LECTURE 9:

AIR POLLUTION &

METEOROLOGY
CE 433

Excerpts from Lecture notes of Professor M. Ashraf Ali, BUET.

The Layers of the Atmosphere
The Layers of the Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is generally divided into
• Lower atmosphere, and
• Upper atmosphere
• The lower atmosphere is generally considered to extend up to
the top of the “stratosphere”, an altitude of about 50 km
• Study of lower atmosphere is generally considered to extend
up to the top of the “Stratosphere”, an altitude of about 50 km.
• Study of lower atmosphere is known as “Meteorology”. Study
of the upper atmosphere is called “Aeronomy”.
• The earth’s atmosphere is characterized by variations of
temperature and pressure with height. In fact, the variation of
the average temperature profile with altitude is the basis for
distinguishing the layers of the atmosphere.
Air Pollution and Meteorology
• Air Quality often depends on
the dynamics of the
atmosphere, the study of which
is called “meteorology”.
• Lapse Rates:
The ease with which pollutants
can disperse in the atmosphere
is largely determined by the rate
of change of air temperature with
altitude.
In the troposphere, the temp of
ambient air usually decreases
with an increase in altitude. This
rate of temp change is called
“lapse rate” (or ambient lapse
rate, ∧)
Air Pollution and Meteorology
• A specific parcel of air whose temp. is greater than that of
the ambient air tends to rise until it reaches a level at
which its own temperature and density equals to that of
the atmosphere that surround it.
• Thus a parcel of artificially heated air (e.g. automobile
exhaust) rises, expands, becomes lighter and cools. The
rate at which the temp of the parcel decreases (i.e. lapse
rate) may be considerably different from the ambient
lapse rate (∧)of the air. The lapse rate for the rising
parcel of air may be determined theoretically. For this
calculation, the cooling process within rising parcel of air
is assumed to be “adiabatic” (ie. Occurring without the
addition or loss of heat). This is called “adiabatic lapse
rate” (Γ).
Determination of Adiabatic lapse
rate
• “Γ” serves as a reference temp profile against which we compare actual profiles.

• For determination of Γ, we need:

• i) Ideal gas law
• Ii) Hydrostatic Equation
• Iii) 1st law of thermodynamics

Considering air as an ideal gas, we can write

………………………………….(1)

ρ = mass density of air (kg/m3)

R = universal gas constant = 8.134 J/°K/mole
Ma = Mol weight of air = 28.97 g/mol
Determination of Adiabatic lapse
rate
• The pressure at any height is due to the weight of air
above. Change in pressure with height is given by
“hydrostatic equation” as follows:

• ……………….(2)

• Combining (1) and (2) ,

• ………………(3)
Determination of Adiabatic lapse
rate
• Now from first law of thermodynamics:
du = dQ –dW …………………(4)

Where, du = change in internal energy = Cv.dT

Cv = heat capacity of system at constant volume
dQ = heat input to the system across its boundaries
= 0 for adiabatic condition
dW = energy lost by the system to the surroundings
as a result of work done ot alter the volume of
system = P.dV
Adiabatic lapse rate
• Γ = 0.976 °c /100 m
= 9.76 °c /km
= 5.4 °F /1000 ft
Dry adiabatic lapse rate. (often
taken as 1 °c /100 m)
• In moist atmosphere, because
of the release of latent heat of
vaporization, a saturated parcel
cools on rising at a slower rate
than a dry parcel.

• So, Γdry>Γwet
Atmospheric stability
• Unstable
atmosphere
• ∧>Γ
Atmospheric Stability
• Stable Atmosphere
• ∧<Γ
Atmospheric Stability
• Neutral Atmosphere
• ∧=Γ
Atmospheric Stability
 Temperature Inversion
• Since Γdry>Γwet , a moist
atmosphere is inherently
less stable than a dry
atmosphere. Thus a
stable situation with
reference to Γdry may
actually be unstable for
upward displacement of a
saturated air parcel.
Temperature Inversion
• Radiation Inversion: Arises from unequal cooling rates of
the earth and the air above the earth. Usually a nocturnal
phenomenon that breaks up easily with the rays of the
morning sun. Radiation inversion prompts the formation of
fog and simultaneously traps gases and particulates,
creating a concentration of pollutants.

• Subsidence Inversion: Usually associated with a high

pressure system. As the high pressure air descends, it is
compressed and heated, forming a blanket of warm air
over the cooler air below and thus creating an inversion
that prevents further vertical movement of air.
Lapse Rates and Dispersion
• By comparing the ambient lapse rate to the adiabatic
lapse rate, it may be possible to predict what will happen
to gases emitted from a stack.
Unstable atmosphere

Neutrally stable
atmosphere

Stable atmosphere

Smokestack above
inversion layer

Inversion: Smokestack
under inversion layer

Smokestack between two

stable layers
Lapse Rates and Dispersion

• Fumigating plumes can lead to greatly elevated

down-wind, ground level concentration
• Lofting plumes are helpful in terms of exposure to
people at ground level.
• Thus a common approach to air pollution control has
been to build taller stacks to emit pollutant, above
inversion layers. However, pollutants released from tall
stacks can travel long distances, so that effects such as
acid deposition can be felt hundreds of miles from the
source.
Atmospheric Stability and Mixing Depth
• The amount of air
available to dilute
pollutants is related to the
wind speed and to the
extent to which emissions
can rise into the
atmosphere.
• An estimate of this
(dilution process) can be
obtained by determining
“maximum mixing depth”
 Estimation of Mixing Depth/Height

• The point at which

the parcel cooling
at the dry
adiabatic lapse
rate intersects the
ambient
temperature profile
“line” is known as
the “mixing depth”
 Ventilation Coefficient (VC):
An estimate of the dilution potential of a
plume
Ventilation Coefficient (VC) = Mixing depth (m) * Avg. wind
speed within mixing depth (m/s)

[Wind speed varies with depth. Usually wind speed at the mid-
height of mixing depth is taken as the “avg. wind speed”]

Ventilation Coefficient is used as an indicator of the

atmosphere’s dispersive capability.

If, Ventilation Coefficient < 6,000 m2/s, air pollution potential

is considered to be high.
 Atmospheric Stability
Classes
Class Description
A Very
B unstable
C Moderately
D unstable Slightly
E unstable Neutral
F Slightly
stable Stable

a
Surface wind speed is measured at 10 m above the ground
b
Corresponds to clear summer day with sun higher than 60 ° above the horizon
c
Corresponds to a summer day with a few broken clouds, of a clear day with sun 35-60 ° above horizon
d
Corresponds to a fall afternoon, or a cloudy summer day, or a clear summer day with sun 15-35 ° above
horizon
e
Cloudiness is defined as the fraction of sky covered by clouds
f
For A-B, B-C, or C-D conditions, average the values obtained for each

Source: Turner (1970)

 Wind speed at any height z (from ground surface), is given
by: ū(z) = ūo (z/zo)p ; usually valid for up to few
hundred
meter above ground level
where,
ū(z) = wind speed at height z
ūo = wind speed at instrument height
zo = instrument height (usually 10 m)
p = a factor which depends on
stability condition of atmosphere,
and can be taken from Table 7.7
Problem
• Suppose the ambient atmospheric temp profile of an area
is given by the following equation:
∧(°C) = 30 – 0.005z, when z = altitude in m.
If maximum surface temperature is 34°C and average
wind speed is 5.7 m/s, estimate the ventilation coefficient
and comment on the pollution potential.
[Given, Stability Class= B, p=0.15].
 Example Problem
2) On a particular day, ambient atmospheric
temperature profile is given by the following
equations:
Λ (°C) = 29 + 0.04z , z ≤ 275 Eq. 1
= 40 – 0.005 (z – 275) m Eq. 2
where, z = altitude in m , z > 275 m

Determine up to what height a plume is expected to rise if it

is emitted under the following conditions:
(a) A plume emitted at a temperature of 42 °C from ground
level; (b) A plume emitted at a temperature of 42 °C from the
top of a 100 m high stack.