Mathematics

Functions

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Table of Content

1. Some Important Definitions.

2. Intervals.

3. Definition of Functions.

4. Domain, Co- domain and Range of Functions.

5. Algebra of Functions.

6. Kinds of Function.
7. Even & Odd Functions.
8. Periodic Function.

9. Composite Function.

10. Inverse Function.

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1. Some Important Definitions.

(1) Real numbers: Real numbers are those which are either rational or irrational. The set of real numbers
is denoted by R.
(i) Rational numbers: All numbers of the form p / q where p and q are integers and q  0, are called
2 5  4
rational numbers and their set is denoted by Q. e.g. , 4  as 4  are rational numbers.
3 2  1
(ii) Irrational numbers: Those are numbers which cannot be expressed in form of p / q are called
irrational numbers and their set is denoted by Q c (i.e., complementary set of Q) e.g. 2, 1  3 ,  are
irrational numbers.

(iii) Integers: The numbers …….– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …….. are called integers. The set of integers is
denoted by I or Z. Thus, I or Z = {…….,– 3, – 2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3,……}

Numbe
Real Number (R)

Rational Numbers (Q) Irrational Numbers (QC)

Integers (I or Z) Non-Integers

Negative Integers (I –) Zero Integers (I0) Positive Integers (I+) or Natural number (N)

Whole Numbers (W)

Note: Set of positive integers I+ = {1, 2, 3, ...}

Set of negative integers I– = {– 1, – 2, – 3, ……}.
Set of non-negative integers = {0, 1, 2, 3, ..}
Set of non-positive integers = {0, – 1, – 2, – 3,…..}
Positive real numbers: R   (0, )  Negative real numbers: R   (, 0)
R 0 : All real numbers except 0 (Zero)  Imaginary numbers: C  {i,  ,....}
Even numbers: E  {0 , 2, 4 , 6 ,......}  Odd numbers: 0  {1, 3, 5 , 7 ,......}
Prime numbers: The natural numbers greater than 1 which is divisible by 1 and itself only, called prime numbers.
In rational numbers the digits are repeated after decimal
0 (zero) is a rational number

2
In irrational numbers, digits are not repeated after decimal
 and e are called special irrational quantities
 is neither a rational number nor an irrational number

(2) Related quantities: When two quantities are such that the change in one is accompanied by the
change in other, i.e., if the value of one quantity depends upon the other, then they are called related
quantities. e.g. The area of a circle ( A  r 2 ) depends upon its radius (r) as soon as the radius of the
circle increases (or decreases), its area also increases (or decreases). In the given example, A and r are
related quantities.

(3) Variable: A variable is a symbol which can assume any value out of a given set of values. The
quantities, like height, weight, time, temperature, profit, sales etc. are examples of variables. The
variables are usually denoted by x, y, z, u, v, w, t etc. There are two types of variables mainly:
(i) Independent variable: A variable which can take any arbitrary value, is called independent variable.
(ii) Dependent variable: A variable whose value depends upon the independent variable is called
dependent variable. E.g. y  x 2 , if x = 2 then y = 4  so value of y depends on x. y is dependent and x is
independent variable here.

(4) Constant: A constant is a symbol which does not change its value, i.e., retains the same value
throughout a set of mathematical operation. These are generally denoted by a, b, c etc. There are two
types of constant.
(i) Absolute constant: A constant which remains the same throughout a set of mathematical operation
is known as absolute constant. All numerical numbers are absolute constants, i.e. 2, 3,  etc. are
absolute constants.
(ii) Arbitrary constant: A constant which remains same in a particular operation, but changes with the
change of reference, is called arbitrary constant e.g. y  mx  c represents a line. Here m and c are
constants, but they are different for different lines. Therefore, m and c are arbitrary constants.

(5) Absolute value: The absolute value of a number x, denoted by |x|, is a number that satisfies the
conditions
 x if x  0

| x |   0 if x  0 . We also define |x| as follows, |x|= maximum {x, – x} or |x|= x 2
 x if x  0

The properties of absolute value are
3
(i) The inequality | x |  a means  a  x  a (ii) The inequality | x |  a means x  a or
x  a
(iii) | x  y | | x |  | y | and | x  y | | x |  | y | (iv) | xy | | x || y |

x | x|
(v)  ,y  0
y | y|

(6) Greatest integer: Let x  R . Then [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x; e.g. [1.34]
=1, [– 4.57] = – 5, [0.69] = 0 etc.
(7) Fractional part: We know that x  [x ]. the difference between the number ‘x’ and its integral value
‘[x]’ is called the fractional part of x and is symbolically denoted as {x}. Thus, { x }  x  [ x ]
e.g., if x = 4.92 then [x] = 4 and {x} = 0.92.

Note: Fractional part of any number is always non-negative and less than one.

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2. Intervals.
If a variable x assumes any real value between two given numbers, say a and b (a<b) as its value, then x
is called a continuous variable. The set of real numbers which lie between two specific numbers, is called
the interval.

There are four types of interval:

(1) Open interval: Let a and b be two real (2) Closed interval: Let a and b be two real
numbers such that a<b, then the set of all real numbers such that a<b, then the set of all
numbers lying strictly between a and b is real numbers lying between a and b
called an open interval and is denoted by] a, b including a and b is called a closed interval
[or (a, b). Thus, ]a, b[ or (a, b) = and is denoted by [a, b]. Thus, [a, b] =
{ x  R : a  x  b} a<x<b { x  R : a  x  b}
( )
a b [ ]
Open a b
Closed
(3) Open-Closed interval : It is denoted by ]a, b] (4) Closed-Open interval : It is denoted by [a,
or (a, b] and ]a, b] or (a, b] = b[ or [a, b) and [a, b[ or [a, b) =
{ x  R : a  x  b} { x  R : a  x  b}
( ] [ )
a a b
b
Closed open
Open closed

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3. Definition of Function.

(1) Function can be easily defined with the help of the concept of mapping. Let X and Y be any two non-
empty sets. “A function from X to Y is a rule or correspondence that assigns to each element of set X,
one and only one element of set Y”. Let the correspondence be ‘f’ then mathematically we write
f : X  Y where y  f (x ), x  X and y  Y . We say that ‘y’ is the image of ‘x’ under f (or x is the pre
image of y).

Two things should always be kept in mind:

(i) A mapping f : X  Y is said to be a function if each element in the set X has its image in set Y. It is
also possible that there are few elements in set Y which are not the images of any element in set X.
(ii) Every element in set X should have one and only one image. That means it is impossible to have
more than one image for a specific element in set X. Functions cannot be multi-valued (A mapping that
is multi-valued is called a relation from X and Y) e.g.

Set X Set Set X Set

a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3

Function Function
Set X Set Set X Set Y

a 1 a 1

b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3

Not function Not function

(2) Testing for a function by vertical line test: A relation f : A  B is a function or not it can be
checked by a graph of the relation. If it is possible to draw a vertical line which cuts the given curve at
more than one point then the given relation is not a function and when this vertical line means line
parallel to Y-axis cuts the curve at only one point then it is a function. Figure (iii) and (iv) represents a
function.

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 Y Y Y Y

X X
O
X X X X X X
O O O

Y Y Y Y
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(3) Number of functions: Let X and Y be two finite sets having m and n elements respectively. Then
each element of set X can be associated to any one of n elements of set Y. So, total number of functions
from set X to set Y is n m .
(4) Value of the function: If y  f (x ) is a function then to find its values at some value of x, say
x  a, we directly substitute x = a in its given rule f (x ) and it is denoted by f (a) .
e.g. If f (x )  x 2  1, then f (1)  1 2  1  2, f (2)  2 2  1  5, f (0)  0 2  1  1 etc.

4. Domain, Co-domain and Range of Function.

If a function f is defined from a set of A to set B then for f : A  B set A is called the domain of function f
and set B is called the co-domain of function f. The set of all f-images of the elements of A is called the
range of function f.
In other words, we can say Domain = All possible values of x for which f(x) exists.
Range = For all values of x, all possible values of f(x).

A B
f Domain = {a, b, c, d} = A
a p
q Co-domain = {p, q, r, s} = B
Range b
c r Range = {p, q, r}
d s
Domain
Co-domain

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(1) Methods for finding domain and range of function
(i) Domain

(a) Expression under even root (i.e., square root, fourth root etc.)  0

(b) Denominator  0.

(c) If domain of y  f (x ) and y  g (x ) are D1 and D 2 respectively then the domain of f ( x )  g ( x ) or

f (x ). g (x ) is D1  D2 .

f (x )
(d) While domain of is D1  D 2  {g(x )  0}.
g (x )

(e) Domain of  
f ( x )  D1  {x : f (x )  0}

(ii) Range: Range of y  f (x ) is collection of all outputs f (x ) corresponding to each real number in the
domain.

(a) If domain  finite number of points  range  set of corresponding f (x ) values.

(b) If domain  R or R – [some finite points]. Then express x in terms of y. From this find y for x to be
defined (i.e., find the values of y for which x exists).

(c) If domain  a finite interval, find the least and greatest value for range using monotonicity.

Important Tips

 If f(x) is a given function of x and if a is in its domain of definition, then by f(a) it means the number
obtained by replacing x by a in f(x) or the value assumed by f(x) when x = a.
 Range is always a subset of co-domain.

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5. Algebra of Functions.

Let f (x ) and g (x ) be two real and single-valued functions, with domains X f , X g and ranges Y f and Y g
respectively. Let X  X f  X g   . Then, the following operations are defined.

(1) Scalar multiplication of a function: (c f )( x )  c f (x ), where c is a scalar. The new function c f (x ) has
the domain X f .

(2) Addition/subtraction of functions: ( f  g)( x )  f ( x )  g(x ). The new function has the domain X.
(3) Multiplication of functions: ( fg)(x )  (g f )(x )  f ( x )g ( x ). The product function has the domain X.
(4) Division of functions:
f f (x )
(i)   ( x )  . The new function has the domain X, except for the values of x for which
g g(x )
g (x )  0 .

g g(x )
(ii)   ( x )  . The new function has the domain X, except for the values of x for which f ( x )  0 .
f f (x )

(5) Equal functions: Two function f and g are said to be equal functions, if and only if
(i) Domain of f = domain of g
(ii) Co-domain of f = co-domain of g
(iii) f (x )  g( x ) x  their common domain

(6) Real valued function: If R, be the set of real numbers and A, B are subsets of R, then the function
f : A  B is called a real function or real –valued function.

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6. Kinds of Function.

(1) One-one function (injection): A function f : A  B is said to be a one-one function or an injection,

if different elements of A have different images in B. Thus, f : A  B is one-one.

 a  b  f (a)  f (b) For all a, b  A  f (a)  f (b)  a  b for all a, b  A .

E.g. Let f : A  B and g : X  Y be two functions represented by the following diagrams.

A B X Y
f g
a1 b1 x1 y1
a2 b2 x2 y2
b3 y3
a3 x3
b4 y4
a4 x4
b5 y5

Clearly, f : A  B is a one-one function. But g : X  Y is not one-one function because two distinct
elements x 1 and x 3 have the same image under function g.

(i) Method to check the injectivity of a function

Step I: Take two arbitrary elements x, y (say) in the domain of f.
Step II: Put f (x )  f (y ).
Step III: Solve f (x )  f (y ). If f (x )  f (y ) gives x = y only, then f : A  B is a one-one function (or an
injection). Otherwise not.

Note: If function is given in the form of ordered pairs and if two ordered pairs do not have same second element
then function is one-one.

If the graph of the function y  f (x ) is given and each line parallel to x-axis cuts the given curve at maximum one
point then function is one-one. e.g.

Y Y

(0, 1)
X X X
O O X
f (x) = ax (0 < a < 1)
f(x) = ax + b
Y Y
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(ii) Number of one-one functions (injections) : If A and B are finite sets having m and n elements
 n P , if n  m
respectively, then number of one-one functions from A to B =  m
 0 , if n  m
(2) Many-one function: A function f : A  B is said to be a many-one function if two or more
elements of set A have the same image in B.
Thus, f : A  B is a many-one function if there exist x , y  A such that x  y but f (x )  f (y ).
In other words, f : A  B is a many-one function if it is not a one-one function.

A B X Y
f b1 g
a1 x1 y1
a2 b2 x2 y2
b3 y3
a3 x3
b4 y4
a4 b5 x4
a5 b6 x5 y5

Note: If function is given in the form of set of ordered pairs and the second element of atleast two ordered pairs
are same then function is many-one.

 If the graph of y  f (x ) is given and the line parallel to x-axis cuts the curve at more than one point
then function is many-one.

Y Y

Y Y

X X X X
O f (x) = x2 f (x) = |x| X
O
Y Y

 If the domain of the function is in one quadrant then the trigonometrical functions are always one-
one.

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 If trigonometrical function changes its sign in two consecutive quadrants then it is one-one but if it
does not change the sign then it is many-one.

f : (0,  ), f (x )  sin x Y f : (0,  ), f (x )  cos x Y

one-one
Y many-one Y
+ /2
X X
+ + – X
O
X X

/2
OY
Y

 In three consecutive quadrants trigonometrical functions are always many-one.

(3) Onto function (surjection): A function f : A  B is onto if each element of B has its pre-image in A.
Therefore, if f 1 (y)  A, y  B then function is onto. In other words, Range of f = Co-domain of f.
E.g. The following arrow-diagram shows onto function.

A B X Y
f x1 g
a1 b1 y1
a2
x2 y2
b2
x3
a3 b3 x4 y3

(i) Number of onto function (surjection) : If A and B are two sets having m and n elements
n
nr n
respectively such that 1  n  m , then number of onto functions from A to B is  (1) Cr r m .
r 1

(4) Into function: A function f : A  B is an into function if there exists an element in B having no pre-
image in A.
In other words, f : A  B is an into function if it is not an onto function.

E.g. The following arrow-diagram shows into function.

A B X Y
f x1 g
a b1 y1
x2 y2
a2 b2
y3
a3 b3 x3 y4

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(i) Method to find onto or into function
(a) If range = co-domain, then f (x ) is onto and if range is a proper subset of the co-domain, then
f (x ) is into.

(b) Solve f (x )  y by taking x as a function of y i.e., g(y ) (say).

(c) Now if g(y ) is defined for each y  co-domain and g(y )  domain for y  co-domain, then f (x ) is
onto and if any one of the above requirements is not fulfilled, then f (x ) is into.

(5) One-one onto function (bijection): A function f : A  B is a bijection if it is one-one as well as

onto. A B

In other words, a function f : A  B is a bijection if a1 f b1

a2 b2
(i) It is one-one i.e., f (x )  f (y )  x  y for all x , y  A. a3 b3
a4 b4
(ii) It is onto i.e., for all y  B , there exists x  A such that f (x )  y .
Clearly, f is a bijection since it is both injective as well as surjective.
Number of one-one onto function (bijection): If A and B are finite sets and f : A  B is a bijection,
then A and B have the same number of elements. If A has n elements, then the number of bijection from
A to B is the total number of arrangements of n items taken all at a time i.e. n!.

(6) Algebraic functions: Functions consisting of finite number of terms involving powers and roots of
the independent variable and the four fundamental operations +, –, × and  are called algebraic
functions.
3
x 1
2
e.g., (i) x  5 x (ii) ,x 1 (iii) 3 x 4  5 x  7
x 1
The algebraic functions can be classified as follows:

(i) Polynomial or integral function: It is a function of the form a0 x n  a1 x n 1  ....  an 1 x  an ,

Where a0  0 and a0 , a1 ,......... , an are constants and n  N is called a polynomial function of degree n

E.g. f (x )  x 3  2 x 2  x  3 is a polynomial function.

Note: The polynomial of first degree is called a linear function and polynomial of zero degree is called a constant
function.

13
(ii) Rational function: The quotient of two polynomial functions is called the rational function. E.g.
x2 1
f (x )  is a rational function.
2x 3  x 2  1
(iii) Irrational function: An algebraic function which is not rational is called an irrational function. E.g.
x3  x
f ( x )  x  x  6, g( x )  are irrational functions.
1  x1/4

(7) Transcendental function: A function which is not algebraic is called a transcendental function. e.g.,
trigonometric; inverse trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions are all transcendental
functions.
(i) Trigonometric functions: A function is said to be a trigonometric function if it involves circular
functions (sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and
Y
cosecant) of variable angles.
(a) Sine function: The function that associates to each X’ X

real numbers x to sin x is called the sine function. Here

x is the radian measure of the angle. The domain of the Y’

sine function is R and the range is [–1, 1].

(b) Cosine function: The function that associates to each real number x to cos x is called the cosine
function. Here x is the radian measure of the angle. The domain of the cosine function is R and the range
is [– 1, 1].

X’ X

Y’

(c) Tangent function: The function that associates a real number x to tan x is called the tangent
function.

14
Clearly, the tangent function is not defined at odd multiples
Y
  3
of i.e.,  ,  etc. So, the domain of the tangent
2 2 2
X’ X

function is R  {(2n  1) | n  I} . Since it takes every value
2
between   and  . So, the range is R. Graph of f ( x )  tan x
Y’
is shown in figure.

(d) Cosecant function: The function that associates a real number x to cosecx is called the cosecant
function.
Y
Clearly, cosec x is not defined at x  n  , n  I . i.e.,
0,   ,  2 ,  3 etc. So, its domain is R  {n  | n  I} .
X’ X
Since cosec x  1 or cosec x  1 . Therefore, range is
(,  1]  [1, ) . Graph of f (x )  cosec x is shown in figure.

Y’

(e) Secant function: The function that associates a real number x to sec x is called the secant function.

Clearly, sec x is not defined at odd multiples of Y
2

i.e., (2  1) , where n  I. so, its domain is X’ X
2

R  {(2n  1) | n  I}. Also, | sec x |  1, therefore its
2
Y
range is (,  1]  [1, ). Graph of f ( x )  sec x is
shown in figure.

(f) Cotangent function: The function that associates a real number x to cot x is called the cotangent
function. Clearly, cot x is not defined at x  n  , n  I i.e., at n  0,   ,  2 etc. So, domain of cot x is
R  {n  | n  I}. the range of f (x )  cot x is R as is evident from its graph in figure.

X’ X

Y’

15
(ii) Inverse trigonometric functions

Function Domain Range Definition of the function

sin 1 x [1, 1] [ /2,  /2] y  sin 1 x  x  sin y

cos 1 x [–1, 1] [0, ] y  cos 1 x  x  cos y

tan 1 x (–, ) or R (–/2, /2) y  tan 1 x  x  tan y

cot 1 x (–, ) or R (0, ) y  cot 1 x  x  cot y

cosec 1 x R – (–1, 1) [ /2,  /2]  {0} y  cosec 1 x  x  cosec y

sec 1 x R – (–1, 1) [0,  ]  [ /2] y  sec 1 x  x  sec y

(iii) Exponential function: Let a  1 be a positive real number. Then f : R  (0, ) defined by f (x )  a x is
called exponential function. Its domain is R and range is (0, ) .

Y
Y
a>1 a<1

(0, 1) f(x) = ax f(x) = ax (0, 1)

X X X X
O O

Y Y

graph of when a > 1 graph of when a < 1

(iv) Logarithmic function: Let a  1 be a positive real number. Then f : (0, )  R defined by
f (x )  log a x is called logarithmic function. Its domain is (0, ) and range is R.
Y Y

f(x) = loga x

(1, 0)
X X X X
O (1, 0) O
f(x) = loga x

Y Y
graph of when a > 1 graph of when a < 1

16
(8) Explicit and implicit functions: A function is said to be explicit if it can be expressed directly in
terms of the independent variable. If the function cannot be expressed directly in terms of the
independent variable or variables, then the function is said to be implicit. E.g. y  sin 1 x  log x is explicit
function, while x 2  y 2  xy and x 3 y 2  (a  x )2 (b  y)2 are implicit functions.

(9) Constant function: Let k be a fixed real number. (10) Identity function: The function defined by
Then a function f(x) given by f (x )  k for all x  R is f (x )  x for all x  R , is called the identity function
called a constant function. The domain of the on R. Clearly, the domain and range of the identity
constant function f (x )  k is the complete set of real function is R.
numbers and the range of f is the singleton set {k}. The graph of the identity function is a straight line
The graph of a constant function is a straight line passing through the origin and inclined at an angle
parallel to x-axis as shown in figure and it is above or of 45o with positive direction of x-axis.
below the x-axis according as k is positive or
negative. If k = 0, then the straight line coincides Y

with x-axis.
Y f (x) = x
X X
k f (x) = k
X X
O
Y

Y

(11) Modulus function: The function defined by (12) Greatest integer function: Let f (x )  [ x ], where
 x , when x  0 [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to
f ( x ) | x |   is called the modulus
-x , when x  0 x. The domain is R and the range is I. e.g. [1.1] = 1,
function. The domain of the modulus function is the [2.2] = 2, [– 0.9] = –1, [– 2.1] = – 3 etc. The function f
set R of all real numbers and the range is the set of defined by f (x )  [ x ] for all x  R , is called the
all non-negative real numbers. greatest integer function. Y
Y 3
2
f (x) =– x f (x) = x 1
X’ X
X X –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
O –1
–2
–3
Y’
Y

17
 (13) Signum function: The function defined by (14) Reciprocal function: The function that
| x |  1, x  0 associates each non-zero real number x to be
 , x 0  1
f(x )   x or f ( x )   0, x  0 is called reciprocal is called the reciprocal function. The
0 , x  0  1, x  0 x
 
domain and range of the reciprocal function are both
the signum function. The domain is R and the range
equal to R  {0} i.e., the set of all non-zero real
is the set {–1, 0, 1}.
Y numbers. The graph is as shown. Y
(0, 1) f (x) =1/ x

X X
O O
X X
O
(0, –1)
Y

Y

Domain and Range of Some Standard Functions

Function Domain Range

Polynomial function R R
Identity function x R R
Constant function K R {K}
1 R0 R0
Reciprocal function
x
x 2 ,| x | R R+ {0}
x 3, x| x | R R
Signum function R {1, 0, 1}
x| x | R R+ {0}
x | x | R R– {0}
[x ] R I
x  [x ] R [0, 1)
x [0, ) R
ax R R+
log x R+ R
sin x R [1, 1]

cos x R [1, 1]

tan x   3  R
R –  ,  ,......... 
 2 2 

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 cot x R – {0,   ,  2 ,......... .....} R
sec x   3  R –(–1, 1)
R –  ,  ,......... .... 
 2 2 
cosec x R – 0,   ,  2 ,......... ..... R – ( – 1, 1)
sin1 x [1, 1]   
 2 , 2
 
cos 1 x [1, 1] [0,  ]

tan 1 x R    
 , 
 2 2
cot 1 x R (0,  )

sec 1 x R– (1, 1)  
[0,  ]   
2
cosec 1 x R– (1, 1)   
 2 , 2   {0}
 

Important Tips
 Any function, which is entirely increasing or decreasing in the whole of a domain, is one-one.
 Any continuous function f(x), which has at least one local maximum or local minimum, is many-one.
 If any line parallel to the x-axis cuts the graph of the function at most at one point, then the function
is one-one and if there exists a line which is parallel to the x-axis and cuts the graph of the function in at
least two points, then the function is many-one.
 Any polynomial function f : R  R is onto if degree of f is odd and into if degree of f is even.
 An into function can be made onto by redefining the co-domain as the range of the original
function.

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7. Even and Odd function.

(1) Even function: If we put (–x) in place of x in the given function and if f ( x )  f (x ) , x  domain then
function f(x) is called even function.
E.g. f (x )  e x  e  x , f (x )  x 2 , f (x )  x sin x , f (x )  cos x , f (x )  x 2 cos x all are even function.

(2) Odd function: If we put (–x) in place of x in the given function and if f ( x )   f ( x ), x  domain
then f(x) is called odd function. e.g. f (x )  e x  e  x , f (x )  sin x , f (x )  x 3 , f (x )  x cos x , f (x )  x 2 sin x all
are odd function.

Important Tips
 The graph of even function is always symmetric with respect to y-axis.
 The graph of odd function is always symmetric with respect to origin.
 The product of two even functions is an even function.
 The sum and difference of two even functions is an even function.
 The sum and difference of two odd functions is an odd function.
 The product of two odd functions is an even function.
 The product of an even and an odd function is an odd function
 It is not essential that every function is even or odd. It is possible to have some functions
which are neither even nor odd function. E.g. f(x) = x2+ x3, f(x) = loge x, f(x) = ex.
 The sum of even and odd function is neither even nor odd function.
 Zero function f(x) = 0 is the only function which is even and odd both.

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8. Periodic Function.

A function is said to be periodic function if its each value is repeated after a definite interval. So a
function f(x) will be periodic if a positive real number T exist such that, f (x  T )  f (x ), x  domain. Here
the least positive value of T is called the period of the function. Clearly
f (x )  f (x  T )  f (x  2T )  f (x  3 T )  ..... . E.g. sin x , cos x , tan x are periodic functions with period 2 , 2

and  respectively.

Some standard results on periodic functions

Functions Periods

(1) sin n x , cos n x , sec n x , cosec n x  ; if n is even

2 ; if n is odd or fraction

(2) tan n x , cot n x  ; n is even or odd.

| sin x |, | cos x |, | tan x |, 

(3)
| cot x |, | sec x |, | cosec x |

(4) x  [x ] 1

(5) Algebraic functions e.g., x , x 2 , x 3  5,.... etc Period does not exist

Important Tips
 If f(x) is periodic with period T, then c.f(x) is periodic with period T, f(x + c) is periodic with period T
and f(x)  c is periodic with period T. where c is any constant.
T
 If a function f(x) has a period T, then the function f (ax+b) will have a period .
| a|

1
 If f(x) is periodic with period T then is also periodic with same period T.
f (x )

 If f(x) is periodic with period T, f (x ) is also periodic with same period T.

 If f(x) is periodic with period T, then a f(x) + b, where a, b  R (a  0) is also a periodic function with
period T.

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 If f1(x), f2(x), f3(x) are periodic functions with periods T1, T2, T3 respectively then; we have
h(x )  af1 ( x )  bf2 ( x )  cf3 ( x ) , has period as,
L.C.M.of {T1 , T2 , T3 }; if h (x ) is not an even function

 1
 L.C.M. of {T1 , T2 , T3 }; if h (x ) is an even function
2

9. Composite Function.

If f : A  B and g : B  C are two function then the composite function of f and g,

gof A  C will be defined as gof (x )  g [ f (x )], x  A

(1) Properties of composition of function:

(i) f is even, g is even  fog even function.
(ii) f is odd, g is odd  fog is odd function.
(iii) f is even, g is odd  fog is even function.
(iv) f is odd, g is even  fog is even function.
(v) Composite of functions is not commutative i.e. fog  gof
(vi) Composite of functions is associative i.e. ( fog )oh  fo(goh)
(vii) If f : A  B is bijection and g : B  A is inverse of f. Then fog  I B and gof  I A .
Where, I A and I B are identity functions on the sets A and B respectively.
(viii) If f : A  B and g : B  C are two bijections, then gof : A  C is bijection and
(gof )1  ( f 1 og 1 ).
(ix) fog  gof but if , fog  gof then either f 1  g or g 1  f also, ( fog ) (x )  (gof ) ( x )  (x ).

Important Tips
 gof(x) is simply the g-image of f(x), where f(x) is f-image of elements x A.
 Function gof will exist only when range of f is the subset of domain of g.
 fog does not exist if range of g is not a subset of domain of f.
 fog and gof may not be always defined.
 If both f and g are one-one, then fog and gof are also one-one.
 If both f and g are onto, then gof is onto.

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10. Inverse Function.

If f : A  B be a one-one onto (bijection) function, then the mapping f 1 : B  A which associates each
element b  B with element a  A, such that f (a)  b, is called the inverse function of the function
f:AB

f 1 : B  A, f 1 (b)  a  f (a)  b
In terms of ordered pairs inverse function is defined as f 1  (b, a) if (a, b)  f .

Note: For the existence of inverse function, it should be one-one and onto.

Important Tips

 Inverse of a bijection is also a bijection function.

 Inverse of a bijection is unique.
 (f–1)–1= f
 If f and g are two bijections such that (gof) exists then (gof)–1=f–1og–1.
 If f: A B is a bijection then f–1: B  A is an inverse function of f. f–1of = IA and fof–1=IB. Here IA, is an
identity function on set A, and IB, is an identity function on set B.

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