. Describe a situation for which the position versus time graph and the velocity versus time graph
are both flat (zero slope) horizontal lines.

4
f. Go to page 5 in the experiment file and hide any data so the velocity-time graph is blank and
only the position-time match graph is shown.
Record data to match the position-time graph, and
then describe the motion of the cart during each
section shown in the graph to the right. Use terms
such as forward, backward, at rest, fast, and slow.
B
A:
A C

B: D

C:

D:

g. Draw the resulting velocity-time graph. Label each

section corresponding to the letters in the position-
time graph above.

h. Use the slope tool in your software to find the slope of the position-time graph in each section A,
B, C, and D. Record the slopes below. How does the slope of the position time graph compare to
the velocity recorded during the same period?
A:

B:

C:

D:

5
Slide presentation graphs.

Plot the motion graphs used in the slide presentation along with your teacher. The object starts at the
origin (0 meters) at t = 0 s. Use the slope equation shown below to calculate the velocities from the
slope of the position verses time graph.

Sketch these graphs if the velocity at (A) and (C) were changed to 3 m/s.

6
Sketch the changes to these graphs if the velocity at (A) and (C) is changed to 3 m/s.

7
Applying new knowledge
Questions 1 – 4: Match each description of motion with the correct position versus time graph(s).
There may be more than one correct answer.
A B C

D E F

1. The object is stopped.

2. The object is moving with constant positive velocity.
3. The object is moving with constant negative velocity.
4. The object turns around.

Questions 5 – 8: Match each description of motion with the correct velocity versus time graph(s).
There may be more than one correct answer.
A B C

D E F

5. The object is stopped.

6. The object is moving with constant positive velocity.
7. The object is moving with constant negative velocity.
8. The object turns around.

8
Questions 9 – 11: The motion of a robotic car is shown on the position versus time graph below.
Calculate the velocity during each time interval. (DO include signs!)

9. The velocity from 0 to 3 seconds:

10. The velocity from 3 to 8 seconds:
11. The velocity from 8 to 10 seconds:

12. Create the velocity versus time graph for the robotic car.

9
Investigation 4A: Acceleration on a ramp
Essential Question: What is acceleration and how does it relate to speed and velocity?

A car rolling down a ramp accelerates. A car given an initial velocity up a ramp accelerates at the same
rate! The Smart Cart allows us to quantitatively investigate acceleration and its relationship to speed and
velocity.

Part 1: Acceleration down a ramp

1. Open the experiment file 04A_Acceleration, and then power-on the Smart Cart and connect it
wirelessly to your software.
2. Set up the track at a low angle. Attach the End Stop at the bottom to catch the Smart Cart.
3. Hold the Smart Cart at the top of the ramp, Velcro® facing up the ramp. Begin collecting data and
release the Smart Cart. Stop data collection just after the cart reaches the bottom of the track.

Questions
a. Determine the acceleration in m/s2 from the slope of the velocity graph. Does this value match
with the acceleration recorded in the acceleration versus time graph?

b. What is the total elapsed time from the moment you release the Smart Cart until it reaches the
bottom of the ramp?

c. Calculate the expected final velocity using acceleration from part (a) and time from part (b).
Show your work, including units. What is the final velocity recorded on the velocity versus time
graph?

d. Change the ramp angle and run the experiment again. Explain in one sentence the effect of
increasing the angle on the acceleration of the Smart Cart.

e. How can you infer changes in acceleration from the Smart Cart velocity vs. time graph?

10
Part 2: Comparing acceleration up and down a ramp

1. Reset the ramp angle to its original value. Set the Smart Cart at the bottom of the track, Velcro
still facing up the ramp.
2. Start recording data. Give the Smart Cart a push so it rolls up the track and back down again.
Stop recording data just before the cart reaches the bottom of the track.
3. Observe the velocity and acceleration graphs during a complete round trip.

Questions

a. Describe the velocity during the motion. Does the velocity change sign?

b. At what point in the motion is velocity zero? How is this shown graphically?

c. Describe the acceleration during the motion. Does the acceleration change sign?

d. Determine the acceleration in m/s2 from the slope of the velocity graph. Show data and units.

e. Compare the acceleration from Part 2 to the acceleration you calculated in Part 1. Do the
accelerations have the same magnitude? The same sign? Explain.

11
 Investigation 4B: A model for accelerated motion
Essential question: How can a velocity versus time graph be used to determine displacement?
An object’s position changes as it accelerates. Just like a moving object’s position versus time graph can
communicate information about its velocity and acceleration, graphs of velocity can communicate
information about how an accelerating object’s position is changing, given its initial velocity and
position. In this investigation you will explore this connection.

Part 1: Determining displacement from motion graphs

1. Open the 04B_ModelsAcceleratedMotion experiment file in your software, and then connect your
Smart Cart using Bluetooth.
2. Set up your equipment like the picture with the plunger on the cart facing the end stop.

3. Push in the cart’s plunger two clicks, and then set the cart at the bottom of the track with the plunger
resting against the end stop.
4. Start recording data, and then launch the cart up the track. Stop recording data just before the cart
starts rolling back down the track.

Part 1 Questions
a. Sketch a copy of your graph and indicate which curve is velocity and which is position.

b. How can you tell from your graph that the cart was accelerating?

12
 c. Use the area tool in your software to find the area under your velocity time graph.
Area under velocity time graph =

d. Find the value of the cart’s position when the last velocity data point was recorded.
Final position xf =

e. Because the cart started at the bottom of the track, its initial position was xi = 0 m. What was the
cart’s total displacement Δx? How does the cart’s total displacement compare to the area under
its velocity time graph?
Displacement Δx =

Part 2: Extending to other graphs

1. Hide your Part 1 data so the graph is blank.

2. Repeat the same Part 1 procedure, except this time, after you launch the cart, let the cart bounce off
the end stop several times. Record data for about 8 seconds as the cart bounces.

Part 2 Questions
1. Sketch a copy of your new graph and indicate which curve is velocity and which is position.

2. Find the area under the new velocity time graph, and the total displacement of the cart.
Area under v-t graph = Displacement Δx =

3. How does the cart’s total displacement compare to the area under its velocity time graph?

4. Based on your results in Parts 1 and 2, what is the relationship between the area under an
object’s velocity time graph and the object’s displacement?

13
 5. The cart’s motion in Parts 1 and 2 was mostly uniform (constant acceleration). Does the
relationship between the area under an object’s velocity time graph and the object’s displacement
extend to more erratic/random motion (variable acceleration)?
Test the relationship by recording a third run of erratic/random velocity data, rolling the cart
back-and-forth with your hand. Explain your results.

Applying new knowledge

1. Below are three velocity-time graphs corresponding to three separate trips taken by a car.
Determine the car’s total displacement in each.

Graph a Graph b Graph c

2. What was the total distance travelled in trip iii?

14
Investigation 5A: Newton's second law
Essential question: How is an object’s acceleration related to the net force acting on the object?

When the forces acting on an object are unbalanced, the object accelerates. Newton’s second law
describes how an object’s acceleration is related to the amount of net force acting on it. In this
investigation you will explore this relationship.

Part 1: Force and Acceleration

1. Open the 05A_NewtonsSecondLaw experiment file in your software, and then connect your Smart
Cart using Bluetooth.

2. Set up the equipment like the picture. Be sure the track is level.

3. In your software, zero the Smart Cart force sensor while nothing is touching the hook.

4. Pull the cart to the end of the track, or until the mass hanger hangs just below the pulley. Record data
as you release the cart to roll freely down the track. Catch the cart before it hits the pulley.

5. Record five trials of data using the same steps, adding one more washer to the mass hanger before
each trial: Trial 1 = 1 washer, Trial 2 = 2 washers, Trial 3 = 3 washers, and so on.

6. For each trial, find the cart’s acceleration (slope of velocity graph) and average net force on the cart
(net force = force measured by the sensor) while it was rolling freely down the track (only while it
was rolling freely). Record your values into Table 1.

Table 1: Average net force and acceleration data of a cart

Trial Net Force (N) Acceleration (m/s2)
1
2
3
4
5

15
7. Go to the second page of the experiment file. Enter the data from Table 1 into the table in the
experiment file. This data will appear in the graph on the same page.

Questions

a. Sketch a copy of your net force versus acceleration graph. Be sure to label the axes.

b. How was the cart’s acceleration different when the applied net force was greater? Support your
answer with data.

c. What is the shape of your net force versus acceleration graph?

d. What is the slope of your net force versus acceleration curve? How does the slope value compare to
the total mass of the cart plus any mass on it?

e. There are two common mathematical expressions for Newton's Second Law. One of these
expressions is F  ma . How does your data support this mathematical relationship?

16
Investigation 5B: Hooke’s law
Essential question: How are force and displacement related when stretching a spring?
In this investigation you will measure force from the spring, and spring deformation (spring deflection)
using the force and position sensors on the Smart Cart.

Part 1: Extension and spring force

1. Set up the equipment like the picture using the loosest of the three springs.

2. Open the 05B_HookesLaw experiment file in your software, and then connect your smart cart using
Bluetooth.
3. In your software, zero the Smart Cart force sensor while nothing is touching the hook.
4. Begin recording data, and then pull the cart backward (extending the spring) about 10 cm and hold it
in place. Use the check mark in the software to record your first data point.
5. Keep pulling the cart backward and record four more data points at four different deformation
lengths (any lengths will work as long as they are in order from shortest to longest).
6. Stop recording data, and then copy your data into Table 1. Sketch a copy of your graph.

Table 1: Loose spring deformation data

Deformation Spring Force
(m) (N)

17
Part 2: Stiff and loose springs

1. Repeat the experiment using the medium and stiff springs.

2. Copy your data in the tables below, and then sketch the graphs for each spring.

Table 2: Medium spring deformation data

Deformation Spring Force
(m) (N)

Table 3: Stiff spring deformation data

Deformation Spring Force
(m) (N)

18
Questions
a. When you stretch the stiffest spring by hand, how does it feel or respond that is different from
the loosest spring? In supporting your answer, use data from your investigation.

b. How does the extension of the stiffest spring compare to that of the loose one for the same
applied force?

c. What are the slope values of the three graphs? (Include units in your answer.)

d. What physical quantity do the slopes of your graphs represent? Why?

e. What is the spring constant of each of the springs? (Include units in your answer.)

f. Use your data to determine the force each spring would exert at these other deformations.

Loose Spring Medium Spring Stiff Spring

Deformation x (m)
Force F (N) Force F (N) Force F (N)
0.47
1.31
2.22

19
Applying new knowledge
1. Translate the equation F = -kx into an English sentence with the same meaning.

2. Which of these has a higher spring constant, a Slinky® spring or the spring in a car suspension?

3. If the deflection of a spring is doubled, then how much does the force change?
A. The force is halved.
B. The force is doubled.
C. The force increases by a factor of four.
D. The force decreases by a factor of four.

4. A certain spring has k = 2,000 N/m. How much does the spring deflect under a force of 50 N?

5. Claus pulled on a spring with 15 newtons of force and it extended by 12 cm. What is the value of its
spring constant?

6. What is the required spring constant for a vertical spring to support a mass of 10 kg while stretching
only 1.0 cm?

7. A car with a mass of 1,500 kg sits on a suspension system that has four identical springs. When the
mass of the car was originally placed on the springs, they compressed by 10 cm. What is the spring
constant for each spring?

8. Is Hooke's law an exact law of physics or an approximation? Why?

9. Write a multiple-choice question that requires the reader to understand the difference between the
free length of a spring, its stretched length, and its deflection x as used in Hooke’s law.

20
Investigation 5C: Static and kinetic friction
Essential question: What determines the force of friction?

Friction is everywhere and can be either helpful or wasteful depending on the situation. In this investigation
you will test models of friction against actual measurements to get a sense of how accurate these
friction models are.

Coefficient of static friction and kinetic friction

1. Open the experiment file 05C_Friction, and then connect the Smart Cart to the software using
Bluetooth.
2. Set up the equipment like the picture. Zero the Smart Cart force sensor while nothing is touching
the hook.
3. Start data collection, and then very slowly pull on the string, increasing the force you exert until
the block starts to slide. Once the block is sliding, keep pulling at a constant speed until you get
to the edge of the table, and then stop data collection.
4. Record the mass of the block in the table.
5. Repeat this activity two more times, each time adding a 250-g mass on top of the block.
6. For each trial, use the graph tools to find the maximum force exerted just as sliding was about to
start (static friction force), and the average force while the block was sliding (kinetic friction
force). Record the values for each trial in the table.

Table: Coefficient of static friction and kinetic friction

Static Kinetic
Max Average Force Mass of Friction Friction
Trial Coefficient Coefficient
Force While Sliding Block
s k
1

Average value for  : Average value for k :

s

21
Questions

a. Draw two free-body diagrams of the friction block: one representing the moment just before it
began to slide (static friction), and one representing the time when it was sliding at a constant
speed (kinetic friction). Label all the forces acting on the block in each diagram, including
friction.

b. The coefficients of static and kinetic friction are defined as the ratios of each frictional force to
the normal force of the block. Write two equations: one for the coefficient of static friction, and
one for the coefficient of kinetic friction–both in terms of the frictional force and the mass of the
block.

c. Determine the coefficients of static friction and kinetic friction for each of the trials you
performed. Enter these values in the table. Calculate the average for each.

d. The model for static friction treats µs as constant, even as the mass of the friction block
was increased. Do your data support this model? Explain your answer.

e. Compare your average values to the tabulated values for the coefficients of static and kinetic
friction in section 5.4 of your text. Using your data, evaluate the precision of the tabulated
coefficients.

22
Investigation 6B: Projectile motion
Essential questions: What is the angle that maximizes the range of the projectile?
How are the projectile motion equations used to calculate a projectile’s range?

Projectile motion occurs whenever a moving object is under no force except gravity. The equations of motion
for each coordinate axis are different—and independent of each other—so you can analyze them separately.
Combined, the equations are used to describe the range of a projectile.
Part 1: What angle launches projectiles the maximum distance?

1. Set up your equipment like the

picture so the projectile will land on
the lab table.
2. Press-in the projectile TWO clicks
using the push rod, and then pull up
on the string to launch it.
3. Launch the projectile at different
angles such as θ = 20°, 25°, 30°, 35° and so on. Include 30° and 60° in your data.
4. Use the same initial speed v0 (two clicks) for every launch.
5. Measure the range of the projectile for each angle. Tabulate your data in Table 1.

Table 1: Range and launch angle for a projectile with constant initial speed

θ (°)

Range
(m)

Questions
a. What angle θ launched the projectile furthest?
Provide a conceptual explanation for why you think this angle gives the maximum range.

b. Provide a conceptual explanation for why the range was approximately the same when θ = 30°
and θ = 60°.

23
Part 2: Hitting a target using projectile motion

1. Adjust the launcher to launch the projectile horizontally (θ = 0°) onto the floor.
2. Launch the projectile using THREE clicks instead of two.
3. Measure the range of the projectile along the floor and the height of the launcher, and then use
those values and the projectile motion equations to calculate the projectile’s initial speed v0 when
leaving the launcher. Show your work below.

4. Adjust the launcher so the projectile will land on the table again. Set the launch angle to 60°.
5. Use the range equation and your values from the previous steps to calculate the new range of the
projectile. Show your work below.
2v2 sin
cos Range  x  0

6. Place an empty cup at your calculated range and attempt to launch the projectile into the cup
using THREE clicks.

Questions

a. Did the projectile land in the cup first try? If not, what factors may have caused the projectile to
miss the cup?

b. Neglecting air resistance, in which direction was the net force acting on the projectile while it
was in flight? In which direction was the projectile accelerating when it was in flight?

c. Describe how the projectile’s x-direction velocity and y-direction velocity changed during its
flight.

24
Applying new knowledge

1. A projectile is fired horizontally off the top of a cliff with an initial velocity of 30 m/s. It hits the
ground after 2.0 seconds.
a. What is the initial x-component of velocity when the projectile is initially fired? What is the
initial y-component of the velocity?

b. How far from the base of the cliff does the projectile land? (Hint: How far does it go in the
x-direction?)

c. How high is the cliff? (Hint: How far does the projectile go in the y-direction?)

2. A projectile is shot at an angle of

45° with velocity components vx
and vy both equal to 10 m/s.

Sketch the trajectory of the

projectile.

25
Investigation 6C: Acceleration on an inclined plane
Essential questions: What is the acceleration of an object down an inclined plane?
What do the motion graphs of an object down an inclined plane look like?

Galileo Galilei used inclined planes for his quantitative experiments into the nature of position, time,
and acceleration. Galileo took advantage of the property that objects roll faster down steeper ramps. In
this investigation, you will use the slope of a velocity versus time graph to determine how acceleration
varies with the inclination of a ramp.

Part 1: Acceleration down a ramp

1. Set up the track to act as an inclined plane with
height around 30 cm.
2. Open the experiment file
06C_AccelerationOnAnInclinedPlane, and then
power-on the Smart Cart and connect it
wirelessly to your software.
3. Begin data collection and release the Smart Cart
down the track. Stop data collection just after the
cart reaches the bottom of the track.
4. Use your software to fit a curve to each graph as the cart moves down the track. Sketch the shape of
the graphs.

Questions
a. What is the motion equation you are fitting to the position vs. time graph?

What is the motion equation you are fitting to the velocity vs. time graph?

b. Explain the connection between the slope of the velocity vs. time graph and the acceleration.

26
 Part 2: How does acceleration vary with the ramp’s inclination?

1. Measure the height h and length L of the ramp.

2. Record data and release the Smart Cart.
3. Use the resulting graphs to measure the
acceleration a of the Smart Cart down the inclined
plane.
4. Repeat for four more values of h, lowering the
height around 2-3 cm each time. Enter your values
in the table.
5. Calculate the inclination of the ramp (h/L) for each
run and enter the values in the table.

Questions
a. How does the acceleration vary as the inclination of the ramp increases?

b. Go to Page 2 of the experiment file and graph acceleration versus inclination. Fit a line to the
graph. What is the value of the slope of a line through your data (with units)?

c. Is this slope similar to any physical constant you have learned about in Physics? Explain.

Table 1: Acceleration varies with ramp angle

Height Length Acceleration

Inclination
(m) (m) (m/s2)

d. Prepare a written report for your investigation (parts 1 and 2). In addition to addressing the above
questions, describe the procedure, results, and conclusion or interpretation of your investigation.

27
 Investigation 8A: Static equilibrium
Objects remain at rest only when the net force and the net torque are zero. The converse is also true: if an
object remains at rest, then you know the net force and the net torque must be zero. The first statement
predicts whether an object will remain at rest or begin to move, while the second statement is used to
determine unknown forces.

Part 1: Find the unknown mass using static equilibrium

1. Set up two Tripod Stands with a cross rail and two Universal Hooks as shown.
2. Make a string a little longer than 1 meter with three loops as shown.
3. Set up the equilibrium shown in the diagram with an unknown, hanging mass of 10–12 washers.
4. The string on the right side of the mass should be horizontal and the string on the left side should
make an angle, , between 30 and 50 degrees.
5. Measure and record the tension, T, and the angle, . Adjust the position of the two Universal Hooks
to change the angle and record the new angle and string tension for two more trials.

Table 1: Force and angle data

Tension in the string Weight (N) Measured angle Prediction
(N) (, degrees)

28
Questions

a. Draw a free-body diagram for the hanging mass.

b. What is the horizontal component of the force exerted by the tension on the angled side of the
hanging mass?

c. Use the Pythagorean theorem to calculate the vertical component of the tension on the angled
side of the hanging mass. What is the value of the unknown mass? Use a triple-beam balance to
measure its mass.

d. How well does your value agree? Explain any discrepancies.

29
 Part 2: The tension in a “zipline”

Construct the equilibrium similar to the diagram above. You do not need to get the same angle as the
diagram. You may simply hang the weight on the middle of the string to get the angles roughly equal on
either side.

1. Derive an equation for the tension in the string in terms of the angle and weight.

2. What is the net vertical force applied by the string to the hanging mass?

3. Calculate the tension in the string for the mass you measured.

4. Compare your calculation with the actual measurement.

5. What happens to the tension in the string as the angle gets closer to 90 degrees?

6. Suppose the mass was 80 kg, the mass of an average person, and the angle was 5 degrees.
Calculate the tension in the cable and compare this to the weight of the person.

30
Applying new knowledge

1. Draw the free-body diagram of the beam shown above. The beam itself has a mass of 25 kg.

2. What is the total upward force supplied by the supports?

3. Let the left end of the beam be the center of rotation.

a. Write an equation for the torques about this center.

b. What is the value of the support force on the right?

4. Let the right end of the beam be the center of rotation.

a. Write an equation for the torques about this center.

b. What is the value of the support force on the left?

5. Add your values for the support forces together. Do they equal your answer to (b)?
Check your answers using the interactive simulation on page 241.

31
 Investigation 9A: Work and the force versus distance graph
Essential question: How are force, distance, and work related graphically?
To lift a mass, you must do work on it against the gravitational force. Similarly, when you stretch a
spring, you do work on it to overcome its restoring force. How does the work done on these objects
relate to the forces applied to them and the distances they move or stretch? In this investigation you’ll
find out by using a Smart Cart to apply those forces so that you can measure both force and distance.
Part 1: Lift a mass

1. Open the 09A_ForceDistanceGraph experiment file in your software, and then connect your Smart
Cart using Bluetooth.
2. Set up the equipment as in the picture. Be sure the track is level.

3. In your software, zero the Smart Cart force sensor while nothing is touching the hook.
4. With the thread reattached to the cart, position the cart so that the mass hanger is suspended
just above the floor.
5. Record force and distance data as you move the cart slowly and steadily to lift the mass a distance of
30 cm, as measured by the markings on the track. Then stop recording data.
Questions
a. Sketch a copy of your force versus distance graph. Be sure to label the axes.

b. Use the statistics tool in your software to determine the average (mean) force applied to lift the
mass.
average force:
c. Determine the actual distance you lifted the mass during data recording.
distance mass was lifted:

32
 d. Use these two values to calculate the work done on the mass to lift it, including units.

e. Use the statistics tool in your software to find the area under your force versus distance graph,
including units. How does this area compare to the work you calculated above? What is the
geometric shape of the shaded area?
area under force vs. distance graph:

f. Did the work done on the mass to lift it change its energy? If so, explain which form of energy
changed and whether it increased or decreased.

Part 2: Stretch a spring

1. Modify your equipment as shown in the picture. Use the stiffest of the three springs.

2. Position and hold the cart so that it is just starting to separate the spring’s coils, and then use your
software to zero the Smart Cart force sensor.
3. Record force and distance data as you move the cart slowly and steadily to stretch the end of the
spring a distance of 30 cm, as measured by the markings on the track. Then stop recording data.
Questions
a. Sketch a copy of your force versus distance graph. Be sure to label the axes.

33
 b. Was the force constant? Would it be appropriate to use the formula W  to calculate the
work done on the spring? Explain. Fd

c. Use the statistics tool in your software to find the area under your force versus distance graph,
which is the work done on the spring to stretch it.
work (area under force vs. distance graph):
d. Did the work done on the spring to stretch it change its energy? If so, explain which form of
energy changed and whether it increased or decreased.

Part 3: Match work challenge

The amount of work done to lift the mass in Part 1 was likely different than the amount of work done to
stretch the spring in Part 2. You’ll now redesign one of these configurations and record a new run in an
attempt to match the amounts of work. Choose one of the following challenges:

1. Modify the lifting of a mass (as in Part 1) so that the work done on the mass is equal to the work
done on the spring in Part 2, which you found to be . OR

2. Modify the stretching of a spring (as in Part 2) so that the work done on the spring is equal to the
work done on the mass in Part 1, which you found to be .

For your selected challenge, first describe and justify your design change below. Then collect a run of
data to determine how closely the measured work matches the target value.

34
Investigation 10A: Inclined plane and the conservation of energy
Essential question: What law governs the energy transformations of motion on an
inclined plane?

If you have ever skied down a mountain, biked down a hill, or ridden in a roller coaster you know going
downhill causes your speed to increase. The higher the hill, the faster you can go (to a point). This
investigation uses a cart on a frictionless track to explore how gravitational potential energy and kinetic
energy change as motion changes. For example, if you want to design a roller coaster to reach 30 mph,
how high must it be at the start?

Predictions
A cart starts from rest at the top of a frictionless slope. Sketch your predictions for the graphs of the
following quantities as a function of time:
 position (x)
 velocity (v)
 kinetic energy (Ek)
 potential energy (Ep)

Changes in energy for motion down an inclined plane

1. Set up your equipment as in the picture.
The plunger on the cart should be facing
the end stop, and the ramp should have an
incline of 15°.

35
 2. Open the experiment file 10A_ApplyingConservationOfEnergy, and then connect your Smart
Cart using Bluetooth.

3. Explore the motion of the cart on the ramp. Start recording data with the cart at the bottom of the
ramp, then roll it to the top of the ramp and release it. Stop recording when the cart reaches the
bottom. Answer the questions below for the time the cart was rolling down the ramp.

Questions
a. Sketch a copy of the actual position and velocity graph, only for the time where the cart was
rolling down the track. What are the shapes of the graphs? Why?

b. Sketch a copy of the actual kinetic and potential energy graph, only for the time where the cart
was rolling down the track. What are the shapes of the graphs? Why?

c. What is the total sum of the kinetic and potential energies at the top of the ramp when the cart is
released? At the bottom? How are their changes related to each other?

d. What is the speed at the bottom of the ramp? Try adding a mass to the cart and take another set
of data. How does the speed change? Why?

36
Investigation 10B: Work and energy
Essential questions: How is the work done on a system related to its change in energy?
How is the efficiency of a system calculated?

Have you ever pulled a swing back and let it go? The work you do to pull the swing backward and upward
is converted into gravitational potential energy. When you let it go, gravitational force does work on the
swing pulling it downward and speeding it up, transforming its gravitational potential energy into
kinetic energy. Gravity does work on the swing; as a result, the swing’s kinetic energy changes. In this
investigation you will explore the relationship between work and kinetic energy by measuring the work
done on a cart to accelerate it, and then comparing that work to the cart’s change in kinetic energy.

Part 1: Constant Force

1. Set up the equipment like the picture below.

2. Open the experiment file 10B_WorkEnergyTheorem, and then connect the Smart Cart using
Bluetooth.
3. Unhook the thread from the cart and measure the mass of the cart plus the two 250-g cart
masses. Record the mass value above the table on the next page.
4. In your software, zero the Smart Cart force sensor while nothing is touching the hook.
5. Reattach the thread, and then roll the cart all the way to the end of the track opposite the pulley and
hold it in place.
6. Start recording data, and then release the cart to roll freely down the track. Catch the cart before it
rolls into the pulley. Data recording stops automatically after 1.5 seconds.
7. Use the tools in your software to determine the network Wnet done on the cart (Wnet = area under your
force versus position data), and the measured final speed of the cart. Record the work and speed
values in the Part 1 row in the table on the next page.

37
Part 2: Variable Force

1. Unhook the hanging mass from the thread, and then set the cart at the end of the track opposite the
pulley so it rests in place.
2. Have a group member hold the loose end of the thread in their hand at the other end of the track (no
tension in the thread). Zero the force sensor.

3. Start recording data, and then pull on the string so the cart rolls down to the other end of the track.
Catch the cart before it rolls into the pulley.
NOTE: The force that you apply to the string does not need to be so soft that the cart barely rolls;
but don’t pull the thread so hard that the cart rolls into the pulley and off the end of the track.
4. Use the tools in your software to determine the work done on the cart, and the cart’s measured final
speed. Record both values next to Part 2 in the table below.

Mass of cart and cart masses (kg) =

Table: Work and speed data for a cart experiencing an applied force
Wnet (N·m) Measured Calculated
Area under F vs. x Final Speed (m/s) Final Speed (m/s)

Part 1

Part 2

Questions
a. Use the work-energy theorem to derive an equation for the final speed of the cart vf in terms of
mass m and network Wnet. Assume the initial speed of the cart is zero. Show your work.

38
 b. Use the equation you derived and your measured value for Wnet to calculate the theoretical final
speed of the cart for Part 1 and Part 2. Record the result in your table.

c. How does the theoretical final speed of the cart compare the experimental (measured) value in
both parts? If the values are different, what do you think caused the difference?

d. How efficient was the work done to change the cart’s kinetic energy in each part? Explain the
significance of the values you obtain.
E k
Efficiency   100%
Wnet

e. If you do 0.621 N·m of work on a cart (same mass as the cart in this experiment) to accelerate
it from rest, what would the cart’s final speed be if the efficiency of the work was 90.3%?

Applying new knowledge

1. A 1500 kg car accelerates from rest to a speed of 25 m/s over a distance of 45 meters.
a. What is the change in kinetic energy of the car?

b. What is the net work done on the car?

c. What is the net force applied to the car?

2. A 1500 kg car traveling at 20 m/s skids to a stop. The force of friction between the tires and the road
is 12,000 N.
a. What is the change in kinetic energy of the car?

b. How far does the car skid?

39
 Investigation 10C: Springs and the conservation of energy
Essential question: Can energy conservation be used to predict the behavior of a system?

A system consisting of a cart on an inclined track, attached to a spring, has three forms of mechanical
energy as the cart rolls down the track. By carefully modeling the flow of energy between potential,
elastic, and kinetic we can accurately predict how far the cart will roll before it is stopped by the spring.

Part 1: Build the mathematical model

1. Imagine a cart on an inclined track (30°),

attached to a spring, similar to the picture.
2. The cart is released from rest at the top of
the track (spring is unstretched) and rolls
freely down until the spring stops it after
stretching some distance.
Questions
a. Write equations for the total energy of the cart and spring at the top of the track (before the cart is
released), and the total energy at the bottom of the track (when the spring stops the cart).

b. Use your equations to build a mathematical model for the maximum distance the cart travels down
the track in terms of mass m and spring constant k.
NOTE: Because the track is inclined 30°, as the cart travels a distance x down the track the
vertical height through which it travels is x/2, or h = x/2.

Part 2: Determine spring constant

1. Set up your equipment like the picture using the stiffest spring. Make sure the track is level.

2. Open the 10C_SpringConstant experiment file, and then power-on your Smart Cart and
connect it using Bluetooth.
3. In your software, zero the Smart Cart force sensor while nothing is touching the hook.
4. Attach the spring to the hook on the cart. Position the cart so that it is about to place the spring
under tension.
5. Record data as you slowly pull the cart about 70 cm along the track. Data collection will end
automatically after 4 s.

40
 6. Find the slope of the straight-line portion of the graph—this is the spring constant for the spring.
Record the spring constant value k, and save your data for reference later in the investigation.

Spring constant k =

Part 3: Predict the maximum distance

1. Set up your equipment like the picture.
2. Measure the mass of the Smart Cart plus two 250-g cart masses.

Mass m =

3. Use the mathematical model for maximum distance derived in Part 1, and your measured values
for m and k to predict the distance the cart will roll down the track before being stopped by the
spring.

Maximum distance dtheo =

(theoretical)

4. Open the 10C_EnergyTransformations experiment file, and then reconnect your Smart Cart.

5. Hold the cart on the track so that the spring is upstretched.

6. Start data collection, release the cart. Catch the cart at the top of its rebound. Data collection stops
automatically after 3 s.

7. Use the tools in your graph to determine the maximum distance the cart travelled.

Maximum distance dexp =

(experimental)

41
 8. Use your measured values and motion data to complete the table below.

Table: Motion and energy data for a cart and spring system on a 30°-inclined track
Position Spring Cart Cart height Cart potential Cart kinetic Spring potential Total energy
extension speed h = (dexp – x)/2 energy energy energy ET (J)
x (m) v (m/s) (m) Ep (J) Ek (J) Es (J)
When the cart
is released
At maximum
speed down
At maximum
distance
At the top of
the rebound

Questions

a. How do your theoretical and experimental values for maximum distance compare? What may have
caused differences between them?

b. How did the total energy of the cart and spring system change as the cart rolled down the track?
Explain your answer.

c. Create a bar chart to display the kinetic, gravitational potential, elastic potential and total energies
at each of the following locations: immediately after being released; when the cart reaches its
maximum speed down the track; when the cart reaches its lowest point; and at the top of the
rebound. What patterns do you see?

d. Calculate the efficiency of the system by using data from the table for two scenarios:
(i) for the trip from the starting point to the lowest point reached; and
(ii) for the trip from the starting point to the final rebound position.
Efficiency  final energy
 100%
initial energy

e. How can the difference between the two efficiencies be explained?

Hint: Look at the graph of force vs spring extension that you used to determine the spring
constant early in this investigation.

42
Investigation 10C: Work done by friction
Essential question: How is friction included in models of motion?

The work done by friction reduces the amount of energy available for transformation into other forms.
This is a significant way in which real systems are "open." This investigation explores friction in a
typical braking situation in which work done by friction reduces kinetic energy.

Part 1: Rolling friction

1. Open the 10D_FrictionAndLosses experiment

file in your software, and then connect your Smart
Cart using Bluetooth.
2. Set the cart on a level surface. Start data
collection, and then give the cart a gentle push.
3. Observe the cart’s position, velocity, and
acceleration graphs as the cart is pushed and as it
rolls freely to a stop. Stop data collection after the
cart has stopped.

Questions

a. Write an equation expressing conservation of energy for the cart as it rolls to a stop.

b. Solve the equation for the coefficient of rolling friction µr.

c. Calculate µr using your equation, and the data from your position and velocity graphs.
Show your data and calculation, with units.

µr =

43
Part 2: Kinetic friction

1. Attach a friction block to the plunger-end of the

Smart Cart with a short string.
2. Record data as you give the cart a push, pulling
the friction block behind it. There should be no
slack in the string when you push.
3. Observe the graphs for the motion of the cart and
friction block as they freely come to rest.

Questions

a. Draw separate free-body diagrams representing the cart and friction block as they slow down.

b. Write a conservation of energy equation that includes the kinetic energy of the cart and friction
block and the work done by friction at the start and end of the sliding motion.

c. Solve the equation for the coefficient of sliding friction µk.

d. Calculate µk using the measured masses and data from your graphs.

µk =

e. Create an equation model to predict the stopping distance.

44
 f. Add mass to the friction block, and then predict the stopping distance. Show your work.

stopping distance (predicted):

g. Test your prediction with the cart using the same initial velocity as before.

stopping distance (measured):

h. Explain any differences between your prediction and measurement.

Part 3: Combining the two

1. Reattach the friction block to the cart with
about 1/2 m of string. Arrange the cart and
block so the cart can roll freely before putting
tension on the string and moving the block.
Move the mass to the cart.
2. Observe the graphs on the computer as the cart
is pushed, rolls freely, catches the friction
block, and drags it until both come to rest.

Questions
a. Sketch a copy of your velocity-time
graph and then identify where on the
graph (i) positive work is done on the
cart, and (ii) the cart and block
system do positive work on its
environment.

b. Label each of the following sections of

the graph: the cart is being pushed,
the cart rolls freely, the string becomes
taut, the friction block is sliding, the
cart and block
have come to rest.

45
Project: Crash barrier
Design project: Design a crash barrier

Design challenge
Construct a crash barrier designed to minimize the impact force experienced by a cart in a collision.
Design criteria and constraints
Your crash barrier must:
 reduce the impact force to
less than 10.0 N;
 have mass less than 50 g;
 have length less than 12 cm;
 and, have a flat front.

Test equipment
Smart Cart with bumper, dynamics track with feet and end stops.

Part 1: Observe the effect of changing variables.

Set up your test equipment like the picture. Use the DC_CrashBarrier experiment file to record data.
 Test the cushioning ability of different barrier materials. Write a testable hypothesis on the effect
of each parameter. Record your observations.

 Test the effect of different configurations of materials. Write a testable hypothesis on the effect
of each parameter. Record your observations.

46
Part 2: Design the prototype crash barrier
Describe your design, with words and sketches.

Part 3: Construct the prototype crash barrier

Part 4: Evaluate the prototype crash barrier

Test your crash barrier and describe its performance (strengths and weaknesses).

Part 5: Revise and re-evaluate

Revise your design and then conduct a final performance evaluation. Describe its strengths and
weaknesses.

Part 6: Share your findings.

Prepare a brief presentation to share with your class.

47
Applying new knowledge

1. Which of the following methods would be sure to reduce the force on a cart during its collision with
a barrier?
A. Increase the impulse on the cart.
B. Increase the length of time the collision lasts.
C. Increase the mass of the materials in the barrier.
D. Give the cart an initial positive momentum (upward).

2. Explain your answer to question 1 above.

3. A hockey puck that has a mass of 170 g travels with a speed of 30 m/s.
a. What is the momentum of the puck?

b. What impulse must be imparted to the puck by a player who wishes to change the puck's
direction by 180° while keeping the puck moving at the same speed?

4. Write a multiple-choice question that requires the reader to understand the tradeoff between force
and time duration when applying an impulse.

48
 Grading Rubric

Criterion Not Met Needs Improvement Satisfactory Excellent

Criterion
(0) (1 pt) (2 pts) (3 pts)
Did not test any materials
Tested materials and Tested materials and
and configurations; or, Tested various barrier
Crash configurations, but it configurations, and data
barrier was clearly not materials, or tested
Barrier was not clear how the were clearly used to
designed based on different configurations,
Design test results informed the inform and/or support
supporting data. but did not test both.
design of the barrier. the barrier design.

Crash barrier was longer Crash barrier was longer Crash barrier was shorter Crash barrier was shorter
Crash
than 12 cm, and had than 12 cm, but had than 12 cm, but had than 12 cm, and had
Barrier
mass greater than 50 mass less than mass greater than 50 g. mass less than
Construction
g. 50 g. 50 g.

Crash Maximum impact force wasMaximum impact force was

Maximum impact force was Maximum impact force was
Barrier between 25 N- between 10 N-
greater than 40 N. less than 10 N.
Performance 40 N. 25 N.

Documented all materials,

data, and observations
Report was submitted with from the test phase.
all critical components,
but the components Included a complete design
Report was submitted but
were incomplete: test sketch with concise
was missing one or
phase observations and descriptions of the
more of its critical
Report Did not submit a written data were minimal; barrier components.
components: test phase
Elements report. design sketch was
data and observations; a
incomplete or not Clearly documented
prototype design sketch;
detailed; design strengths and
or, design revisions.
revisions were minimal weaknesses of the
or presented without prototype and indicated
reasoning. all revisions to its design
with reasoning.

Presentation was thorough

Presentation included and concise, and
Presentation did not include information regarding included participation
any critical information design choices and from all group
Class Did not present a report to
regarding design revisions but did not members. The
Presentation the class.
choices and revisions. elaborate on how testing information presented
results informed those clearly reflected ideas
choices. and revisions based on
testing.

49
Investigation 11A: Conservation of momentum
Essential question: How does momentum change for objects in an isolated system?

The law of conservation of momentum is a powerful generalization of Newton’s third law. For an
isolated system, the total momentum of all the objects inside is constant. In this investigation, you will
explore the conservation of momentum for two carts that are subject to no outside net force. The only
catch is that the carts have a compressed spring inserted between them! Is momentum conserved for this
system?

Part 1: Conservation of momentum for spring-loaded carts

1. Open the experiment file 11A_ConservationOfMomentum, and then power-on the Smart Carts
and connect them wirelessly to your software.
2. Set a red cart and a blue cart on a level track, as shown.
3. Press the plunger on the blue cart until it loads at its third position. Set both carts in the middle of
the track with the plunger on the blue car touching the red cart.
4. Begin collecting data and then tap on the plunger release trigger to launch the carts.
5. Use your software to find the velocity of each cart after the launch.
6. Run the experiment for different combinations of masses for the two carts. Use your data table to
record the mass and velocity for each combination.
Table: Tabulate the velocities and calculate the momentum of each cart for masses 250 g (empty
cart), 500 g, and 750 g. Use the results in this table to answer the questions below.
mred vred pred mblue vblue pblue
(g) (m/s) (kg m/s) (g) (m/s) (kg m/s)
250 250
500 250
750 250
250 500
500 500
750 500
250 750
500 750
750 750

50
Questions

a. Describe the velocities when the masses of the two carts are equal.

b. Describe the velocities when the red cart has more mass than the blue cart.

c. Describe the velocities when the blue cart has more mass than the red cart.

d. Evaluate the data in your table. What quantity can you construct or calculate that is equal and
opposite for the two carts after they are released? How is this the most logical conclusion to draw
from your data?

e. If the two carts together are considered a closed system, what is the net force on the system?
What is the change in the system’s momentum after being released? Use appropriate equations to
explain how these two questions are related to each other.

f. What similarities are there in the velocities and momenta when the masses of both carts are
equal?

g. What is the difference in velocity when one mass is twice that of the other? When one mass is
three times the other?

h. What is the difference in momentum when the masses are equal? When one cart has twice the
mass of the other? When one cart has three times the mass of the other?

51
 Investigation 11B: Inelastic collisions
Essential question: How can we predict the outcome of an inelastic collision?

In this investigation you will explore how the total kinetic energy and momentum of a closed system
involving two carts is affected by a perfectly inelastic collision between the carts.

Perfectly inelastic collisions

1. Set a red cart and a blue cart on a level track with the Velcro® ends facing each other, as shown.
Adjust the track feet to make sure the track is as level as possible.

2. Open the experiment file 11B_InelasticCollisions, and then power-on the Smart Carts and connect
them to your computer using Bluetooth.
3. Begin collecting data with both carts stationary, and then push the red cart into the blue cart. Stop
recording data after the carts have collided.
4. Use your software to find the velocity of each cart before the collision, and the final velocity of the
two carts after the collision.
5. Run the experiment for different combinations of masses for the two carts (0.25 kg = mass of empty
cart). Use your data table to record the velocities for each combination.
6. Calculate the total system momentum and kinetic energy before and after each collision. Record the
values in your table and examine the table for patterns.

Table: Velocity after the perfectly inelastic collision

Before collision After collision
m1 v1 m2 v2 ptot Etot mtot vtot ptot Etot
(kg) (m/s) (kg) (m/s) (kg m/s) (J) (kg) (m/s) (kg m/s) (J)

0.25 0.25 0 0.50

0.25 0.75 0 1.00
0.75 0.25 0 1.00

52
Questions

a. Describe the velocities before and after the collision when masses are equal.

b. Describe the velocities (before and after) when the blue cart has more mass.

c. Describe the velocities (before and after) when the red cart has more mass.

d. As a result of the collision, does the total momentum of the system increase, decrease, or remain
the same? Does the total kinetic energy of the system increase, decrease, or remain the same?

53
Applying new knowledge: Assume all collisions are one-dimensional.

1. A 10 kg puck initially moving at 20 m/s has a perfectly inelastic collision with a 20 kg puck.
a. Will the resulting velocity be greater than, less than, or equal to 10 m/s?

b. Calculate the resulting velocity.

2. A 2000 kg car traveling at 8.0 m/s has a rear-end collision with a 1500 kg car stopped at a traffic
light. The cars lock bumpers and skid off together.

a. Which of the ranges below is correct for the resulting velocity?

A. 0 m/s < v < 4 m/s B. 4 m/s < v < 8 m/s C. 8 m/s < v < 12 m/s

b. Calculate the resulting velocity.

c. Calculate the total kinetic energy of the cars before the collision and after the collision.

3. Two 10 kg pucks head straight towards each other with velocities of 10 m/s and -20 m/s.
They collide and stick together. Calculate the resulting velocity.

4. Two identical pucks of equal but unknown mass head straight towards each other with velocities of
8.0 m/s and -6.0 m/s. They collide and stick together. What is their resulting velocity?
A. +7 m/s B. -7 m/s C. +1 m/s D. -1 m/s E. cannot be determined

5. A 1200 kg car traveling at an unknown velocity has a rear-end collision with a 1600 kg car parked in
the road. The cars lock bumpers and skid off together at 3.0 m/s. What was the velocity of the 1200
kg car right before the collision?

54
Investigation 11C: Elastic collisions
Essential question: How can we predict the outcome of an elastic collision?

Elastic collisions between carts

How well can a physical experiment approximate a perfectly elastic collision? A collision between two carts
is nearly elastic, but not completely. In this experiment, you will push a red Smart Cart into a stationary
blue Smart Cart and explore how the total kinetic energy and momentum of this system is affected by a
collision between the carts, and how it compares to the simulation.
1. Attach a magnetic bumper to the front of each cart, and then set a red cart and a blue cart on a
level track with the magnetic bumpers facing each other, as shown. Adjust the track feet to make
sure the track is as level as possible.

2. Open the experiment file 11C_ElasticCollisions, and then power-on the Smart Carts and
connect them to your computer using Bluetooth.
3. Begin collecting data, gently pushing the red cart toward the blue cart allowing them to collide.
Stop recording data once carts have collided.
4. Use your software to find the velocity of each cart before and after the collision.
5. Run the experiment for different combinations of masses for the two carts (0.25 kg = mass of
empty cart) adding cart masses as necessary. Use Table 2 to record the velocities for each run.
6. Calculate the total system momentum and kinetic energy before and after each collision. Record
the values in your table and examine the table for patterns.

Table 2: Elastic collision results

Before collision After collision
m1 v1 m2 v2 ptot Etot m1 v1 m2 v2 ptot Etot
(kg) (m/s) (kg) (m/s) (kg m/s) (J) (kg) (m/s) (kg) (m/s) (kg m/s) (J)

0.25 0.25 0 0.25 0.25

0.25 0.75 0 0.25 0.75
0.75 0.25 0 0.75 0.25

55
Questions

a. Describe the velocities before and after the collision when: the cart masses are equal; the blue
cart has more mass; the red cart has more mass.

b. As a result of the collision, does the total momentum of the system increase, decrease, or remain
the same? Does the total kinetic energy increase, decrease, or remain the same?

c. How does the physical experiment differ from the interactive investigation? Does this make
sense? Why or why not?

Applying new knowledge

1. Define what is meant by an elastic collision. How does it differ from an inelastic collision?

2. A 10 kg ball moving at +3.0 m/s strikes a stationary 10 kg ball. If the collision is elastic, then what
are the velocities of the two balls after the collision?

3. A 1.0 kg ball moving at +1.0 m/s strikes a stationary 3.0 kg ball. After the collision, the two balls
stick together and move at +0.25 m/s. Was the collision elastic? Show your work and explain
your answer.

4. A 3.0 kg puck moving at +2.0 m/s strikes a stationary 2.0 kg puck. After the collision, the 3.0
kg puck has a velocity of +0.40 m/s.
a. Use conservation of momentum to find the velocity of the 2.0 kg puck after the collision.

b. Was the collision elastic? Show your work and explain your answer.

56
Investigation 12A: Levers
Essential Question: What is the relationship between the output force and the input force?
How do we design a lever to have a mechanical advantage?

1. The input force is weight on the

left side.
2. The output force is the weight on
the right side (or the “load”).
3. Hang a weight on the output side
at 5, 10, 15, or 20 cm distance.
4. Find combinations of weight and
position on the input side balance
the lever.

Solve the following challenges to fill in the table.

1. Set up a lever in which the input force is about 3 times as large as the output force.
2. Set up a lever in which the input force is about 4 times as large as the output force.
3. Set up a lever in which the input force is about 1/2 as large as the output force.
4. Set up a lever in which the input force is about ¼ as large as the output force.

Table 1: Input and output force data

Input side Output side

Washers Weight (N) Distance Washers Weight (N) Distance
(cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4

Analysis

Use your observations to propose a model for the lever that has the form in which (?) involves the distances.

Output force = ( ? ) × input force

57
 1. Use table 2 to test your model. Calculate the predicted output forces from the mechanical
advantage and input forces. In column 4 and 5 put the difference between the predicted and
measured forces.
2. Propose an explanation for differences between predicted and measured values.

Table 2: Testing your model

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5

Input force Predicted Measured Difference Percent
(N) output force output force (N) difference
(N) (N) (%)
1
2
3
4

Second- and third-class levers

The diagram shows two other ways to

arrange the forces on a lever. Notice that
both forces are on the same side of the
fulcrum. The difference between the second
class and third class is whether the input or
output force is closest to the fulcrum.

Second class lever: A second class lever has

the output force closest to the fulcrum.
Third class lever: A third class lever has the
input force closest to the fulcrum.

Construct second class levers with different mechanical advantages. Measure the input and output forces
for at least three different configurations that balance.

Table 1: Input and output forces for a second- and third-class levers

Input force Output force Measured Calculated

Force Distance Washers Weight Distance mech. mech.
(N) (cm) (N) (cm) adv. adv.
2nd
class
3rd
class

58
Questions

The diagram on the right shows the structure of

the human arm. Based on your investigations of
levers, answer the following questions.

a. What class of lever is the human forearm?

b. How large is the force from the biceps muscle compared to a load force applied to the hand?

c. Using a ruler, estimate the force the biceps muscle must exert to hold up a ten-pound weight in
the position shown in the diagram.

d. The diagram below shows a pry bar used to pull up a board. What is the upward force on the
board if a force of 50 pounds is applied to the pry bar?

59
Investigation 12B: Pulleys
Essential Question: How can ropes and pulleys create mechanical advantage?
How does a block and tackle machine work?

Table 1: Input and output force data

Input Output
Mechanical Force Washers Weight (N)
advantage (N)
1
2
3
4
5
6

 Design machines that have the different mechanical advantages in the table.
 For each design, test the real mechanical advantage by measuring the force it takes to slowly raise
the output load.
 Keep the load (output force) constant. Measure the weight of the load with your spring scale and
record it in the table.

HINT: you will have to switch the connection of the “fixed” end of the rope between the top and bottom
pulley block to get all of the combinations.

60
Sketch each of your designs in a way that identifies the connection of the rope and how the rope is
wrapped around the pulleys.

Questions

1. What is the rule that tells you the mechanical advantage of a pulley system?

2. What was the largest mechanical advantage you could construct? Why is this the limit of this
system of pulleys?

3. Was the actual measured mechanical advantage greater or less than you think it should have
been? Propose an explanation for any differences you observed.

4. Is it possible to build an infinite mechanical advantage using an infinite number of pulleys? Why
or why not? What limits they realistic advantage of a machine made with blocks and pulleys?

5. How does the property of an ideal string to "have the same tension everywhere" explain the
mechanical advantage of a block and tackle machine (you constructed) in which four strands of
string support the load?

61
 Investigation 12C: Ramps and inclined planes
Essential question: How does a ramp change the force required to move an object uphill?

When the Egyptians built their massive pyramids, they faced the engineering challenge of how to lift the
heavy stone blocks vertically into position. The Egyptians may have moved the blocks up ramps (or
inclined planes) constructed along the side of the pyramid. How would using a ramp make their job
easier? In this investigation you will measure the force required to move the cart up a ramp to a height of
30 cm. How does the force vary? How about the work done?

Part 1: Force and work required to move the cart up a ramp

1. Open the 12C_InclinedPlanes experiment file in your software, and then connect your Smart Cart
using Bluetooth. Zero the cart’s force sensor while nothing is touching the hook.
2. Set up your equipment as in the picture. The plunger on the cart should be facing the end stop, with
the hook facing up the ramp. Start with an incline of at least 20°.

3. Attach the cart to the end of a string.

4. Use tape to mark a location on the ramp 30 cm vertically higher than the starting position of the cart.
5. Measure the average force F required to move the cart at a slow constant speed to the final position.
Measure the distance the cart traveled along the ramp.
6. Repeat for at least two other inclinations of the ramp. Tabulate your results.

Table: Force and distance data for a cart pulled up a ramp

Inclination angle Force (N) Distance Work done Mechanical
(degrees) (from Smart Cart) (m) (J) advantage

62
Questions

a. Is more force needed to move an object up a steep ramp or a shallow ramp?

b. Using the force applied and the distance moved, calculate the work done on the cart to move it in
each case. Explain your results.

c. How can you calculate the mechanical advantage of the ramp using the values in your
investigation?

d. Calculate the mechanical advantage for each inclination of the ramp and include the results in
your table.

e. Measure the mass of the Smart Cart, and then calculate a theoretical value for the amount of
work Wcart needed to lift the cart 30 cm. How does this calculated value compare to the work
values in your table? Explain why they are different and/or similar.
Wcart = Ep = mcartgh = mcart(9.8 m/s2)(0.30 m) = (J)

63
Applying new knowledge

1. Darrius is building a pyramid in his backyard. The final 500 kg block will have to be moved into a
position 5.0 meters above the ground. Darrius can push the block on rollers up a ramp with a force of
1000 N. How long does he need to make the ramp?
asked:

given:

relationship:

solution:

2. Francine is using a screwdriver with a handle that has a diameter of 1.5 inches to drive in a 1/4-
20 screw (20 threads per inch). What is the mechanical advantage of her screw and screwdriver
combination?
asked:

given:

relationship:

solution:

64
Invetigation 13A: Gear ratios

Essential questions How do gears work?

How do the number of teeth affect the turns of a gear machine?

A gear is a wheel with teeth that interlock with matching teeth on another gear. Gears are found in many
machines from cars to CD players and bicycles because gears efficiently transmit rotating motion and
can create mechanical advantage. In this investigation you will create machines with two and three
gears. The goal is to find a formula which relates the number of teeth to the number of turns.

Build and test following machines.

1. For each machine, write down the numbers of teeth in each gear.
2. Count how many turns of the input gear it takes to make one turn of the output gear.

65
Table 1: Teeth and turns data
Machine Input gear teeth Input gear turns Output gear teeth Output gear
1 20 60
2 20 40
3 40 60
4 20 60
5 20 20

Questions and analysis

1. Write a formula for each machine that looks like the formula below.

( ? )×( ? )=( ? )×( ? )

Formula:
Each ( ? ) should be one of the four variables below.
 Input turns
 Output turns
 Input teeth
 Output teeth

2. Test your formula for at least three different combinations.

3. Rearrange your formula to be in the form of two ratios that must be equal.

Ratio formula:

4. Test your ratio formula for at least two different combinations.

5. Rearrange your formula once again to give the number of output turns in terms of the number of
input turns and a ratio of teeth.

Output turns formula:

6. Test your ratio formula for at least two different combinations.

66
Investigation 13B: Designing a gear machine
Essential questions How do you make a large gear ratio?
How are gear machines designed?

Your challenge is to design machines with the following ratios. NOTE: One of these ratios cannot be
built with the gears in your set.

Design, build, and test the following machines.

Machine Input turns Output turns NOTE: One of these four machines CANNOT be made
A 4 1 with the gears you have. One of your challenges is
B 6 1 to determine which machine cannot be built with
C 10 1 your gears and propose an additional gear that
D 9 4 would make that machine possible.
F 12 1
G 18 1

1. For each ratio that you can actually build fill in the numbers of teeth in the diagrams on the next
page.

2. Write out the sequence of ratios that describes each machine and show that the ratios multiply
together to give the overall ratio the design calls for.

3. What additional gear would you need in order to build the ratio you could not make?

4. Write out a series of ratios that would make this “un-built” machine if you had the
missing gear.

67
68
Investigation 13C: Torque

Essential question: How do forces affect rotating motion?

1. Build the lever in the

diagram on the right
adjusting the three
hanging masses until
the lever is balanced.

2. Measure and record the

weight and distance for
each hanging mass
(Table 1).

A torque is a twisting action that may be created by forces. The torque created by a force depends on
both the force and the distance the force acts from the center of rotation. This distance is called the lever
arm. The same force applied with a longer lever arm created more torque.
The units of torque are force times distance, or newton-meters. A torque of 20 N m is created by a force
of 100 N acting with a lever arm of 0.2 m. Because torque is a product of two variables, it is possible to
create the same torque with different forces. For example, a 20 N force applied with a lever arm of 1 m
also produces a torque of 20 N m.

69
The sign of torques
Torques can be negative or positive depending
on whether they tend to cause clockwise or
counterclockwise rotation. By convention,
positive torque increases the angle with the x-
axis (counterclockwise). Negative torque
decreases the angle with the x-axis (clockwise).

Table 1: Torque data

Distance Weight Torque

(m) (N) (N·m)

Sum

Analysis

1. Calculate the torque in N·m and fill in the third column of Table 1.

2. Sum up the torques being careful to get the sign correct.

Questions

a. How does the sum of torques relate to the equilibrium of the lever? Can you state a rule for
torque that applies to equilibrium?

b. A wrench is used to apply a 100 N force

at a distance 0.15 meters away from the
center of a bolt. Calculate the torque
created by this force.

c. Suppose the wrench in the diagram is

1.0-meter long. How much force is
required to exert the same torque?

70
 d. Mark each torque positive (CCW), negative (CW), or zero. The center of rotation is P and you may
assume the force F acts on a uniform bar.

d-1) d-2)

d-3) d-4)

e. Three forces act upon a uniform horizontal rod: F1, F2, and weight mg. Calculate the magnitude
and sign (+ or -) of the torque applied by each force for two possible pivot points, A and B. Add
the torques to calculate the net torque.

F1 = 10 N F 2 = 20 N mg = 5 N 
Torque about A
Torque about B

f. Forces of magnitude F and 2F act on a uniform bar. Is the net torque about point P in the center of
the bar positive (CCW), negative (CW), or zero?

71
Investigation 13D: The mechanical advantage of gears
Essential questions: How do gears create mechanical advantage?
How do gear machines, such as a transmission or winch, operate?

A transmission is a rotating machine that changes speed and torque. Transmissions are found in many
machines including cars, clocks, bicycles, washing machines, and even fishing rods! The input of a
transmission is where force is applied through motors or muscles. The output of the transmission does
the useful work of the machine. In a car or bicycle transmission the output is connected to wheels which
apply the output torque to the ground.
1. Use two gears to construct a transmission with a gear ratio of 1:3. Use levers and weights to
demonstrate that the mechanical advantage is 3:1.
2. Calculate the input and output torque in N-m.

Force (N) Distance (m) Torque (N-m) Gear ratio

Input
Output

Questions
1. What is the ideal mechanical advantage of your transmission?
2. What is the measured real mechanical advantage?

Part 2: Building a winch

The levers are excellent demonstrations of mechanical advantage but levers cannot move a load very far.
A winch is a gear-driven device that combines pulleys and gears to create mechanical advantage.
Winches are often operated with a hand crank. For our experiment we will use one falling weight as the
input force to lift a second falling weight. This will allow us to measure the input and output work more
easily.

72
1. Use two gears and two of the larger pulleys to construct a winch with a gear ratio of 1:3.
2. Wrap string around both pulleys and adjust the length of the string so that dropping the lighter
weight to the table a distance, d1, lifts the heavier weight a distance, d2.
3. Weigh the input and output masses and calculate the input and output work done in joules. (one
joule is 1 N  1 m).
4. Use your force data to calculate the real mechanical advantage. Use your work data to calculate
the efficiency of the machine. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of work output divided by work
input. Adjust your weights to get the highest efficiency you can.

Force Distance Work

(N) (m) (J)
d1
d2
Real F2
MA 
mechanical advantage
F1
work output
Efficiency efficiency =
work input

73
Investigation 14A: Oscillators
Essential Question: How do we understand motion that repeats in cycles?

Part 1: The period of a pendulum

1. Assemble the pendulum as shown, with 5 washers on the mass hanger.
2. Set the pendulum swinging and observe the motion. Do not let the swinging mass hanger hit the
stand.
3. Hold the angle indicator behind the string to measure the amplitude of the motion.
4. With a stopwatch, measure the time it takes to complete 10 full cycles.
5. Change the amplitude, mass, and string length and see how each variable affects the period of
your pendulum. Tabulate your data.

Table 1: Pendulum data

Mass (g) Amplitude (deg) Length (cm) 10 cycles (s) Period (s)

74
Questions
a. Describe how you determined the period for one full cycle of the pendulum.

b. How does the period of the pendulum depend on length, mass, and amplitude? Support your
answers using the data.

c. Propose a design for a pendulum that has a period of 2.0 seconds.

d. How did you choose the number of trials for each variable?

Part 2: The mass and spring oscillator

1. Set 6 washers on the mass hanger. Attach the mass and
stiff spring. Place the meter rule against the stand. Note
the position of the top washer in its equilibrium position.

2. Displace the mass 5 cm and release it. Record the time

to complete 10 oscillations.

3. Repeat the experiment and record data for different

masses and amplitudes in Table 2.

4. Replace the stiff spring with the medium spring

(different spring constant) and set 6 washers on the mass
hanger.

5. With a stopwatch, measure and record the time to

complete 10 oscillations in Table 3. (The data for the
period of spring #1 has already been collected and just
needs to be entered into this table.)

6. With a spring scale, measure and record the force

needed to extend each spring 10 cm. Calculate the spring
constants. The spring constant is k = F/x where F is in
newtons and x is in meters.

75
Table 2: Mass and spring data
Mass (g) Amplitude (cm) 10 cycles (s) Period (s)

Table 3: Effect of spring constant (mass held constant)

Spring 10 cycles (s) Period (s) Force (N) Stretch x (m) Spring constant k
(N/m)
Spring #1
Spring #2

Questions
a. How did you determine one full cycle of the motion?

b. How does the period of the mass/spring oscillator depend on mass and amplitude? Your answer
should be supported by the data.

c. Explain the answer to part (b) using Newton's second law, F = ma.

d. How does the period of the mass/spring oscillator depend on the spring constant? Your answer
should be supported by the data.

e. In step #3 above, what were the independent, dependent, and controlled variables?

76
Applying new knowledge
The data in this table lists the observed position of an object at random
times during 22 seconds of motion. Plot the data on the graph provided
below.

1. Do you see the pattern? Sketch any pattern you see.

2. Estimate the maximum position this object reaches.
3. Estimate the minimum position the object reaches.
4. When will the object reach its minimum position next?
5. When will the object reach its maximum position next?
6. What is the amplitude of the motion?
7. What is the period of the motion?
8. What is the frequency of the motion?
9. How many times will this object reach its maximum position in a ten-minute period?

77
Investigation 14C: Resonance
Essential Question: What is resonance?

When periodic forces are applied to a system that can oscillate, the resulting motion can vary
tremendously. If the frequency of the force matches a natural frequency of the system, a very large
amplitude response can occur. The extra-large response is what we call resonance.

Part 1: Finding the natural frequency

1. Mount the lever to the top of the stand.

2. Hang the stiff spring from the lever arm, and
then hang the mass (12 washers) from the spring.
3. Attach a ruler to the stand centered on the
hanging mass.
4. Pull the mass down slightly to start it oscillating.
5. Measure the time for ten oscillations.

Questions

a. What is meant by the oscillator's “natural

frequency”?

b. What are the values of your oscillator's natural period and frequency?

Table 1: Measured frequency and period

Trials
1 2 3 4 5 average
frequency
period

c. Describe and then apply a method to estimate the error bars on your frequency measurement.

d. Describe the meaning of the terms phase and amplitude.

78
Part 2: Creating resonance

1. Set a timer to beep at a frequency of

between 0.1 and 3 Hz. (Convert
between frequency and period first!)
2. While using one hand to hold the top
of the stand in place, use your other
hand to press down on the lever on
each beep.
3. Have your partner estimate the
amplitude of the motion using the
ruler.
4. Measure and tabulate the oscillation
amplitude for at least ten frequencies
ranging between 0.1 Hz and three
times the natural frequency. One
measurement should be at the
frequency you measured in Part 1.
5. Graph the oscillation amplitude versus
the frequency of the periodic force.

Questions
a. In your own words, define resonance by referring to the motion you just observed and the graph
of your data.

b. At what frequencies is the oscillator in resonance? At what frequencies is it out of resonance?

c. Describe the flow and storage of energy in the system at resonance compared to frequencies that
are not at resonance.

d. Prepare a written report for your investigation (parts 1 and 2). In addition to addressing the above
questions, describe the procedure, results, and conclusion (or interpretation) of your
investigation.

79
Table 2: Amplitude as a function of frequency

Frequency Period (s) Amplitude

(Hz) (cm)

80
Investigation 15A: Waves
Essential question: What is a wave and what are the properties of waves?

A wave is a traveling form of energy that carries oscillations from one place in space to another. Sound
and light are waves and share characteristics of frequency and wavelength with familiar water waves.

Transverse and longitudinal waves

1. Hold one end of a Slinky® spring (or other long spring) and have your partner hold the other
end. Stretch the spring a little bit so that it is not slack.
2. Create transverse waves by moving your hand side-to-side.
3. Create longitudinal waves by moving your hand sharply towards your partner.
4. Repeat the above steps, but this time using a wave motion rope or other heavy string.

Questions
a. What are the differences between these two types of waves? Describe the characteristics of each
in words.

b. Can you make both types of waves on both pieces of equipment? Why or why not?

c. Can you create waves of different velocities on both pieces of equipment? If so, how?

d. Estimate the wavelength of the wave in the diagram below and graph its oscillations. Is this a
transverse or a longitudinal wave?

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 Investigation 15C: Interference
Essential Question: How does the amplitude of a wave change when it encounters another wave?

When multiple waves exist in the same place at the same time, interference occurs. Wave interference can
be either constructive or destructive, causing the amplitude of the resultant wave to be different than the
individual waves. In this investigation you will observe the interaction of wave pulses on a spring and
draw a conclusion about when constructive and destructive interference occur in waves.

Constructive and destructive interference

1. Stretch the slinky out flat on a table or the floor – one group member holding each end.
Do NOT overstretch the slinky!
2. Send pulses down the slinky from each end and observe how they interact when they meet in the
middle. Use your observations to answer the questions.
3. Test the following scenarios:
 Equal pulses from each end
 Big pulse from one end – small pulse from the other end
 Equal and opposite pulses from each end
 Big pulse from one end – opposite small pulse from the other end.
The pulses travel fast, making it difficult to observe the exact moment they interact. Try using
slow motion video to make observations or use the video samples on the eBook 15C investigation
page.

82
Questions

a. When the equal pulses met in the middle, how was the amplitude of the combined wave different
from the individual pulses?

b. When the big and small pulses met in the middle, how was the amplitude of the combined wave
different from the individual pulses?

c. When the equal and opposite pulses met in the middle, how was the amplitude of the combined
wave different from the individual pulses?

d. Which scenarios experienced constructive interference? How do you know?

e. Which scenarios experienced destructive interference? How do you know?

f. For each scenario, describe what happened to the pulses after they met.

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 Investigation 16D: Resonance and sound
Essential question: How do we create specific frequencies of sound, such as in music?

A guitar string vibrates at its natural frequencies. Other objects, such as wine glasses and tuning forks, also
vibrate at their natural frequencies. The frequencies are controlled by properties such as size, mass, and
string tension.

Part 1(a): Measuring the natural frequency

1. Open the 16D_ResonanceAndSound experiment file in

your software.
2. Strike a tuning fork with a rubber mallet and hold it
next to the microphone. Using the FFT in your
software, confirm that its natural frequency matches the
marked value.
3. Strike the tuning fork again and hold it over the resonance
tube, partially immersed in water.
4. Raise and lower the tube until you hear the loudest
amplification of the tuning fork note. Measure and record
the frequency of the tuning fork and height of the tube
above the waterline in Table 1. Repeat for two other
tuning forks.

Table 1: Frequency and length data

frequency height, h wavelength f×λ
(Hz) (m) (m) (m/s)

84
Questions
a. Why did the tube resonate at a particular position? What characteristics of a resonance tube
determine its natural frequency? Refer to the figure of resonant modes in pipes on the previous
page in your answer.

b. Calculate the wavelength and then the product of wavelength and frequency for each tuning fork
you tested and record the data in Table 1 above.

c. Does the product of wavelength and frequency vary between tuning forks? Why or why not?

Part 1(b): Measuring the natural frequency

5. Firmly hold the stem of the wine glass while running a wet finger lightly around its rim. The
glass should ring in a clear tone. Measure and record the glass dimensions and frequency in
Table 2.
6. Add water to the glass in small increments and repeat the measurements.

Table 2: Resonant frequency data for wine glasses

major diameter height of bowl water depth Measured resonant
(cm) (cm) (cm) frequency (Hz)

Questions

d. Discuss with your group and propose a hypothesis that explains the variation in resonant
frequency with the height of water in the wine glass. How is your hypothesis supported by your
observations?

85
Part 2: Controlling the natural frequency through resonance

1. Measure the length of string for your instrument

at each of its different frets, or fingerboard
positions.
2. Use the FFT in your software to determine the
natural frequency for each different string length.
3. Repeat the procedure for at least two additional
strings. Record data in Table 3.

Questions
a. Graph frequency vs. length of a single string.
Explain why the graph has the shape that it
does.

b. On the same graph, plot frequency vs. length for a different string. Explain the difference
between the two curves using Newton's laws.

c. Explain how resonance controls which frequencies persist in a vibrating system.

Table 3: Guitar string length and frequency data for two different strings
length, L (m)
frequency, f (Hz)

length, L (m)

86
frequency, f (Hz)

87
Design Challenge: Design a musical instrument
A musical instrument creates frequencies of sound that match a
musical scale. The beauty and richness of the sound come from
the harmonics that are produced along with the fundamental
frequencies.

Create a musical instrument that:

1. plays the frequencies (within 5%) of all 8 notes of
a major scale;
2. has working parts consisting of metal bar (or tube) with
lengths less than 1 m; and
3. has a total mass of less than 5 kg.

Modeling the system:

1. Measure the resonant frequencies of different lengths of
your tube or bar material using the MusicalSound
experiment file. Make notes in the space below:

2. Use your data to create a graphical and/or algebraic model that allows you to determine what
length you need to create each frequency in the scale. Record your data in the space below:

3. Identify and record the variables that should be controlled. Describe how you designed your
testing procedure to control for these variables.

88
 4. Determine what changes can make small frequency corrections. Make notes in the space below:

5. Explore how different chime mounts affect its sound. Consult additional resources (e.g., library,
textbook, or internet) to obtain design ideas. Make notes about your findings in the space below:

Assemble, test, and evaluate:

1. Test your prototype by measuring the resonant frequency of each element of your instrument.
Record your data here:

2. Compare the actual frequencies to the specification. Determine any frequency adjustments that
need to be made. Note the necessary adjustments in the space below:

Revise the design:

1. Use your model to implement the design changes and test the revised design again.
2. Sketch your final design in the space below, including measurements.

89
 Investigation 17A: Electricity and circuits
Essential question: How do you build a circuit?

The Modular Circuits kit provides an easy and quick way to prototype and design electronic circuits. This
investigation explores how to build simple circuits using the kit and to relate the circuit to a
comparable equivalent circuit diagram.

1. Connect a battery, bulb, and four wire corners together to create the circuit in the diagram.
2. Add six jumpers to your circuit to connect the components together and make the bulb light up.

Questions

a. Remove a jumper. Why does the bulb not light up when the jumper is removed?

b. Remove the battery module from the circuit, turn it around so it is reversed, and reconnect it.
Does the bulb still light up? What do you think reversing the battery changes in the circuit?

c. Connect the two jumpers on the bulb module with a bare wire to create a short circuit. What
happens to the bulb when you create a short circuit? Try connecting jumpers on the wire and
battery modules. Does connecting any two jumpers create a short circuit?

90
 d. Add a switch and any necessary wire modules to your circuit so that you can turn on the light by
closing the switch (closed circuit) and turn off the light by opening the switch (open circuit).
Draw a circuit diagram of your new circuit, using the circuit symbols.

e. Describe another way you can create an open circuit without opening the switch.

Applying new knowledge

2. Define electric current and identify its unit.

3. What type of device is commonly used to measure electric current?

A. switch B. transformer C. ammeter D. anemometer E. voltmeter

4. Identify the following kinds of circuits:

5. Which type of circuit shown above is most likely to cause a fire? Why?

6. Draw the electrical symbols for the following circuit elements:

A. resistor B. battery C. switch D. wire E. lamp

91
Investigation 17B: Voltage and batteries
Essential question: How do you connect batteries to increase their total voltage?

When Alessandro Volta invented the first electric battery, he connected several individual battery cells
together to create a more powerful composite battery. How did he connect them? In this investigation
you will connect two batteries together and determine how to make the largest combined voltage.

There are two basic ways to connect electrical components together. In a series connection, the two
components are connected one after another. In a parallel connection, the components are
connected side-by-side—with the “tops” connected together and the “bottoms” connected together.

Part 1: Connecting batteries in parallel

1. Open the experiment file

17B_VoltageAndBatteries, and then power-
on the Voltage Sensor and connect it
wirelessly to your software.

2. Connect the two batteries in parallel: connect

their positive terminals to each other and
connect their negative terminals to each other.

3. Use the voltage sensor to measure the voltage

across the two batteries connected in parallel.

Questions
a. Read the voltage rating on the side of each battery. How does the printed voltage compare with
what you measured?

b. How does the voltage of the two batteries connected in parallel compare with the voltage of
either battery measured separately? Explain your answer.

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Part 2: Connecting the batteries in series

1. Connect the two batteries in series: connect the

negative terminal of one battery to the positive
terminal of the other battery.
2. Using the voltage sensor, measure the voltage
across the two batteries connected in series.

Questions

a. How does the voltage of the two batteries

connected in series compare with the voltage of
either battery measured separately? Explain
your answer.

b. Compare the series and parallel circuits. Which would you use to create the largest voltage?

c. Which circuit design would you expect to find in a flashlight or other electrical device?

d. Open up the battery compartment of a flashlight and look at any visible wires to see how it is
connected. Can you tell if the batteries are connected in series or parallel?

93
Applying new knowledge
1. Define voltage.

2. Which of the units listed below is the correct unit for voltage?
A. joule B. volt C. amp D. coulomb E. watt

3. Complete this sentence. A battery converts energy into energy.

a. thermal, chemical
b. chemical, mechanical
c. kinetic, electrical
d. thermal, electrical
e. chemical, electrical

4. Identify which of the two circuits below has batteries connected (a) in series and (b) in parallel.
a) b)

5. Calculate the voltage across the batteries in each of the two circuits above.
a) b)

7. Draw a circuit with two batteries, a switch, a resistor, and a lamp all connected in series.

8. Write a multiple-choice queston that requires the reader to understand the total voltage created by
series and parallel arrangements of batteries.

94
Investigation 17C: Resistance and Ohm’s law
Essential question: How is resistance measured?

Ohm's law I = V/R is the fundamental relationship between current, voltage, and resistance in a circuit.
Devices that measure resistance are based on Ohm's law. These devices apply a known voltage and/or
current, and then determine the resistance. In this investigation you will use a similar experimental
technique to measure the resistance of a bulb.

Part 1: Current through different resistors

1. Open the experiment file 17C_ResistanceAndOhmsLaw, and then

power-on the current sensor and connect it to your software.
2. Construct the circuit shown using one battery, a switch, a current
sensor, a 10-Ω resistor, and any necessary wire modules.
3. Start data collection, close the switch, and record the measured current
in the data table.
4. Repeat the experiment for the 33-Ω and 100-Ω resistors. Tabulate your
results for R and I.
5. Repeat the experiment for two other resistors using the spring clip module. You will have to read the
resistor values using their colored bands. Tabulate your results for R and I.

Table 1: Current through known resistors

I R 1/R
(A) (Ω) (Ω-1)

Questions
a. Graph I on the vertical axis and R on the horizontal axis. What type of curve best fits this data?

b. Calculate 1/R for each resistor. Make a second graph with I on the vertical axis and 1/R on the
horizontal axis to create a linear graph. Fit a line to determine the slope of the data. What is the
value of the slope?

c. What does the slope of this graph represent? Why?

95
Part 2: Resistance of a light bulb

1. Power on the voltage sensor and connect it to your software.

2. Replace the resistor with the bulb and attach the voltage sensor across
the bulb.
3. Measure the current and voltage for the illuminated bulb.
4. Calculate the resistance of the bulb using Ohm's law Rmeas = V/I.

Questions

a. What is the resistance of the bulb? Show your work, including units.

b. Imagine you have a complicated circuit containing many resistors. Describe in words how you
can use Ohm's law to find the effective resistance of the entire circuit.

96
Applying new knowledge

1. What is the voltage drop across a 50-Ω resistor when a current of 0.10 A flows through it?

2. What is the current through a 10-Ω resistor when a voltage of 5.0 V is applied across it?

3. How much current flows through a 145-Ω lamp connected across the 120-V house electrical system?

4. A resistor with R = 101 Ω is connected across a 1.50-V battery. How much current flows through the
resistor?

5. The U.S. standard for wall outlets is 120 V for households. What resistance is needed so that one
amp of current flows when a device is connected to a 120 V circuit?

6. If one amp is the maximum allowed current, is that design resistance from problem (5) above a
maximum or minimum?

7. A simple circuit consists of a voltage source and a single resistor.

a. How does the current change if the resistance is doubled?

b. How does the current change if the resistance is halved?

8. If you want to reduce the current in a circuit, do you increase or decrease the resistance?

97
 Investigation 17D: Series and parallel resistances
Essential question: What are the advantages and disadvantages of series versus parallel circuits?

Have you ever had a string of holiday lights where one bulb is burned out, preventing all the other bulbs
from lighting? Was it easy to find the burned-out bulb? This investigation explores series and parallel
circuits by connecting bulbs and observing their brightness. By comparing the two circuit types, you
will learn why the wiring of some strings of lights allows one bad bulb to disconnect all the other bulbs.

Part 1: Connecting bulbs in series

1. Create a circuit using two batteries, one bulb, a switch, and any
necessary wire modules.
2. Close the switch and observe the brightness of the bulb.
3. Create a circuit with two bulbs in series, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Compare the brightness of the two lamps to the previous circuit with one
lamp.

Questions

a. What property makes this a series circuit?

b. How bright are the two bulbs in series compared to a single bulb circuit? Why?

c. Unscrew one bulb from the series circuit. What happens to the other bulb? Why?

98
Part 2: Connecting bulbs in parallel

1. Create a circuit with two bulbs in parallel, as shown in the circuit

diagram.
2. Compare the brightness of the bulbs in this circuit to the prior circuit with
two bulbs in series.

Questions

a. What property makes this a parallel circuit?

b. How bright are the parallel bulbs compared to the series bulbs? Compared to the single bulb?
Why?

c. Unscrew one bulb from the parallel circuit. What happens to the brightness of the other bulb?
Why?

d. Is a series or parallel circuit better for connecting a string of lights? Why?

e. Design a circuit of three bulbs that combines series and parallel arrangements and sketch the
circuit diagram. Predict the relative bulb brightness based on the previous experiments. Build the
circuit and test your predictions. Were you correct?

99
Applying new knowledge

1. When resistors are connected in series:

a. Is their equivalent resistance smaller or larger than the individual resistances?

b. Is the current through them when connected together larger or smaller than their current if alone
in the circuit?

2. When resistors are connected in parallel:

a. Is the combined resistance smaller or larger than the individual resistances?

b. Is the total current through the circuit larger or smaller than the total current if there were one
resistor alone in the circuit?

c. Is the current through each individual resistor larger or smaller than the current if it was alone in
the circuit?

3. Two strings of tree lights, each with a resistance of 200 Ω, are connected together. What is their
equivalent resistance if they are:
a. connected in series?

b. connected in parallel?

4. For two resistors with resistances of 10 Ω and 23.7 Ω, what is the equivalent resistance if they are:
a. connected in series?

b. connected in parallel?

5. What would be the equivalent resistance if a third resistor of 12.8 Ω were:

a. added in series with them?

b. added in parallel with them?

100
Investigation 17E: Electrical Power
Essential questions: How is power related to energy?
What determines the power rating of a device?

Electrical devices are commonly rated in units of power, such as a 100-W light bulb or a 1200-W
microwave. The electric company bills homes in units of energy. Why the difference? In this
investigation you will build circuits containing two different resistors in series and parallel (representing
two different electrical devices) and measure the power and energy output of each device for each
circuit.

Part 1: Resistors in series

1. Open the experiment file 17E_ElectricalPower and then power-on

the Current and Voltage sensors and connect them to your software.
2. Construct the circuit shown. Connect the voltage sensor across the
33-Ω resistor.
3. Begin recording data and close the switch. Continue recording data
until the energy has reached 1 joule.
4. Repeat the experiment for the 100-Ω resistor.

Questions
a. What happens to the power output for each resistor when the switch is closed? The energy
measurement?

b. Which resistor recorded a higher power output? Why?

c. Which resistor consumed 1 joule of energy the fastest? How is this related to the power output?

d. Fit a line to each energy versus time run. How does the value of the slope compare to the
power output? What does the slope represent?

101
Part 2: Resistors in parallel

1. Construct a circuit using the same components as Part 1 but wire the
resistors in parallel. Place the current sensor in series with the 33-Ω
resistor and connect the voltage sensor across the 33-Ω resistor.
2. Begin recording data and close the switch. Continue recording data until
the energy has reached 1 joule.
3. Repeat the experiment for the 100-Ω resistor.

Questions

a. Does each resistor have the same power output as Part 1? Why or why not?

b. Which resistor has the higher power output? Is this the same as the results in Part 1? Why or why
not?

c. Do the resistors consume energy faster in series or in parallel? Why?

d. Does the power output of a device depend on the properties of the device, how it is wired in the
circuit, or both? Explain.

102
Applying new knowledge

1. Define electrical power and its unit.

2. How much current flows through an incandescent light bulb that draws 100 W of power from a 120-
V outlet?

3. How much current flows through a 23-W compact fluorescent light bulb plugged into the same
outlet?

4. If you double the current through a circuit, how does the electrical power change? What if you
double the voltage instead?

5. A student measures a current of 0.60 amps through a 15-Ω resistor when a voltage of 9 V is applied
to it.
a. How much power is dissipated by the resistor?

b. Into what form of energy is it likely converted?

c. The resistor is rated at a maximum of 5 W. Does the power produced exceed this rating?

d. What do you think happens to resistors if their power rating is exceeded?

6. Two 30-Ω resistors are connected in series to a 120-volt outlet.

a. How much current flows through the circuit?

b. What is the power output of this circuit?

103
7. Two 30-Ω resistors are connected in parallel to a 120-volt outlet.
a. How much current flows through the circuit?

b. What is the power output of this circuit?

8. Electrical power and the home.

a. What is the typical unit of electricity usage that electrical power companies use to charge
their customers?

b. What is the physical quantity represented by this unit?

9. How many kilowatt-hours are consumed by a 100-W incandescent bulb if it is left on for an entire
24-hour day?

104
Investigation 17F: Compound circuits
Essential question: How can voltage, current, and power be used to predict the behavior of electric
circuits?

In the first part of this investigation, you will predict the brightness of bulbs in a circuit. Bulb brightness is a
measure of the dissipation of power. In the second part, you will explore the properties of a commonly
used kind of circuit called a voltage divider.

Part 1: Power dissipated by elements in a compound circuit

1. Open the experiment file 17F_CompoundCircuits, and then power-on
the Current and Voltage sensors and connect them to your software.
2. For the circuit at right, predict the relative brightness of the bulbs when
the switch is closed and when it is open.

Prediction of relative brightness when switch is closed:

Prediction of relative brightness when switch is open:

Prediction: Will bulb #1 get brighter, dimmer, or stay the same when the switch is closed?

Prediction: Will bulb #2 get brighter, dimmer, or stay the same when the switch is closed?

3. Construct the circuit.

4. Note the brightness of the bulbs when the switch is open.
5. Close the switch and note how each bulb’s brightness changes.

Questions
a. Using Kirchhoff’s laws or an equation for power, justify your prediction for the relative
brightness of the bulbs when the switch is closed.
P  IV   I 2 R
V 2

105
 b. Did the brightness of bulb #1 change when the switch was closed? Provide an explanation.

c. Add a voltage and current sensor to your circuit. Measure the

voltage across and current through bulb #1 with the switch open
and closed then calculate the power. How do the measurements
justify your explanation?

Switch V (V) I (A) P (W)

open
closed

d. Did the brightness of bulb #2 change when the switch was closed? Provide an explanation.

e. Add a voltage and current sensor to your circuit. Measure the voltage
across and current through bulb #2 with the switch open and closed.
Calculate the power. How do the measurements justify your
explanation?

Switch V (V) I (A) P (W)

open
closed

106
Part 2: The voltage divider

1. Construct the circuit shown using the resistor values in Table 1.

2. Measure the input voltage and the output voltage for each resistor
combination in the table.
3. Record your measurements in Table 1.

Table 1: Voltage divider measurements

Resistor R1 Resistor R2 Input voltage (V) Output voltage (V)

100 Ω 10 Ω
33 Ω 10 Ω
10 Ω 10 Ω
10 Ω 33 Ω
10 Ω 100 Ω

Questions

a. How does the output voltage vary with R1?

b. How does it vary with R2?

c. Create a mathematical model to predict the output voltage using the values of the input voltage
and the two resistances.

d. Why is this circuit called a voltage divider?

107
 Applying new knowledge

This circuit contains three bulbs, each with a different resistance.

1. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

2. Calculate the total current through the circuit.

3. Calculate the current through each bulb.

4. Calculate the power of each bulb and list them in order of brightness.

108
Investigation 20A: Magnification of mirrors and lenses
Essential question: What kinds of images can be made by lenses and mirrors?

Mirrors change the direction of light through reflection. Lenses bend the direction of light through
refraction. Both mirrors and lenses can create images. Images may be upside-down, right-side-up, larger
or smaller. How the image appears usually depends on the geometry of the lens or mirror, and also on
the location of the object and the observer. This investigation explores images formed by single lenses
and mirrors.

Part 1: What mirrors or lenses magnify an object?

In the first part of the investigation, you will use three

basic kinds of mirrors (flat, convex, and concave),
two kinds of lenses (convex and concave), and a
prism.
1. Look into the mirrors from different distances.
2. Hold the lenses and prism over the table at
different heights and look at the table through
them.

Table 1: Magnification and image orientation for optical devices

Optical device Distance (close, Magnification (enlarged, Image orientation
far away, or all) reduced, same size) (upright, inverted)

Flat mirror

Triangular prism

Concave mirror

Convex mirror

Concave lens

Convex lens

109
Questions
a. Which optical devices create magnifed images (either larger or smaller)?

b. Are there any optical devices that create both magnified and reduced size images? Under what
conditions? (Include them in your table above.)

c. Do any of the devices create inverted (upside-down) images?

Part 2: Magnification of a convex lens

A magnifying glass is a commonly available optical device that is constructed using a convex lens.
1. Place a ruler flat on the table and look down at it from around 0.5 m.
2. Place a convex lens directly onto the ruler (distance do = 0) and record the diameter of the lens.
Since the image fills the entire lens, this is the image size, hi.
3. Use the markings on the ruler to measure how much of the object (the actual ruler) is visible
through the lens. This is the object size, ho.
4. Repeat these measurements with the lens held at three different distances above the ruler. For
each trial, record the image size hi, object size ho, and the distance d between the ruler and lens.

Table 2: Magnification
Distance, d Image size, hi Object size, ho Magnification, m
(cm) (cm) (cm) m  hi
(from lens to ruler) (diameter of lens) (length of ruler seen ho
through lens)

110
Questions
a. Find the magnification of the lens for each trial by calculating m = hi/ho. Record your results in
Table 2.

b. How does the magnification vary with the height of the lens above the ruler?

c. Does the appearance of the image change at any height?

Applying new knowledge

1. For each optical device below, state the method it uses to divert light.
a. convex mirror
b. prism
c. convex lens

2. Why can no reflected image be seen on a surface that exhibits diffuse reflection?
A. Light does not reflect off the surface.
B. Light travels too fast to be reflected.
C. Light can be reflected in any direction.
D. Light changes direction as it passes through.

3. Are tinted windows on cars partially translucent or partially opaque?

4. Can a flat mirror produce magnified images?

5. Zing is 1.8 meters tall. His image in the fun house mirror is only 1.1 meters high. What is the
magnification of the mirror?

6. Write a multiple-choice question that requires the reader to distinguish between optical devices that
can magnify an image (larger or smaller), and those that cannot.

111
 Investigation 20B: Reflection in a plane mirror
Essential question: How and where does an image form in a mirror?

If you look at yourself in a mirror, then where is your image located? In this investigation, you will use
three different techniques for locating the image produced by a flat mirror.

Part 1: Locate an image using parallax

1. Mount a flat mirror vertically on top of a piece of
graph paper and trace its location.
2. Hold a tall “object” pencil near the shiny side of the
mirror. Mark its location.
3. Move a second “tracer” pencil around the back of the
mirror until it always lines up with the reflected image
of the “object” pencil for every angle you use to view
the reflection.

Questions
a. What does the location of the "tracer" pencil signify?

b. Measure the distance from the mirror to the object and from the mirror to the image. Which is
larger, or are these distances the same?

Part 2: Locate the image using pins

1. Replace the “object” pencil with a pin.
2. Look at the image of the pin and place two pins
on the graph paper in line with this image.
3. Move sideways and repeat with two more pins.
4. Draw lines connecting each pair of pins to each
other; extend these lines until they intersect.

Questions
a. What does each of the two lines represent?

b. Predict where the image will be located, and why.

c. Does your image location agree with the location from Part 1? Was your prediction correct?

112
Part 3: Trace the rays using a laser pointer and index card
Safety: never look directly at a laser!
1. Mount a laser pointer horizontally using a ring stand and 90-degree rod clamp. Align the laser to
point through the object pin and strike the mirror at an angle.
2. Use the edge of an index card to trace the path of the laser light (incident and reflected) directly
onto the graph paper.
3. Position the laser at a different angle to the mirror and trace the new path.

Questions
a. Label the incident and reflected rays. Do the rays obey the law of reflection?

b. How can you find the image using the light paths you made?

c. Compare the laser pointer method to the other two. Which is better? Why?

Applying new knowledge

1. This figure shows a ray reflecting off a plane

mirror.
a. Label the following: normal; incident ray;
reflected ray; angle of incidence; and angle
of reflection.

b. What is the value of the angle of incidence?

Explain or show a calculation.

c. What is the value of the angle of reflection?

2. Define normal and angle of incidence.

3. A student who is 1.75 meters tall is standing 80 cm from a flat mirror. How far apart are the
student and his image, and how tall is the image?

113
4. Locate the image of this star in the flat mirror by constructing a ray diagram.

5. In the painting below, where is the location of the reflected image of the woman's face?

114
Investigation 21A: Refraction of light
Essential question: How does light refract at a boundary?
What is the index of refraction of water?

Refraction may change the direction of light rays passing from one medium to another. The differences
in index of refraction between the two media determine how much refraction occurs. In this
investigation, you will analyze light rays passing through air and water and determine the index of
refraction of water.

Part 1: Trace the path of light through air and water

1. Place the container in the middle of a piece of graph paper and trace its outline.
2. Remove the container. Use a straight edge to draw an incident ray that intersects the left side of
the container outline at an incident angle of about 45 to 50°.
3. Fill the container with water and replace it.
4. On the far side of the container, look through the water to view the incident ray. Align a straight
edge with the incident ray as seen through the water. Use the straight edge to draw the refracted
ray.
5. Empty and replace the container. Align a straight edge with the incident ray as seen through the
empty container. Draw and label the “refracted” ray.
6. Remove the container. Connect the path of the light rays through both the full and empty
container.

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Questions

a. Did the light bend through the empty container? Through the water? Why or why not?

b. When the light bent, in how many places did it bend?

c. Construct the normals for both boundaries using dashed lines. With a protractor, measure the
angles of incidence and refraction and record them in the table below.

d. Use Snell's law to calculate the index of refraction of water for each boundary. The index of
refraction of air is approximately 1 (1.003).

Data Table
Mediums Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Did the light Index of refraction
bend? of water
Air to water

Water to air

Air to air NA

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Part 2: Investigate the effect of angle

1. Construct three more incident rays at angles smaller than 45°, including one ray with an angle of
incidence of 0°. These rays should intersect the container outline at the same point as the original
ray. Use colored pencils to differentiate the rays.
2. Refill and replace the container of water.
3. Look through the container to view the incident rays. Draw the refracted rays with a straight
edge.
4. Remove the container of water and connect the path of the light rays. Then replace the container
and view the complete set of rays.

Questions
a. Did all rays through the water refract? Which rays refracted the most? The least?

b. What two factors determine how much a light ray will bend?

c. Reverse position and look through the water to view the refracted rays. What do you notice?

d. Compare a ray before entering and after exiting the container. Describe how these two segments
are related to each other geometrically.

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 e. Draw a sketch of the wave fronts of light as they refract from air into water. Does the light bend
toward or away from the normal?

f. Complete each diagram below by sketching the missing ray. Your sketch should clearly show the
direction of refraction (toward or away from the normal).

g. Write a multiple-choice question that requires the reader to demonstrate an understanding of the
effect of the index of refraction on the amount or direction of bending of light between two
mediums.

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Applying new knowledge
1. For each of the following, determine whether the phenomenon described involves refraction or
reflection.
a. Objects look larger when viewed through a magnifying glass.
b. You view your image in a mirror.
c. Objects look broken when semi-submerged in water.
d. A room looks unusual when viewed through a prism.
e. When you look out of your house through a window at night, you can see an image of the
room you are standing in.
f. You examine objects while wearing someone else’s prescription glasses.

2. A beam of light shines from water into two mystery materials A and B. Material B deflects the light
beam more. Which of the following must be true?
A. material B has a higher index of refraction than material A
B. material B has a lower index of refraction than material A
C. material B is diamond
D. none of the above

3. A light beam passes from water (n = 1.33) into glass (n = 1.5). The angle of incidence is 55º. Use the
interactive calculator to find the angle of refraction.
A. 33.1º B. 46.6º C. 55.0º D. 67.5º

4. A student shines a light ray from material A into material B. The angle of incidence is 30º and the
angle of refraction is 20º. When a light ray shines from material B into material A, does the ray
deflect towards the normal or away from it?

5. A beam of light shines from diamond (n = 2.4) into water (n = 1.33) or glass (n = 1.5).
Which combination of materials bends the beam more?

6. A beam of light shines from water (n = 1.33) into air (n = 1) or glass (n = 1.5).
Which combination of materials bends the beam more?

7. How much is the light ray in the diagram deflected, and in which direction?
A. 10.5 degrees away from the normal
B. 10.5 degrees towards the normal
C. 30 degrees away from the normal
D. 30 degrees towards the normal

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Investigation 21B: Creating real and virtual images with lenses
Essential questions: What is the difference between real and virtual images?
How can you create real and virtual images with a convex lens?

Optical devices can create either real or virtual images. What's the difference between the two? A real
image is formed at a location where light rays actually converge, while a virtual image is formed at a
location where light rays only appear to converge. In practical terms, a real image can be projected onto
a piece of paper while a virtual image cannot. This morning you saw a virtual image of yourself in the
mirror. Why virtual? Because you cannot put a sheet of paper behind the mirror and project your image
onto it! A flat mirror produces a virtual image. How about a convex lens?

Part 1: Create real and virtual images with a converging (convex) lens
Safety: never look directly at the LED light through
the lens.
1. Mount the light source (the “object”) on the
track and near one end. Create the object by
illuminating LEDs of different colors on the
light source.
2. Mount the convex lens 60 cm from the LED
light source. Mount the screen on the
opposite side of the lens from the object.
3. Adjust the screen location until you produce
the sharpest possible image. Record whether
the lens can produce a real image for this
object distance in the table below.
4. Move the lens closer to the object in steps of
5 cm and repeat the experiment, determining
in each case if a real image is formed.

Data Table 1
Object Distance Virtual or Real? Object Distance Virtual or Real?
60 cm 30 cm
55 cm 25 cm
50 cm 20 cm
45 cm 15 cm
40 cm 10 cm
35 cm 5 cm

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Questions
a. At what object distances is the image real? At what distances is the image virtual? How do
you know?

Part 2: Image formation for other optical devices

1. Leave the LED light source (the “object”) in place.
2. Repeat the experiment with a convex lens, concave mirror, and convex mirror.
3. For the mirrors, place a half screen in front of the lens (where the light rays are reflected!) so
only half the mirror is covered. This allows you to look for the image without blocking all the
light needed to create it.
4. With each of these three devices, determine if it produces a real or a virtual image.
5. Complete a table listing each optical device and the kind of image it produces. If it produces both
real and virtual images, list the conditions under which it produces each kind of image.

Questions
a. Which optical devices produce real images? Which produce virtual images? Which optical
devices produce both real and virtual images?

b. Under what conditions do they produce each kind of image?

Fill out the table below with the distance at which each type of lens or mirror has real or virtual
images. (The answer can be no distances or all distances in some cases!)

Data Table 2
Optical Device Virtual Real
convex lens

concave lens

convex mirror

concave mirror

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Investigation 21C: Image formation for a convex lens
Essential questions: How does a convex lens form an image?
How do you measure the focal length of a lens?

Light travels in straight lines unless an optical device—such as a mirror or lens—diverts its path. A
convex lens is used in cameras and refracting telescopes to redirect light rays in order to focus light and
form an image.

Part1: Rules for ray tracing with converging lens:

1. Incident rays parallel to the optical axis refract through the far focal point.
2. Incident rays passing through the center of the lens pass straight through the lens undeflected.
3. Incident rays passing through the near focal point refract parallel to the optical axis.

For each case shown below, sketch the ray diagram and complete the table describing the image.

Converging lens case #1: Object at 3F = 60 cm (scale: 4 cm per square)

Focal length Object distance Image Reduced or Inverted or Real or virtual?

distance enlarged? upright?
20 cm 60 cm

Converging lens case #2: Object at 2F = 40 cm (scale: 4 cm per square)

Focal length Object distance Image Reduced or Inverted or Real or virtual?

distance enlarged? upright?
20 cm 40 cm

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Converging lens case #3: Object at F = 20 cm (scale: 4 cm per square)

Focal length Object Image Reduced or Inverted or Real or

distance distance enlarged? upright? virtual?
20 cm 20 cm

Converging lens case #4: Object between F and lens, at 8 cm (scale: 4 cm per square)

Focal length Object Image Reduced or Inverted or Real or

distance distance enlarged? upright? virtual?
20 cm 8 cm

Questions
a. What type of image is produced when the object distance is greater than the focal length?

equal to the focal length?

less than the focal length?

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Part 2: Test the predicted image locations

1. Set up the optics equipment as

shown. Place the LED light
source (the “object”) at an
object distance of 60 cm from a
convex lens with a 20-cm focal
length.

2. Slide the screen along the track

on the far side of the lens until
the sharpest possible image is
projected onto the screen.

3. Measure the image distance and

compare it to your prediction.

4. Repeat for object distances of

40 cm and 20 cm.

Focal length Object Measured image Predicted image

distance distance distance
20 cm 60 cm
20 cm 40 cm
20 cm 20 cm

Questions
a. Do your actual measured image distances match your predictions?

b. What will the image distance be if you place the LED light source far away (such as several
meters)? Check your prediction by making the measurement.

c. Why can't you use an object distance of 10 cm with this technique?

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 Rules for ray tracing with diverging lens:
1. Incident rays parallel to the optical axis refract along a line passing through the near focal
point.
2. Incident rays passing through the center of the lens refract straight through the lens undeflected.
3. Incident rays directed towards the far focal point refract parallel to the optical axis.

Diverging lens example #1: Object at 2F

Focal length Object Image Reduced or Inverted or Real or

distance distance enlarged? upright? virtual?
-50 cm 1.0 m

Diverging lens example #2: Object at F

Focal length Object Image Reduced or Inverted or Real or

distance distance enlarged? upright? virtual?
-50 cm 50 cm

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Applying new knowledge
1. An object is placed 150 cm in front of a convex lens with focal length of 60 cm. What is the
resulting image distance? Draw the ray diagram and sketch the image.

2. Draw the ray diagram for an object placed 50 cm from a thin convex lens with a focal length of 70
cm. What are the image properties?

3. Draw a ray diagram for a thin convex lens with a focal length of 50 cm and an object distance of 80
cm. What are the image properties?

4. Write a multiple-choice question that tests the reader’s understanding of ray diagrams for a convex
lens. Possible rays may be described in words or shown in a figure.

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 Investigation 21D: Build a microscope and a telescope
Essential question: How do a microscope and telescope work?

The basic microscope and telescope are each a compound optical device that uses two lenses. The object is
imaged by the first (or objective) lens; this image is used as the object by the second (or eyepiece) lens.
By choosing particular types of objective and eyepiece lenses, and by separating the two lenses by a
suitable distance, both the microscope and the telescope can produce magnified images. Safety note:
never look directly at the Sun with either a microscope or telescope!

Part 1: Build a simple microscope

A microscope creates a magnified image of an object that is held near to the objective lens. Which lenses
create a microscope?

1. Use three lenses (illustrated above): two converging (convex) and one diverging (concave).
2. Using two lenses at a time, determine which two lenses create a microscope. By generating a
magnified image of an object (graph paper). Hold the lenses over the graph paper on your desk.
Keep the objective about 15 cm above the graph paper and the eyepiece lens close to your eye.
Move the eyepiece lens to try and magnify the object.

When you succeed, have your partner use a meter stick to measure and record the approximate
distances of the two lenses above the graph paper.

Objective lens Eyepiece lens

lens type position (m) focal length lens type position (m) focal lens
(convex or (distance (m) (convex (distance length separation
concave) from paper) or from paper) (m) (m)
concave)

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 3. Construct a microscope on the track.
 Using the approximate positions for the lenses and the object (the graph paper), construct the
microscope using the lenses, lens mounts, and the track.
 Instead of using the graph paper as an object, use written text on a piece of paper in a circular
lens mount.
 Adjust the lens positions by small amounts in order to increase the magnification of the
microscope—but without substantially distorting the quality of the image.
 Measure and record the final object distance and lens separation in the table below.

Objective lens Eyepiece lens

object lens focal object lens focal lens
position position length distance position length separation
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)

Questions
a. What kinds of lenses are used to make a microscope?

b. Which lens, if any, has a shorter focal length, the objective or the eyepiece?

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Part 2: Build a simple telescope

1. Use the same three lenses from the previous part (two converging and one diverging lens).
Holding two lenses at one time–one at arm’s length and the other close to your eye–determine
which two lenses can create a telescope that magnifies a distant object (such as a far wall). 1
Have your partner measure the approximate separation between the lenses in your hands.
Lenses that create a telescope: Lens 1: Lens 2:
Lens separation: meters

2. Construct your telescope on the track like the picture, using the distances above (to start).
The object should be located in the distance, such as text or graph paper on a far wall.
Make small adjustments to the lens positions in order to create a magnified and sharp image.
Measure the positions of the lenses. As best you can, measure the distance to the far object.

Objective lens Eyepiece lens

object lens lens focal lens lens focal lens
distance type position length type position length separation
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)

3. Devise a method to measure its magnification for a particular eye position.

Possible method: Draw dry erase marks 3 cm apart on the eyepiece lens. Have your partner
move pins on the far object to line up with these marks when you view the pins through the
telescope. Measure the distance between the two pins. Record your data below.

1
There are actually two ways to construct a telescope. If time permits, see if you can find a second method.

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Questions
a. What kinds of lenses are used to make a Galilean telescope? A Keplerian telescope?

b. Which lens (if any) has a shorter focal length, the objective or the eyepiece?

c. What is the magnification of your telescope?

d. Why is the diameter of a telescope’s objective usually much larger than the diameter of its
eyepiece? [Hint: look through your telescope. How big does the objective lens appear when you
are looking through the eyepiece?

Part 4: Model the simple telescope

1. Using a ray diagram, model the telescope you constructed by entering the object position, lens
focal lengths, and lens positions.
2. Modify the positions of the lenses by small amounts to see where the magnification becomes
large.
3. If the image in your actual telescope was inverted, then your model should also produce an
inverted image.

Questions
a. What position did you use for the object? Why?

b. What is the lens separation where you can obtain high magnifications?

c. How is this lens separation related to the focal lengths of the two lenses?

d. Write a multiple-choice question that tests the reader’s understanding of the difference(s)
between a microscope and telescope.

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 Investigation 26B: Phosphorescence
Essential question: What property of light is required to cause a material to phosphoresce?

Glow-in-the-dark plastic may seem like a toy, but it has powerful physics embedded into it! The science
behind it is called phosphorescence. A phosphorescent material glows for a while after it has been
previously exposed to light. In this short investigation you will explore what kind of light is necessary in
order to make the plastic phosphoresce. Why do some colors make it glow and others don't? Here's a
hint: think about what physical quantity is different for red versus green or blue light.

Making the material phosphoresce

1. For this investigation you will need a dark
room, since ambient light may cause the
plastic to glow. Pull the window shades
and turn off the overhead lights.
2. Turn on the red LED lamp and hold it
over the plastic material for a few seconds.
Then remove the lamp and see if the
material phosphoresces—glows in the
dark. Record your observations.
3. Repeat with the green LED lamp.
4. Repeat with the blue LED lamp.

Questions
a. Which color(s) of light caused the material to phosphoresce?

b. What is physically different about this color of light compared to a color that does not cause
phosphorescence?

c. Explain what property of the light you think is required to cause a material to glow in the dark.

d. Try turning on the classroom lights. Then turn them off. Does the material glow? Explain why
or why not.

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 e. Do you think that infrared light would cause this material to phosphoresce? Why or why not?
Describe an experiment using sunlight and a triangular prism that could test your hypothesis.

f. Do you think that ultraviolet light would cause this material to phosphoresce? Why or why not?
Describe an experiment that could test your hypothesis. What is the light source for your
experiment?

g. How is phosphorescence different from fluorescence? Research the topic to provide justification
for your explanation.

Applying new knowledge

1. How does the electron’s wave behavior explain quantized orbits?

2. The ground state of the hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV and the second energy level (n = 2) is -3.4 eV.
If an electron goes from the ground state in a hydrogen atom to n = 2, what is its change in
energy?
A. -17.0 eV B. -3.4 eV C. 3.4 eV D. 10.2 eV

3. Write a multiple-choice question that requires the reader to understand how electrons change energy
levels.

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