Chapter 3

Design in reinforced
concrete to BS 8110

This chapter is concerned with the detailed design of the recommendations given in various documents
reinforced concrete elements to British Standard 8110. including BS 5400: Part 4: Code of practice for
A general discussion of the different types of commonly design of concrete bridges, BS 8007: Code of prac-
occurring beams, slabs, walls, foundations and col- tice for the design of concrete structures for retaining
umns is given together with a number of fully worked aqueous liquids and BS 8110: Structural use of con-
examples covering the design of the following elements: crete. Since the primary aim of this book is to give
singly and doubly reinforced beams, continuous beams, guidance on the design of structural elements, this
one-way and two-way spanning solid slabs, pad founda- is best illustrated by considering the contents of
tion, cantilever retaining wall and short braced columns BS 8110.
supporting axial loads and uni-axial or bi-axial bend- BS 8110 is divided into the following three parts:
ing. The section which deals with singly reinforced beams
is, perhaps, the most important since it introduces the Part 1: Code of practice for design and construction.
design procedures and equations which are common to Part 2: Code of practice for special circumstances.
the design of the other elements mentioned above, with Part 3: Design charts for singly reinforced beams, doubly
the possible exception of columns. reinforced beams and rectangular columns.
Part 1 covers most of the material required for
everyday design. Since most of this chapter is
3.1 Introduction concerned with the contents of Part 1, it should
Reinforced concrete is one of the principal materials be assumed that all references to BS 8110 refer to
used in structural design. It is a composite material, Part 1 exclusively. Part 2 covers subjects such as
consisting of steel reinforcing bars embedded in torsional resistance, calculation of deflections and
concrete. These two materials have complementary estimation of crack widths. These aspects of design
properties. Concrete, on the one hand, has high are beyond the scope of this book and Part 2, there-
compressive strength but low tensile strength. Steel fore, is not discussed here. Part 3 of BS 8110 con-
bars, on the other, can resist high tensile stresses tains charts for use in the design of singly reinforced
but will buckle when subjected to comparatively beams, doubly reinforced beams and rectangular
low compressive stresses. Steel is much more columns. A number of design examples illustrating
expensive than concrete. By providing steel bars the use of these charts are included in the relevant
predominantly in those zones within a concrete sections of this chapter.
member which will be subjected to tensile stresses,
an economical structural material can be produced
which is both strong in compression and strong 3.2 Objectives and scope
in tension. In addition, the concrete provides cor-
rosion protection and fire resistance to the more All reinforced concrete building structures are
vulnerable embedded steel reinforcing bars. composed of various categories of elements includ-
Reinforced concrete is used in many civil ing slabs, beams, columns, walls and foundations
engineering applications such as the construction (Fig. 3.1). Within each category is a range of ele-
of structural frames, foundations, retaining walls, ment types. The aim of this chapter is to describe
water retaining structures, highways and bridges. the element types and, for selected elements, to
They are normally designed in accordance with give guidance on their design.
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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Roof 3. material properties

4. loading
5. stress–strain relationships
6. durability and fire resistance.
2nd Floor Walls
The detailed design of beams, slabs, foundations,
Beams
retaining walls and columns will be discussed in
Floor slabs
1st Floor
sections 3.9, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12 and 3.13, respectively.

Columns 3.3 Symbols

For the purpose of this book, the following sym-
Foundations bols have been used. These have largely been taken
from BS 8110. Note that in one or two cases the
Fig. 3.1 Some elements of a structure. same symbol is differently defined. Where this
occurs the reader should use the definition most
A great deal of emphasis has been placed in the appropriate to the element being designed.
text to highlight the similarities in structural beha- Geometric properties:
viour and, hence, design of the various categories of
elements. Thus, certain slabs can be regarded for b width of section
design purposes as a series of transversely connected d effective depth of the tension reinforcement
beams. Columns may support slabs and beams h overall depth of section
but columns may also be supported by (ground x depth to neutral axis
bearing) slabs and beams, in which case the latter z lever arm
are more commonly referred to as foundations. d′ depth to the compression reinforcement
Cantilever retaining walls are usually designed as b effective span
if they consist of three cantilever beams as shown c nominal cover to reinforcement
in Fig. 3.2. Columns are different in that they are Bending:
primarily compression members rather than beams
and slabs which predominantly resist bending. Fk characteristic load
Therefore columns are dealt with separately at the g k, G k characteristic dead load
end of the chapter. qk, Qk characteristic imposed load
Irrespective of the element being designed, the wk, Wk characteristic wind load
designer will need a basic understanding of the fol- fk characteristic strength
lowing aspects which are discussed next: fcu characteristic compressive cube strength
of concrete
1. symbols fy characteristic tensile strength of
2. basis of design reinforcement
γf partial safety factor for load
γm partial safety factor for material
strengths
Deflected Wall K coefficient given by M/fcubd 2
shape of Horizontal K′ coefficient given by Mu/fcubd 2 = 0.156 when
wall pressure redistribution does not exceed 10 per cent
M design ultimate moment
Mu design ultimate moment of resistance
Pressure As area of tension reinforcement
As′ area of compression reinforcement
Φ diameter of main steel
Φ′ diameter of links
Deflected shape Shear:
at base
f yv characteristic strength of links
Fig. 3.2 Cantilever retaining wall. sv spacing of links along the member
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 Material properties

V design shear force due to ultimate For steel, however, it is its tensile strength capacity
loads which is important.
v design shear stress
vc design concrete shear stress 3.5.1 CHARACTERISTIC COMPRESSIVE
A sv total cross-sectional area of shear STRENGTH OF CONCRETE, fcu
reinforcement Concrete is a mixture of water, coarse and fine
aggregate and a cementitious binder (normally Port-
Compression: land cement) which hardens to a stone like mass.
As can be appreciated, it is difficult to produce a
b width of column
homogeneous material from these components.
h depth of column
Furthermore, its strength and other properties may
bo clear height between end restraints
vary considerably due to operations such as trans-
be effective height
portation, compaction and curing.
bex effective height in respect of x-x axis
The compressive strength of concrete is usually
bey effective height in respect of y-y axis
determined by carrying out compression tests on
N design ultimate axial load
28-day-old, 100 mm cubes which have been pre-
Ac net cross-sectional area of concrete in
pared using a standard procedure laid down in BS
a column
EN 12390-1 (2000). An alternative approach is to
A sc area of longitudinal reinforcement
use 100 mm diameter by 200 mm long cylinders.
Irrespective of the shape of the test specimen, if
a large number of compression tests were carried
3.4 Basis of design out on samples made from the same mix it would
be found that a plot of crushing strength against
The design of reinforced concrete elements to frequency of occurrence would approximate to a
BS 8110 is based on the limit state method. As normal distribution (Fig. 3.3).
discussed in Chapter 1, the two principal categories For design purposes it is necessary to assume a
of limit states normally considered in design are: unique value for the strength of the mix. However,
(i) ultimate limit state choosing too high a value will result in a high prob-
(ii) serviceability limit state. ability that most of the structure will be constructed
with concrete having a strength below this value.
The ultimate limit state models the behaviour Conversely, too low a value will result in inefficient
of the element at failure due to a variety of mech- use of the material. As a compromise between
anisms including excessive bending, shear and economy and safety, BS 8110 refers to the charac-
compression or tension. The serviceability limit state teristic strength ( fcu) which is defined as the value
models the behaviour of the member at working below which not more than 5 per cent of the test
loads and in the context of reinforced concrete results fall.
design is principally concerned with the limit states
of deflection and cracking.
Having identified the relevant limit states, the
design process simply involves basing the design Mean
on the most critical one and then checking for the strength
remaining limit states. This requires an understand-
Number of results

ing of
1. material properties
2. loadings.
1.64 s.d.

3.5 Material properties Strength

fcu fm
The two materials whose properties must be known
5% of
are concrete and steel reinforcement. In the case results
of concrete, the property with which the designer
is primarily concerned is its compressive strength. Fig. 3.3 Normal frequency distribution of strengths.

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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Table 3.1 Concrete compressive strength classes Table 3.2 Strength of reinforcement
(Table 3.1, BS 8110)
Concrete Designated Characteristic cube
strength classes concrete strength, fcu (Nmm−2) Reinforcement type Characteristic strength, fy
(Nmm−2)
C 20/25 RC 20/25 25
C 25/30 RC 25/30 30 Hot rolled mild steel 250
C 28/35 RC 28/35 35 High-yield steel (hot rolled 500
C 32/40 RC 32/40 40 or cold worked)
C 35/45 RC 35/45 45
C 40/50 RC 40/50 50
C 50/60 – 60
3.5.2 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF
REINFORCEMENT, fy
The characteristic and mean strength ( f m ) of a Concrete is strong in compression but weak in
sample are related by the expression: tension. Because of this it is normal practice to
provide steel reinforcement in those areas where
fcu = fm − 1.64 s.d. tensile stresses in the concrete are most likely to de-
where s.d. is the standard deviation. Thus assuming velop. Consequently, it is the tensile strength of the
that the mean strength is 35 Nmm−2 and standard reinforcement which most concerns the designer.
deviation is 3 Nmm−2, the characteristic strength of The tensile strength of steel reinforcement can
the mix is 35 − 1.64 × 3 = 30 Nmm−2. be determined using the procedure laid down in
The characteristic compressive strength of con- BS EN 10002: Part 1. The tensile strength will
crete can be identified by its ‘strength class’. Table also vary ‘normally’ with specimens of the same
3.1 shows typical compressive strength classes of composition. Using the same reasoning as above,
concrete commonly used in reinforced concrete de- BS 8110 recommends that design should be based
sign. Note that the strength class consists of the on the characteristic strength of the reinforcement
characteristic cylinder strength of the mix followed ( fy) and gives typical values for mild steel and high-
by its characteristic cube strength. For example, a yield steel reinforcement, the two reinforcement
class C25/30 concrete has a characteristic cylinder types available in the UK, of 250 Nmm−2 and 500
strength of 25 Nmm−2 and a characteristic cube Nmm−2 respectively (Table 3.2). High-yield rein-
strength of 30 Nmm−2. Nevertheless, like previous forcement is mostly used in practice nowadays.
editions of BS 8110, the design rules in the latest
edition are based on characteristic cube not cylin- 3.5.3 DESIGN STRENGTH
der strengths. In general, concrete strength classes Tests to determine the characteristic strengths of
in the range C20/25 and C50/60 can be designed concrete and steel reinforcement are carried out on
using BS 8110. near perfect specimens, which have been prepared
Table 3.1 also shows the two common approaches under laboratory conditions. Such conditions will
to the specification of concrete recommended in seldom exist in practice. Therefore it is undesirable
BS 8500, namely designed and designated. In many to use characteristic strengths to size members.
applications the most straightforward approach To take account of differences between actual
is to use a designated concrete which simply in- and laboratory values, local weaknesses and inac-
volves specifying the strength class, e.g. RC 20/25, curacies in assessment of the resistances of sections,
and the maximum aggregate size. However, this the characteristic strengths ( fk ) are divided by
approach may not be suitable for foundations, appropriate partial safety factor for strengths (γ m ),
for example if ground investigations indicate the obtained from Table 3.3. The resulting values are
concrete will be exposed to an aggressive chemical termed design strengths and it is the design strengths
environment. Under these circumstances a designed which are used to size members.
mix may be required and the designer will need fk
to specify not only the strength class, i.e. C20/25, Design strength = (3.1)
γm
and the maximum aggregate size but also the
maximum permissible water/cement ratio, minimum It should be noted that for the ultimate limit
cement content, permitted cement or combination state the partial safety factor for reinforcement (γms)
types, amongst other aspects. is always 1.15, but for concrete (γmc) assumes
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 Loading

Table 3.3 Values of γm for the ultimate limit 1. BS 648: Schedule of weights for building materials.
state (Table 2.2, BS 8110) 2. BS 6399: Design loadings for buildings, Part 1:
Code of practice for dead and imposed loads; Part
Material/Stress type Partial safety 2: Code of practice for wind loads; Part 3: Code of
factor, γ m practice for imposed roof loads

Reinforcement 1.15 3.6.2 DESIGN LOAD

Concrete in flexure or axial load 1.50 Variations in the characteristic loads may arise
Concrete shear strength without shear 1.25 due to a number of reasons such as errors in the
reinforcement analysis and design of the structure, constructional
Concrete bond strength 1.40 inaccuracies and possible unusual load increases.
Concrete, others (e.g. bearing stress) ≥ 1.50 In order to take account of these effects, the char-
acteristic loads (Fk ) are multiplied by the appropri-
ate partial safety factor for loads (γ f ), taken from
Table 3.4, to give the design loads acting on the
different values depending upon the stress type
structure:
under consideration. Furthermore, the partial safety
factors for concrete are all greater than that for rein- Design load = γf Fk (3.2)
forcement since concrete quality is less controllable.
Generally, the ‘adverse’ factors will be used to
derive the design loads acting on the structure. For
example, for single-span beams subject to only dead
3.6 Loading and imposed loads the appropriate values of γf are
In addition to the material properties, the designer generally 1.4 and 1.6 respectively (Fig. 3.4(a)). How-
needs to know the type and magnitude of the load- ever, for continuous beams, load cases must be ana-
ing to which the structure may be subject during lysed which should include maximum and minimum
its design life. design loads on alternate spans (Fig. 3.4(b)).
The loads acting on a structure are divided The design loads are used to calculate the
into three basic types: dead, imposed and wind distribution of bending moments and shear forces
(section 2.2). Associated with each type of loading in the structure usually using elastic analysis meth-
there are characteristic and design values which ods as discussed in Chapter 2. At no point should
must be assessed before the individual elements of they exceed the corresponding design strengths of
the structure can be designed. These aspects are the member, otherwise failure of the structure may
discussed next. arise.
The design strength is a function of the distribu-
3.6.1 CHARACTERISTIC LOAD tion of stresses in the member. Thus, for the simple
As noted in Chapter 2, it is not possible to apply case of a steel bar in direct tension the design
statistical principles to determine characteristic dead strength is equal to the cross-sectional area of the
(Gk ), imposed (Qk ) and wind (Wk ) loads simply bar multiplied by the average stress at failure
because there are insufficient data. Therefore, the (Fig 3.5). The distribution of stresses in reinforced
characteristic loads are taken to be those given in concrete members is usually more complicated, but
the following documents: can be estimated once the stress–strain behaviour

Table 3.4 Values of γ f for various load combinations (based on Table 2.1, BS 8110)

Load combination Load type

Dead, Gk Imposed, Q k Wind, Wk

Adverse Beneficial Adverse Beneficial

1. Dead and imposed 1.4 1.0 1.6 0 –

2. Dead and wind 1.4 1.0 – – 1.4
3. Dead and wind and imposed 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

1.4g k + 1.6q k

(a)

1.4g k + 1.6q k

1.4g k + 1.6q k 1.4g k + 1.6q k

1.0g k 1.0g k

(b)

Fig. 3.4 Ultimate design loads: (a) single span beam; (b) continuous beam.

A 0.67f cu
γm Parabolic curve
T σ T

Fig. 3.5 Design strength of the bar. Design strength,

T, = σ.A, where σ is the average stress at failure and Stress
A the cross-sectional area of the bar.
f cu
5.5 γm kN/mm2

Stress
Peak stress ≈ 0.8fcu Strain 0.0035
2.4 × 10−4 (f cu / γ m)

Fig. 3.7 Design stress–strain curve for concrete in

compression (Fig. 2.1, BS 8110).

at failure is approximately 0.8 × characteristic cube

strength (i.e. 0.8fcu).
However, the actual behaviour is rather com-
plicated to model mathematically and, therefore,
BS 8110 uses the modified stress–strain curve
Strain
shown in Fig. 3.7 for design. This assumes that the
peak stress is only 0.67 (rather than 0.8) times the
Fig. 3.6 Actual stress–strain curve for concrete in characteristic strength and hence the design stress
compression. for concrete is given by
Design compressive 0.67 fcu
of the concrete and steel reinforcement is known. = ≈ 0.45 fcu (3.3)
stress for concrete γ mc
This aspect is discussed next.
In other words, the failure stress assumed in de-
sign is approximately 0.45/0.8 = 56 per cent of the
3.7 Stress-strain curves actual stress at failure when near perfect specimens
are tested.
3.7.1 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR CONCRETE
Figure 3.6 shows a typical stress–strain curve for 3.7.2 STRESS–STRAIN CURVE FOR STEEL
a concrete cylinder under uniaxial compression. REINFORCEMENT
Note that the stress–strain behaviour is never truly A typical tensile stress–strain curve for steel rein-
linear and that the maximum compressive stress forcement is shown in Fig. 3.8. It can be divided
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 Durability and fire resistance

respect of durability and fire resistance since these

Stress
requirements are common to several of the ele-
fy
ments which will be subsequently discussed.

3.8 Durability and fire resistance

Apart from the need to ensure that the design is
structurally sound, the designer must also verify
Strain
the proper performance of the structure in service.
Principally this involves consideration of the two
Fig. 3.8 Actual stress–strain curve for reinforcement. limit states of (i) durability and (ii) fire resistance.
It should be noted that much of the detailed guid-
ance on durability design is given in BS 8500-1
not BS 8110.
fy /γm
Tension
3.8.1 DURABILITY
Stress

Many concrete structures are showing signs of

200 kN/mm2 severe deterioration after only a few years of ser-
Strain
vice. Repair of these structures is both difficult and
extremely costly. Therefore, over recent years, much
effort has been directed towards improving the
durability requirements, particularly with regard to
Compression
fy /γm
the protection of steel reinforcement in concrete
from corrosion caused by carbonation and chloride
Fig. 3.9 Design stress–strain curve for reinforcement attack (Table 3.5). The other main mechanisms
(Fig. 2.2, BS 8110). of concrete deterioration which are addressed in
BS 8500-1 are freeze/thaw attack, sulphate attack
and alkali/silica reaction.
In general, the durability of concrete structures
into two regions: (i) an elastic region where strain is largely achieved by imposing limits on:
is proportional to stress and (ii) a plastic region
where small increases in stress produce large 1. the minimum strength class of concrete;
increases in strain. The change from elastic to plastic 2. the minimum cover to reinforcement;
behaviour occurs at the yield stress and is signi- 3. the minimum cement content;
ficant since it defines the characteristic strength of 4. the maximum water/cement ratio;
reinforcement ( fy). 5. the cement type or combination;
Once again, the actual material behaviour is 6. the maximum allowable surface crack width.
rather complicated to model mathematically and Other measures may include the specification of
therefore BS 8110 modifies it to the form shown in particular types of admixtures, restrictions on the
Fig. 3.9 which also includes the idealised stress– use of certain types of aggregates, the use of details
strain relationship for reinforcement in compression. that ensure concrete surfaces are free draining and
The maximum design stress for reinforcement in good workmanship.
tension and compression is given by Generally speaking, the risk of freeze/thaw
fy attack and reinforcement corrosion decreases with
Design stress for reinforcement = (3.4) increasing compressive strength of concrete. In the
γ ms
case of freeze/thaw attack this is largely because
From the foregoing it is possible to determine of the concomitant increase in tensile capacity of
the distribution of stresses at a section and hence the concrete, which reduces the risk of cracking
calculate the design strength of the member. The and spalling when water in the concrete expands
latter is normally carried out using the equations on freezing. The use of an air entraining agent also
given in BS 8110. However, before considering enhances the frost resistance of concrete and is a
these in detail, it is useful to pause for a moment well-established method of achieving this require-
in order to introduce BS 8110’s requirements in ment in practice.
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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Table 3.5 Exposure classes related to environmental conditions in accordance with BS EN 206 and
BS 8500

Class Description of the environment Informative examples where exposure classes may occur

1. No risk of corrosion
X0 For concrete with reinforcement Concrete inside buildings with very low (around 35%) humidity
or embedded metal: very dry
2. Corrosion induced by carbonation
XC1 Dry or permanently wet Concrete inside building with low air humidity
Concrete permanently submerged in water
XC2 Wet, rarely dry Concrete surfaces subject to long-term water contact; many
foundations
XC3 Moderate humidity Concrete inside buildings with moderate or high humidity
External concrete sheltered from rain
XC4 Cyclic wet and dry Concrete surfaces subject to water contact, not within exposure class
XC2
3. Corrosion induced by chlorides
XD1 Moderate humidity Concrete exposed to airborne chlorides
XD2 Wet, rarely dry Concrete totally immersed in water containing chlorides, e.g.
swimming pools
Concrete exposed to industrial waters containing chlorides
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry Parts of bridges exposed to spray containing chlorides
Pavements, car park slabs
4. Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water
XS1 Exposed to air borne salt but not Structures near to or on the coast in direct contact with sea water
XS2 Permanently submerged Parts of marine structures
XS3 Tidal, splash and spray zones Parts of marine structures
5. Freeze/thaw attack
XF1 Moderate water saturation, Vertical concrete surfaces exposed to rain and freezing
without deicing agent
XF2 Moderate water saturation, with Vertical concrete surfaces of road structures exposed to freezing and
deicing agent airborne deicing agents
XF3 High water saturation, without Horizontal surfaces exposed to rain and freezing
deicing agent
XF4 Moderate water saturation, with Road and bridge decks exposed to deicing agents; concrete surfaces
deicing agent exposed to direct spray containing deicing agents and freezing;
splash zone of marine structures exposed to freezing
6. Chemical attack
ACEC See Table 3.8 Reinforced concrete in contact with the ground, e.g. many
foundations

The reduction in risk of reinforcement corrosion restricting ionic movement within the concrete
with increasing compressive strength of concrete is during corrosion. These features not only increase
linked to the associated reduction in the permeabil- the time to the onset of corrosion (initiation time)
ity of concrete. A low permeability mix enhances but also reduce the subsequent rate of corrosion
durability by reducing the rate of carbonation propagation. The permeability of concrete is also
and chloride penetration into concrete as well as influenced by water/cement ratio, cement content
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 Durability and fire resistance

as well as type/composition of the cement, e.g. Sulphate attack is normally countered by speci-
CEM I, IIB-V, IIIA, IIIB, IVB (see key at bottom fying sulphate resisting Portland cement (SRPC).
of Table 3.6 for details), which provide addi- The risk of alkali-silica reaction can be reduced by
tional means of enhancing concrete durability. It is specifying non-reactive aggregate and/or cementi-
noteworthy that the link between carbonation- tious materials with a low alkali content. It should
induced corrosion and concrete permeability is less be noted that deterioration of concrete is rarely
pronounced than for chloride-induced corrosion. due to a single cause, which can sometimes make
This is reflected in the values of nominal cover to specification tricky.
reinforcement for carbonation-induced corrosion Table 3.5 (taken from BS 8500-1) shows the range
which are largely independent of cement type of exposure classes relevant to concrete construc-
(Table 3.6). Nevertheless, for both carbonation tion. As can be seen, the exposure classes are gen-
and chloride attack a good thickness of concrete erally broken down into the major concrete
cover is vital for corrosion protection as is the need deterioration processes discussed above. Although
to limit crack widths, in particular where cracks this system allows for the possibility of no risk of
follow the line of the reinforcement (coincident corrosion, i.e. exposure class X0, it is recommended
cracks). that it is not applied to reinforced concrete as

Table 3.6 Concrete quality and cover to reinforcement for durability for an intended working life of
at least 50 years (based on Table A4 BS 8500-1)

Class Cement Strength class, max. w/c ratio, min. cement or combination content (kg/m3) or
combination type1 equivalent designated concrete

Nominal cover to reinforcement

15+∆c 20+∆c 25+∆c 30+∆c 35+∆c 40+∆c 45+∆c 50+∆c
1. No risk of corrosion
X0 All Not recommended for reinforced concrete structures
2. Corrosion induced by carbonation
XC1 All C20/25,
0.70, use the same grade of concrete
240
XC2 All – – C25/30,
0.65,
260
XC3/ All except IVB – C40/50, C30/37, C28/35, C25/30,
XC4 0.45, 0.55, 0.60, 0.65,
340 300 280 260
3. Corrosion induced by chlorides
XD1 All – – C40/50, C32/40, C28/35,
0.45, 0.55, 0.60,
360 320 300
XD2 CEM I, IIA, IIB–S, SRPC – – – C40/50, C32/40, C28/35,
0.40, 0.50, 0.55,
380 340 320
IIB–V, IIIA – – – C35/45, C28/35, C25/30,
0.40, 0.50, 0.55,
380 340 320
IIIB–V, IVB – – – C32/40, C25/30, C20/25,
0.40, 0.50, 0.55,
380 340 320

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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Table 3.6 (cont’d )

Class Cement Strength class, max. w/c ratio, min. cement or combination content (kg/m3) or
combination type1 equivalent designated concrete

Nominal cover to reinforcement

15+∆c 20+∆c 25+∆c 30+∆c 35+∆c 40+∆c 45+∆c 50+∆c
XD3 CEM I, IIA, IIB–S, SRPC – – – – – C45/55, C40/50, C35/45,
0.35, 0.40, 0.45,
380 380 360
IIB–V, IIIA – – – – – C35/45, C32/40, C28/35,
0.40, 0.45, 0.50,
380 360 340
IIIB–V, IVB–V – – – – – C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
0.40, 0.45, 0.50,
380 360 340
4. Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water
XS1 CEM I, IIA, IIB–S, SRPC – – – C45/50, C35/45, C32/40,
0.35, 0.45, 0.50,
380 360 340
IIB–V, IIIA – – – C40/50, C32/40, C28/35,
0.35, 0.45, 0.50,
380 360 340
IIIB–V, IVB–V – – – C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
0.40, 0.50, 0.50,
380 340 340
XS2 CEM I, IIA, IIB–S, SRPC – – – C40/50, C32/40, C28/35,
0.40, 0.50, 0.55,
380 340 320
IIB–V, IIIA – – – C35/45, C28/35, C25/30,
0.40, 0.50, 0.55,
380 340 320
IIIB–V, IVB–V – – – C32/40, C25/30, C20/25,
0.40, 0.50, 0.55,
380 340 320
XS3 CEM I, IIA, IIB–S, SRPC – – – – – – C45/55, C40/50,
0.35, 0.40,
380 380
IIB–V, IIIA – – – – – C35/45, C32/40, C28/35,
0.40, 0.45, 0.50,
380 360 340
IIIB–V, IVB – – – – – C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
0.40, 0.45, 0.50,
380 360 340
1
Cement or combination types:
CEM I Portland cement
IIA Portland cement with 6–20% pfa, ggbs or 20% limestone
IIB Portland cement with 21–35% pfa or ggbs
IIIA Portland cement with 36–65% ggbs
IIIB Portland cement with 66–80% pfa or ggbs
IVB Portland cement with 36–55% pfa
SRPC Sulphate resisting Portland cement
–S ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs)
–V pulverised fly ash (pfa)

40

9780415467193_C03a 40 9/3/09, 12:41 PM

 Durability and fire resistance

Table 3.7 Minimum strength classes of concrete with 20 mm aggregates

to resist freeze thaw attack (based on Table A8 BS 8500-1)

Exposure class: XF1 XF2 XF3 XF4

Indicative Strength Classes:

3.5% air-entrainment C28/35 C32/40 C40/50 C40/50
No air-entrainment RC25/30 RC25/30 RC25/30 RC28/35

conditions of very low humidity, assumed to be is permitted if the pfa content is between 21–35
less than about 35 per cent, seldom exist in prac- per cent (i.e. cement type IIB) and lower still
tice. The table also distinguishes between chlorides (C32/40) if the pfa content is between 35–55 per
derived from sea-water and chlorides derived from cent (i.e. cement type IVB). Where concrete is
other sources, presumably rock salt, which is used vulnerable to freeze/thaw attack, i.e. exposure
as a de-icing agent during winter maintenance. As classes XF1–XF4, the strength class of the con-
noted above, these mechanisms may occur singly crete must not generally fall below the values shown
or in combination. For example, an external ele- in Table 3.7.
ment of a building structure may be susceptible to Concrete in the ground (e.g. foundations) may
carbonation and freeze thaw attack, i.e. exposure be subject to chemical attack, possibly due to the
classes XC4 + XF1. Similarly, coastal structures presence of sulphates, magnesium or acids in
may be vulnerable to both chloride attack and the soil and/or groundwater. Table 3.8 shows the
freezing, i.e. exposure classes XS1 + XF2. Clearly, nominal covers and design chemical (DC) and
the durability requirements should be based on the designated concrete classes (FND) for specified
most onerous condition. soil chemical environments. The design procedure
Once the relevant environmental condition(s) involves determining the class of aggressive chem-
have been identified, a minimum strength class and ical environment for concrete (ACEC) via limits
nominal depth of concrete cover to the reinforce- on the sulphate and magnesium ion concentrations
ment can be selected. Table 3.6 gives the nominal and soil acidity. This is used together with the
(i.e. minimum plus an allowance for deviation, intended working life of the structure to determine
normally assumed to be 10 mm) depths of concrete the DC class. Where the strength class of the con-
cover to all reinforcement for specified cement/ crete exceeds C25/30, a designed concrete will have
combination types and strength classes (for both to be specified and the concrete producer should
designed and designated concretes) required for be advised of the DC class required. Otherwise,
exposure classes XC1-XC4, XD1-XD3 and XS1- a designated (FND) concrete, with a minimum
XS3, for structures with an intended working life strength of C25/30, can be specified. Where con-
of at least 50 years. Reference should be made to crete is cast directly against the earth the nominal
Table A5 of BS 8500-1 for concrete covers for struc- depth of concrete cover should be at least 75 mm
tures with an intended working life of in excess of whereas for concrete cast against blinding it should
100 years. be at least 50 mm.
It can be seen from Table 3.6 that for a BS 8110 further recommends that the maximum
given level of protection, the permitted minimum surface crack width should not exceed 0.3 mm
quality of concrete decreases as the recommended in order to avoid corrosion of the reinforcing bars.
nominal depth of concrete cover increases. More- This requirement will generally be satisfied by
over, for chloride-induced corrosion the permitted observing the detailing rules given in BS 8110 with
minimum strength class of concrete reduces with regard to:
increasing percentage of pulverised fuel ash (pfa)
1. minimum reinforcement areas;
or ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs). For
2. maximum clear spacing between reinforcing bars.
example, for exposure class XD2 the minimum
concrete strength class is C40/50 if the pfa content These requirements will be discussed individu-
lies between 6–20 per cent (i.e. cement type IIA). ally for beams, slabs and columns in sections 3.9.1.6,
However, a lower concrete strength class (C35/45) 3.10.2.4 and 3.13.6, respectively.
41

9780415467193_C03a 41 9/3/09, 12:41 PM

 42

9780415467193_C03a
Table 3.8 ACEC classes and associated nominal covers and DC or designated concretes for structures with an intended working
life of at least 50 years (based on Tables A.2, A.9 and A.10 of BS 8500-1)

42
Sulphate and magnesium Design Natural soil Brownfield ACEC- Lowest DC/FND
sulphate class nominal classa
2:1 water/soil Groundwater Total class Static Mobile Static Mobile covers
Extract potential water water water water (mm)
Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

sulphate

SO4 Mg SO4 Mg SO4

mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l %

1600 to – 1500 to – 0.7–1.2 DS-3 >3.5 – >5.5 – AC-2s 50b, 75c DC-2 (FND2)
3000 3000
– >5.5 – >6.5 AC-3 50b, 75c DC-3 (FND3)
2.5–3.5 – 2.5–5.5 – AC-3s 50b, 75c DC-3 (FND3)
– 2.5–5.5 – 5.6–6.5 AC-4 50b, 75c DC-4 (FND4)
– – – 2.5–5.5 AC-5 50b, 75c DC-4 (FND4)
+ APM3d
3100 to ≤1200 3100 to ≤1000 1.3–2.4 DS-4 >3.5 – >5.5 – AC-3s 50b, 75c DC-3(FND3)
6000 6000 – >5.5 – >6.5 AC-4 50b, 75c DC-4 (FND4)
2.5–3.5 – 2.5–5.5 – AC-4s 50b, 75c DC-4 (FND4)
– 2.5–5.5 – 2.5–6.5 AC-5 50b, 75c DC-4 (FND4)
+ APM3d

9/3/09, 12:41 PM
a
For structures with at least 50 years’ working life
b
For concrete cast against blinding
c
For concrete cast directly against the soil
d
Additional Protection Measure (APM) 3 – provide surface protection
 Durability and fire resistance

Example 3.1 Selection of minimum strength class and nominal concrete

cover to reinforcement (BS 8110)
Assuming a design life of 50 years, determine the minimum concrete strength classes of concrete and the associated
nominal covers to reinforcement at locations 1–4 for the structure shown in Fig. 3.10. List any assumptions.

Basement
3 car park

Fig. 3.10

LOCATION 1
Assume concrete column is exposed to rain and freezing.
Therefore, design the column for exposure class XC4 and XF1 (Table 3.5).
From Table 3.7 the minimum strength class of concrete for class XF1 exposure is C28/35 and from Table 3.6 the
associated nominal cover to reinforcement for class XC4 exposure, cnom, is
cnom = 30 + ∆c = 30 + 10 = 40 mm
LOCATION 2
Assume concrete beam is exposed to normal humidity.
Therefore, design the beam for exposure class XC1 (Table 3.5).
From Table 3.6 the minimum strength class of concrete for class XC1 exposure is C20/25 and the associated
nominal cover to reinforcement, cnom, is
cnom = 15 + ∆c = 15 + 10 = 25 mm
LOCATION 3
Clearly, the car-park slab is vulnerable to chloride attack but exposure class XD3 would seem to be too severe for a base-
ment car park whereas exposure class XD1 is perhaps rather mild. As a compromise it is suggested that the minimum
strength class of concrete should be taken as C32/40 and the nominal cover to reinforcement, cnom, should be taken as
cnom = 30 + ∆c = 30 + 10 = 40 mm
LOCATION 4
Assume non-aggressive soil conditions and that the concrete is cast directly against the soil.
Hence, design foundation for exposure class XC2 (Table 3.5).
From Table 3.6 the minimum strength class of concrete for class XC2 exposure is C25/30 and the associated
nominal cover to reinforcement, cnom, is
cnom = 25 + ∆c = 25 + 10 = 35 mm ≥ 75 mm (since the concrete is cast directly against the ground).
Therefore cnom = 75 mm.
43

9780415467193_C03a 43 9/3/09, 12:42 PM

 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Table 3.9 Nominal cover to all reinforcement to meet specified

periods of fire resistance (based on Table 3.4, BS 8110)

Fire Nominal cover (mm)

resistance
(hours) Beams Floors Columns

Simply Continuous Simply Continuous

supported supported

0.5 20 20 20 20 20
1.0 20 20 20 20 20
1.5 20 20 25 20 20
2.0 40 30 35 25 25
3.0 60 40 45 35 25
4.0 70 50 55 45 25

3.8.2 FIRE PROTECTION Having discussed these more general aspects

Fire protection of reinforced concrete members is relating to structural design, the detailed design of
largely achieved by specifying limits for: beams is considered in the following section.
1. nominal thickness of cover to the reinforcement;
2. minimum dimensions of members. 3.9 Beams
Table 3.9 gives the actual values of the nominal Beams in reinforced concrete structures can be
depths of concrete covers to all reinforcement for defined according to:
specified periods of fire resistance and member
types. The covers in the table may need to be 1. cross-section
increased because of durability considerations. The 2. position of reinforcement
minimum dimensions of members for fire resistance 3. support conditions.
are shown in Fig. 3.11. Some common beam sections are shown in
Beams
Columns Fig. 3.12. Beams reinforced with tension steel only
Floors
are referred to as singly reinforced. Beams reinforced
with tension and compression steel are termed
Plane soffit h doubly reinforced. Inclusion of compression steel
b b b will increase the moment capacity of the beam and
Fully exposed
hence allow more slender sections to be used. Thus,
doubly reinforced beams are used in preference to
Fire Minimum dimension (mm)
resistance Compression
( hours) Beam Floor Exposed steel
width thickness column width
( b) ( h) ( b) Tension steel
(a) (b)
0.5 200 75 150
1.0 200 95 200
Neutral
1.5 200 110 250
2.0 200 125 300 axis
3.0 240 150 400
4.0 280 170 450
(c) (d)

Fig. 3.11 Minimum dimensions of reinforced concrete Fig. 3.12 Beam sections: (a) singly reinforced; (b) doubly
members for fire resistance (based on Fig. 3.2, BS 8110). reinforced; (c) T-section; (d) L-section.

44

9780415467193_C03a 44 9/3/09, 12:42 PM

 Beams

3.9.1 SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM DESIGN

All beams may fail due to excessive bending or shear.
(a) (b) In addition, excessive deflection of beams must be
Fig. 3.13 Support conditions: (a) simply supported; avoided otherwise the efficiency or appearance of
(b) continuous. the structure may become impaired. As discussed
in section 3.4, bending and shear are ultimate states
while deflection is a serviceabilty state. Generally,
b structural design of concrete beams primarily in-
volves consideration of the following aspects which
d′ A s′ are discussed next:
d h
As
1. bending
2. shear
3. deflection.
Fig. 3.14 Notation.
3.9.1.1 Bending (clause 3.4.4.4, BS 8110)
Consider the case of a simply supported, singly
singly reinforced beams when there is some restric- reinforced, rectangular beam subject to a uniformly
tion on the construction depth of the section. distributed load ω as shown in Figs 3.15 and 3.16.
Under certain conditions, T and L beams are
more economical than rectangular beams since
some of the concrete below the dotted line (neu-
tral axis), which serves only to contain the tension
steel, is removed resulting in a reduced unit weight ω
A
of beam. Furthermore, beams may be simply sup-
ported at their ends or continuous, as illustrated in
Fig. 3.13.
Figure 3.14 illustrates some of the notation A
used in beam design. Here b is the width of the
beam, h the overall depth of section, d the effective
depth of tension reinforcement, d ′ the depth of Moment Moment
compression reinforcement, As the area of tension
reinforcement and A s′ the area of compression Deflection
reinforcement. C omp ression zo ne
The following sub-sections consider the design
of: Te nsion zo ne

1. singly reinforced beams Cracks Neutral axis

2. doubly reinforced beams
3. continuous, L and T beams. Fig. 3.15

0.67f cu
ε cc γm 0.9x
0.67f cu
γm
x
Neutral axis
d

As
ε st
1
4
4
4
4
2
4
4
4
4
3

Stress blocks
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 3.16 Stress and strain distributions at section A-A: (a) section; (b) strains; (c) triangular (low strain);
(d) rectangular parabolic (large strain); (e) equivalent rectangular.

45

9780415467193_C03a 45 9/3/09, 12:42 PM

 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

The load causes the beam to deflect downwards, steel (Fst ) at the ultimate limit state can be readily
putting the top portion of the beam into compres- calculated using the following:
sion and the bottom portion into tension. At some
Fst = design stress × area
distance x below the compression face, the section
is neither in compression nor tension and therefore f y As
= (using equation 3.4) (3.5)
the strain at this level is zero. This axis is normally γ ms
referred to as the neutral axis.
Assuming that plane sections remain plane, the where
strain distribution will be triangular (Fig. 3.16b). f y = yield stress
The stress distribution in the concrete above the A s = area of reinforcement
neutral axis is initially triangular (Fig. 3.16c), for γ ms = factor of safety for reinforcement (= 1.15)
low values of strain, because stress and strain are
directly proportional (Fig. 3.7). The stress in the However, it is not an easy matter to calculate
concrete below the neutral axis is zero, however, the compressive force in the concrete because of
since it is assumed that the concrete is cracked, the complicated pattern of stresses in the concrete.
being unable to resist any tensile stress. All the To simplify the situation, BS 8110 replaces the
tensile stresses in the member are assumed to be rectangular–parabolic stress distribution with an
resisted by the steel reinforcement and this is equivalent rectangular stress distribution (Fig. 3.16e).
reflected in a peak in the tensile stress at the level And it is the rectangular stress distribution which
of the reinforcement. is used in order to develop the design formulae
As the intensity of loading on the beam increases, for rectangular beams given in clause 3.4.4.4 of
the mid-span moment increases and the distribution BS 8110. Specifically, the code gives formulae for
of stresses changes from that shown in Fig. 3.16c the following design parameters which are derived
to 3.16d. The stress in the reinforcement increases below:
linearly with strain up to the yield point. Thereafter 1. ultimate moment of resistance
it remains at a constant value (Fig. 3.9). However, 2. area of tension reinforcement
as the strain in the concrete increases, the stress 3. lever arm.
distribution is assumed to follow the parabolic form
of the stress–strain relationship for concrete under (i) Ultimate moment of resistance, Mu. Con-
compression (Fig. 3.7). sider the singly reinforced beam shown in Fig. 3.17.
The actual stress distribution at a given section The loading on the beam gives rise to an ultimate
and the mode of failure of the beam will depend design moment (M ) at mid-span. The resulting
upon whether the section is (1) under-reinforced curvature of the beam produces a compression force
or (2) over-reinforced. If the section is over- in the concrete (Fcc) and a tensile force in the rein-
reinforced the steel does not yield and the failure forcement (Fst). Since there is no resultant axial
mechanism will be crushing of the concrete due to force on the beam, the force in the concrete must
its compressive capacity being exceeded. Steel is equal the force in the reinforcement:
expensive and, therefore, over-reinforcing will lead
to uneconomical design. Furthermore, with this type Fcc = Fst (3.6)
of failure there may be no external warning signs;
These two forces are separated by a distance z,
just sudden, catastrophic collapse. the moment of which forms a couple (Mu) which
If the section is under-reinforced, the steel yields opposes the design moment. For structural stabil-
and failure will again occur due to crushing of
ity Mu ≥ M where
the concrete. However, the beam will show con-
siderable deflection which will be accompanied Mu = Fcc z = Fst z (3.7)
by severe cracking and spalling from the tension
From the stress block shown in Fig. 3.17(c)
face thus providing ample warning signs of failure.
Moreover, this form of design is more economical Fcc = stress × area
since a greater proportion of the steel strength is
0.67 fcu
utilised. Therefore, it is normal practice to design = 0.9xb (3.8)
sections which are under-reinforced rather than γ mc
over-reinforced. and
In an under-reinforced section, since the rein-
forcement will have yielded, the tensile force in the z = d − 0.9x/2 (3.9)
46

9780415467193_C03a 46 9/3/09, 12:42 PM

 Beams

0.67f cu
b γm

Fcc
x 0.9x

d Neutral axis z

Fst
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.17 Ultimate moment of resistance for singly reinforced section.

In order to ensure that the section is under- (ii) Area of tension reinforcement, As. At the
reinforced, BS 8110 limits the depth of the neutral limiting condition Mu = M, equation 3.7 becomes
axis (x) to a maximum of 0.5d, where d is the
effective depth (Fig. 3.17(b)). Hence M = Fst·z
x ≤ 0.5d (3.10) f y As
= z (from equation 3.5)
By combining equations 3.7–3.10 and putting γ ms
γmc = 1.5 (Table 3.3) it can be shown that the ulti- Rearranging and putting γms = 1.15 (Table 3.3)
mate moment of resistance is given by: gives
Mu = 0.156fcubd 2 (3.11)
M
Note that Mu depends only on the properties of As = (3.12)
0.87 f y z
the concrete and not the steel reinforcement. Pro-
vided that the design moment does not exceed Mu Solution of this equation requires an expression for
(i.e. M ≤ Mu), a beam whose section is singly rein- z which can either be obtained graphically (Fig. 3.18)
forced will be sufficient to resist the design moment. or by calculation as discussed below.
The following section derives the equation neces-
sary to calculate the area of reinforcement needed (iii) Lever arm, z. At the limiting condition
for such a case. Mu = M, equation 3.7 becomes

0.95

0.9
Ratio z /d

0.85

0.8

0.774
0 0.042 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.156
M /bd 2f cu

Fig. 3.18 Lever-arm curve.

47

9780415467193_C03a 47 9/3/09, 12:42 PM

 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

0.67 fcu z = d[0.5 + (0.25 − K /0.9) ] (3.13)

M = Fcc z = 0.9bxz (from equation 3.8)
γ mc
Once z has been determined, the area of tension
= 0.4fcubzx (putting γmc = 1.5) reinforcement, As, can be calculated using equation
(d − z ) 3.12. In clause 3.4.4.1 of BS 8110 it is noted that
= 0.4fcubz2 (from equation 3.9) z should not exceed 0.95d in order to give a reason-
0.9 able concrete area in compression. Moreover it
8 should be remembered that equation 3.12 can only
= fcubz(d − z) be used to determine As provided that M ≤ Mu or
9
K ≤ K′ where
Dividing both sides by fcubd 2 gives
M Mu
M 8 K= and K′ =
= (z/d )(1 − z/d ) fcu bd 2 fcu bd 2
fcu bd 2 9
To summarise, design for bending requires
M the calculation of the maximum design moment
Substituting K = and putting zo = z/d gives
fcu bd 2 (M) and corresponding ultimate moment of re-
sistance of the section (Mu). Provided M ≤ Mu or
0 = zo2 − zo + 9K/8
K ≤ K′, only tension reinforcement is needed and
This is a quadratic and can be solved to give the area of steel can be calculated using equation
3.12 via equation 3.13. Where M > Mu the de-
zo = z/d = 0.5 + (0.25 − K /0.9)
signer has the option to either increase the section
This equation is used to draw the lever arm curve sizes (i.e. M ≤ Mu) or design as a doubly reinforced
shown in Fig. 3.18, and is usually expressed in the section. The latter option is discussed more fully
following form in section 3.9.2.

Example 3.2 Design of bending reinforcement for a singly reinforced

beam (BS 8110)
A simply supported rectangular beam of 7 m span carries characteristic dead (including self-weight of beam), gk, and
imposed, qk, loads of 12 kNm−1 and 8 kNm−1 respectively (Fig. 3.19). The beam dimensions are breadth, b, 275 mm and
effective depth, d, 450 mm. Assuming the following material strengths, calculate the area of reinforcement required.
fcu = 30 Nmm−2
fy = 500 Nmm−2
b = 275

q k = 8 kN m−1
d = 450 g k = 12 kN m−1

7m

Fig. 3.19

Ultimate load (w) = 1.4gk + 1.6qk

= 1.4 × 12 + 1.6 × 8 = 29.6 kNm−1
wl2 29.6 × 72
Design moment (M) = = = 181.3 kNm
8 8
Ultimate moment of resistance (Mu ) = 0.156fcubd 2
= 0.156 × 30 × 275 × 4502 × 10−6 = 260.6 kNm
48

9780415467193_C03a 48 9/3/09, 12:43 PM

 Beams

Example 3.2 continued

Since Mu > M design as a singly reinforced beam.
M 181.3 × 106
K= = = 0.1085
fcubd 2 30 × 275 × 4502
z = d[0.5 + (0.25 − K /0.9)
= 450[0.5 + (0.25 − 0.1085/0.9) ]
= 386.8 mm ≤ 0.95d (= 427.5 mm) OK.
M 181.3 × 106
As = = = 1078 mm2
0.87f y z 0.87 × 500 × 386.8
For detailing purposes this area of steel has to be transposed into a certain number of bars of a given diameter.
This is usually achieved using steel area tables similar to that shown in Table 3.10. Thus it can be seen that four
20 mm diameter bars have a total cross-sectional area of 1260 mm2 and would therefore be suitable. Hence provide
4H20. (N.B. H refers to high yield steel bars (fy = 500 Nmm−2); R refers to mild steel bars (fy = 250 Nmm−2).

Table 3.10 Cross-sectional areas of groups of bars (mm2)

Bar size Number of bars

(mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

6 28.3 56.6 84.9 113 142 170 198 226 255 283
8 50.3 101 151 201 252 302 352 402 453 503
10 78.5 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785
12 113 226 339 452 566 679 792 905 1020 1130
16 201 402 603 804 1010 1210 1410 1610 1810 2010
20 314 628 943 1260 1570 1890 2200 2510 2830 3140
25 491 982 1470 1960 2450 2950 3440 3930 4420 4910
32 804 1610 2410 3220 4020 4830 5630 6430 7240 8040
40 1260 2510 3770 5030 6280 7540 8800 10100 11300 12600

3.9.1.2 Design charts The design procedure involves the following

An alternative method of determining the area of steps:
tensile steel required in singly reinforced rectangu-
lar beams is by using the design charts given in 1. Check M ≤ Mu.
Part 3 of BS 8110. These charts are based on the 2. Select appropriate chart from Part 3 of BS 8110
rectangular–parabolic stress distribution for con- based on the grade of tensile reinforcement.
crete shown in Fig. 3.16(d) rather than the simpli- 3. Calculate M/bd 2.
fied rectangular distribution and should therefore 4. Plot M/bd 2 ratio on chart and read off corres-
provide a more economical estimate of the required ponding 100As/bd value using curve appropriate
area of steel reinforcement. However, BSI issued to grade of concrete selected for design.
these charts when the preferred grade of reinforce- 5. Calculate As.
ment was 460, not 500, and use of these charts Using the figures given in Example 3.2,
will therefore in fact overestimate the required ten-
sile steel area by around 10 per cent. M = 181.3 kNm ≤ Mu = 260.6 kNm
A modified version of chart 2 which is appropri-
ate for use with grade 500 reinforcement is shown M 181.3 × 106
= = 3.26
Fig. 3.20. bd 2
275 × 4502
49

9780415467193_C03a 49 9/3/09, 12:43 PM

 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

7
40

f cu (N mm−2)
35
6
30
5
25
M/bd 2 (N mm−2)

4
b
x
3 d

As
2

1
fy 500

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

100As /bd

Fig. 3.20 Design chart for singly reinforced beam (based on chart No. 2, BS 8110: Part 3).

From Fig. 3.20, using the fcu = 30 N/mm2 curve The second failure mode, termed diagonal com-
pression failure (Fig. 3.21(b)), occurs under the
100 As
= 0.87 action of large shear forces acting near the support,
bd resulting in crushing of the concrete. This type
Hence, As = 1076 mm2 of failure is avoided by limiting the maximum
Therefore provide 4H20 (A s = 1260 mm2) shear stress to 5 N/mm2 or 0.8 fcu , whichever is
the lesser.
3.9.1.3 Shear (clause 3.4.5, BS 8110) The design shear stress, υ, at any cross-section
Another way in which failure of a beam may arise can be calculated from:
is due to its shear capacity being exceeded. Shear υ = V/bd (3.14)
failure may arise in several ways, but the two prin-
cipal failure mechanisms are shown in Fig. 3.21. where
With reference to Fig. 3.21(a), as the loading V design shear force due to ultimate loads
increases, an inclined crack rapidly develops b breadth of section
between the edge of the support and the load point, d effective depth of section
resulting in splitting of the beam into two pieces. In order to determine whether shear reinforcement
This is normally termed diagonal tension failure and is required, it is necessary to calculate the shear re-
can be prevented by providing shear reinforcement. sistance, or using BS 8110 terminology the design
concrete shear stress, at critical sections along the
beam. The design concrete shear stress, υc, is found
to be composed of three major components, namely:
1. concrete in the compression zone;
2. aggregate interlock across the crack zone;
3. dowel action of the tension reinforcement.

(a) (b)
The design concrete shear stress can be deter-
mined using Table 3.11. The values are in terms
Fig. 3.21 Types of shear failure: (a) diagonal tension; of the percentage area of longitudinal tension rein-
(b) diagonal compression. forcement (100As /bd ) and effective depth of the
50

9780415467193_C03a 50 9/3/09, 12:43 PM

 Beams

Table 3.11 Values of design concrete shear stress, υc (N/mm2) for

fcu = 25 N/mm2 concrete (Table 3.8, BS 8110)

100As Effective depth (d) mm

bd
125 150 175 200 225 250 300 ≥ 400

≤ 0.15 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.36 0.34

0.25 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.40
0.50 0.57 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.50
0.75 0.77 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.62 0.57
1.00 0.84 0.81 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.63
1.50 0.97 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.72
2.00 1.06 1.02 0.98 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.80
≥ 3.00 1.22 1.16 1.12 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.98 0.91

section (d ). The table assumes that cube strength The former is the most widely used method and
of concrete is 25 Nmm−2. For other values of cube will therefore be the only one discussed here. The
strength up to a maximum of 40 Nmm−2, the de- following section derives the design equations for
sign shear stresses can be determined by multiply- calculating the area and spacing of links.
ing the values in the table by the factor ( fcu /25)1/3.
Generally, where the design shear stress exceeds (i) Shear resistance of links. Consider a rein-
the design concrete shear stress, shear reinforce- forced concrete beam with links uniformly spaced
ment will be needed. This is normally done by at a distance sv, under the action of a shear force V.
providing The resulting failure plane is assumed to be in-
clined approximately 45° to the horizontal as shown
1. vertical shear reinforcement commonly referred
in Fig. 3.22.
to as ‘links’
The number of links intersecting the potential
2. a combination of vertical and inclined (or bent-
crack is equal to d/sv and it follows therefore that
up) bars as shown below.
the shear resistance of these links, Vlink, is given by
Vlink = number of links × total cross-sectional
Vertical shear
reinforcement
area of links (Fig. 3.23) × design stress
= (d/sv) × Asv × 0.87fyv

45° 45° d

sv
Inclined shear d
reinforcement

Beam with vertical and inclined shear reinforcement. Fig. 3.22 Shear resistance of links.

A πΦ2 D A πΦ2 D
A sv = 2 A sv = 4
C 4 F C 4 F

Φ − diameter of links

Fig. 3.23 A sv for varying shear reinforcement arrangements.

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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

The shear resistance of concrete, Vconc, can be Asv 0.4b

calculated from = (3.16)
sv 0.87 f yv
Vconc = υcbd (using equation 3.14) Equations 3.15 and 3.16 provide a basis for cal-
The design shear force due to ultimate loads, V, culating the minimum area and spacing of links.
must be less than the sum of the shear resistance The details are discussed next.
of the concrete (Vconc) plus the shear resistance of
the links (Vlink), otherwise failure of the beam may (ii) Form, area and spacing of links. Shear
arise. Hence reinforcement should be provided in beams ac-
cording to the criteria given in Table 3.12.
V ≤ Vconc + Vlink Thus where the design shear stress is less than
≤ υcbd + (d/sv)Asv0.87fyv half the design concrete shear stress (i.e. υ < 0.5υc),
no shear reinforcement will be necessary although,
Dividing both sides by bd gives in practice, it is normal to provide nominal links
V/bd ≤ υc + (1/bs v)Asv0.87fyv in all beams of structural importance. Where
0.5υc < υ < (υc + 0.4) nominal links based on equa-
From equation 3.14 tion 3.16 should be provided. Where υ > υc + 0.4,
υ ≤ υc + (1/bsv)Asv0.87fyv design links based on equation 3.15 should be
provided.
Asv b( ν − νc ) BS 8110 further recommends that the spacing of
rearranging gives = (3.15)
sv 0.87 f yv links in the direction of the span should not exceed
0.75d. This will ensure that at least one link crosses
Where (υ − υc) is less than 0.4 N/mm2 then links
the potential crack.
should be provided according to

Table 3.12 Form and area of links in beams (Table 3.7, BS 8110)

Values of υ (N /mm 2) Area of shear reinforcement to be provided

υ < 0.5υc throughout the beam No links required but normal practice to provide nominal links in
members of structural importance
0.4bs v
0.5υc < υ < (υc + 0.4) Nominal (or minimum) links for whole length of beam Asv ≥
0.87 f yv
bs (υ − υ c )
(υc + 0.4) < υ < 0.8 f cu or 5 N/mm2 Design links Asv ≥ v
0.87 f yv

Example 3.3 Design of shear reinforcement for a beam (BS 8110)

Design the shear reinforcement for the beam shown in Fig. 3.24 using high yield steel (fy = 500 Nmm−2) links for the
following load cases:
(i) qk = 0
(ii) qk = 10 kNm−1
(iii) qk = 29 kNm−1
(iv) qk = 45 kNm−1
b = 325

q k varies
g k = 10 kN m−1
f cu = 25 N mm−2
d = 547
225 mm 225 mm
6m 4H25 (A s = 1960 mm2)

Fig. 3.24

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 Beams

Example 3.3 continued

DESIGN CONCRETE SHEAR STRESS, υc

100 As 100 × 1960

= = 1.10
bd 325 × 547

From Table 3.11, υc = 0.65 Nmm−2 (see below)

100A s Effective depth (mm)

bd
300 ≥ 400

Nmm−2 Nmm−2
1.00 0.68 0.63
1.10 0.65
1.50 0.78 0.72

(I) qk = 0
υ)
Design shear stress (υ

g k = 10 kN m−1

6m
RA RB

V
V
Shear force diagram

Total ultimate load, W, is

W = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span = (1.4 × 10 + 1.6 × 0)6 = 84 kN
Since beam is symmetrically loaded
RA = RB = W/2 = 42 kN
Ultimate shear force (V ) = 42 kN and design shear stress, υ, is
V 42 × 103
υ= = = 0.24 Nmm−2
bd 325 × 547

Diameter and spacing of links

By inspection
υ < υc/2
i.e. 0.24 Nmm−2 < 0.32 Nmm−2. Hence from Table 3.12, shear reinforcement may not be necessary.
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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Example 3.3 continued

(II) qk = 10 kNm−1
υ)
Design shear stress (υ

g k = 10 kN m−1 q k = 10 kN m−1

6m
RA RB

V
V

Total ultimate load, W, is

W = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span = (1.4 × 10 + 1.6 × 10)6 = 180 kN
Since beam is symmetrically loaded
RA = RB = W/2 = 90 kN
Ultimate shear force (V ) = 90 kN and design shear stress, υ, is
V 90 × 103
υ= = = 0.51 Nmm−2
bd 325 × 547

Diameter and spacing of links

By inspection
υc /2 < υ < (υc + 0.4)
i.e. 0.32 < 0.51< 1.05. Hence from Table 3.12, provide nominal links for whole length of beam according to
A sv 0.4b 0.4 × 325
= =
sv 0.87f yv 0.87 × 500
This value has to be translated into a certain bar size and spacing of links and is usually achieved using shear
reinforcement tables similar to Table 3.13. The spacing of links should not exceed 0.75d = 0.75 × 547 = 410 mm.
From Table 3.13 it can be seen that 8 mm diameter links spaced at 300 mm centres provide a A sv /s v ratio of 0.335 and
would therefore be suitable. Hence provide H8 links at 300 mm centres for whole length of beam.

Table 3.13 Values of A sv /s v

Diameter Spacing of links (mm)

(mm)
85 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300

8 1.183 1.118 1.006 0.805 0.671 0.575 0.503 0.447 0.402 0.366 0.335
10 1.847 1.744 1.57 1.256 1.047 0.897 0.785 0.698 0.628 0.571 0.523
12 2.659 2.511 2.26 1.808 1.507 1.291 1.13 1.004 0.904 0.822 0.753
16 4.729 4.467 4.02 3.216 2.68 2.297 2.01 1.787 1.608 1.462 1.34

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 Beams

Example 3.3 continued

2H12 (hanger bars)

21H8 links at 300

H8 links

4H25
−1
(III) qk = 29 kNm
Design shear stress (v)
q k = 29 kN m−1
g k = 10 kN m−1

6m
RA RB

Total ultimate load, W, is

W = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span = (1.4 × 10 + 1.6 × 29)6 = 362.4 kN
Since beam is symmetrically loaded
RA = RB = W/2 = 181.2 kN
Ultimate shear force (V ) = 181.2 kN and design shear stress, υ, is
V 181.2 × 103
υ= = = 1.02 Nmm−2
bd 325 × 547
Diameter and spacing of links
By inspection
υc /2 < υ < (υc + 0.4)
i.e. 0.32 < 1.02 < 1.05. Hence from Table 3.12, provide nominal links for whole length of beam according to
A sv 0.4b 0.4 × 325
= = = 0.3
sv 0.87f yv 0.87 × 500
Therefore as in case (ii) (qk = 10 kNm−1), provide H8 links at 300 mm centres.
(IV) qk = 45 kNm−1
q k = 45 kN m−1
g k = 10 kN m−1

6m
RA RB

V
V

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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Example 3.3 continued

Design shear stress (v)
Total ultimate load, W, is
W = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span = (1.4 × 10 + 1.6 × 45)6 = 516 kN
Since beam is symmetrically loaded
RA = RB = W/2 = 258 kN
Ultimate shear force (V ) = 258 kN and design shear stress, υ, is
V 258 × 103
υ= = = 1.45 Nmm−2 < permissible = 0.8 25 = 4 Nmm−2
bd 325 × 547

Diameter and spacing of links

Where υ < (υc + 0.4) = 0.65 + 0.4 = 1.05 Nmm−2, nominal links are required according to
A sv 0.4b 0.4 × 325
= = = 0.3
sv 0.87f yv 0.87 × 500
Hence, from Table 3.13, provide H8 links at 300 mm centres where υ < 1.05 Nmm−2, i.e. 2.172 m either side of the
mid-span of beam.
v = 1.45 N mm−2

3m 3m
v x /1.05 = 3/1.45
x
x = 2.172 m
x
1.05 N mm−2

Where υ > (υ c + 0.4) = 1.05 Nmm−2 design links required according to

A sv b(υ − υc ) 325(1.45 − 0.65)
= = = 0.598
sv 0.87f yv 0.87 × 500
Hence, from Table 3.13, provide H8 links at 150 mm centres (A sv /s v = 0.671) where v > 1.05 Nmm−2, i.e. 0.828 m in
from both supports.

Grade of steel
Number Diameter 2H12 (hanger bars)
of links of links

7H8 at 150 13H8 at 300 7H8 at 150

H8 links

Centre-to-centre
distance between
links 4H25

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 Beams

3.9.1.4 Deflection (clause 3.4.6, BS 8110) Table 3.14 Basic span /effective depth ratio
In addition to checking that failure of the member for rectangular or flanged beams (Table 3.9,
does not arise due to the ultimate limit states of BS 8110)
bending and shear, the designer must ensure that
the deflections under working loads do not adversely Support conditions Rectangular Flanged beams with
affect either the efficiency or appearance of the sections width of beam
≤ 0.3
structure. BS 8110 describes the following criteria width of flange
for ensuring the proper performance of rectangular
beams: Cantilever 7 5.6
1. Final deflection should not exceed span/250. Simply supported 20 16.0
2. Deflection after construction of finishes and Continuous 26 20.8
partitions should not exceed span/500 or 20 mm,
whichever is the lesser, for spans up to 10 m.
Table 3.15 Modification factors for compression
However, it is rather difficult to make accurate reinforcement (Table 3.11, BS 8110)
predictions of the deflections that may arise in con-
crete members principally because the member may 100 A ′s , prov Factor
be cracked under working loads and the degree bd
of restraint at the supports is uncertain. Therefore,
BS 8110 uses an approximate method based on 0.00 1.0
permissible ratios of the span/effective depth. Before 0.15 1.05
discussing this method in detail it is worth clarifying 0.25 1.08
what is meant by the effective span of a beam. 0.35 1.10
0.5 1.14
(i) Effective span (clause 3.4.1.2, BS 8110). All 0.75 1.20
calculations relating to beam design should be based 1 1.25
on the effective span of the beam. For a simply 1.5 1.33
supported beam this should be taken as the lesser 2.0 1.40
of (1) the distance between centres of bearings, A, 2.5 1.45
or (2) the clear distance between supports, D, plus ≥ 3.0 1.5
the effective depth, d, of the beam (Fig. 3.25). For
a continuous beam the effective span should nor-
mally be taken as the distance between the centres 10/span (except for cantilevers). The basic ratios
of supports.
may be further modified by factors taken from
Tables 3.15 and 3.16, depending upon the amount
(ii) Span/effective depth ratio. Generally, the of compression and tension reinforcement respect-
deflection criteria in (1) and (2) above will be satis-
ively. Deflection is usually critical in the design of
fied provided that the span/effective depth ratio of slabs rather than beams and, therefore, modifica-
the beam does not exceed the appropriate limiting tions factors will be discussed more fully in the
values given in Table 3.14. The reader is referred
context of slab design (section 3.10).
to the Handbook to BS 8110 which outlines the
basis of this approach. 3.9.1.5 Member sizing
The span/effective depth ratio given in the table
The dual concepts of span/effective depth ratio and
apply to spans up to 10 m long. Where the span maximum design concrete shear stress can be used
exceeds 10 m, these ratios should be multiplied by not only to assess the performance of members
with respect to deflection and shear but also for
d preliminary sizing of members. Table 3.17 gives
modified span/effective depth ratios for estimating
the effective depth of a concrete beam provided
D
that its span is known. The width of the beam
A can then be determined by limiting the max-
imum design concrete shear stress to around (say)
Fig. 3.25 Effective span of simply supported beam. 1.2 Nmm−2.
57

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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Table 3.16 Modification factors for tension reinforcement (based on Table 3.10, BS 8110)

Service stress M/bd 2

0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

100 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.86 1.63 1.36 1.19 1.08 1.01
150 2.00 2.00 1.98 1.69 1.49 1.25 1.11 1.01 0.94
( fy = 250) 167 2.00 2.00 1.91 1.63 1.44 1.21 1.08 0.99 0.92
200 2.00 1.95 1.76 1.51 1.35 1.14 1.02 0.94 0.88
250 1.90 1.70 1.55 1.34 1.20 1.04 0.94 0.87 0.82
300 1.60 1.44 1.33 1.16 1.06 0.93 0.85 0.80 0.76
( fy = 500) 323 1.41 1.28 1.18 1.05 0.96 0.86 0.79 0.75 0.72

Note 1. The values in the table derive from the equation:

(477 − fs )
Modification factor = 0.55 + ≤ 2.0 (equation 7)
 M
120  0.9 + 2 
 bd 
where
fs is the design service stress in the tension reinforcement
M is the design ultimate moment at the centre of the span or, for a cantilever, at the support.
Note 2. The design service stress in the tension reinforcement may be estimated from the equation:
5* f A 1
× y s,req ×
fs = (equation 8)
8 As,prov βb
where β b is the percentage of moment redistribution, equal to 1 for simply supported beams.
* As pointed out in Reynolds RC Designers Handbook the term 5/8 which is applicable to γ ms = 1.15 is given incorrectly as 2/3
in BS 8110 which is applicable to γ ms = 1.05.

Table 3.17 Span /effective depth ratios for

initial design

Support condition Span/effective depth

Cantilever 6
Simply supported 12
Continuous 15

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 Beams

Example 3.4 Sizing a concrete beam (BS 8110)

A simply supported beam has an effective span of 8 m and supports characteristic dead (gk) and live (qk) loads of
15 kNm−1 and 10 kNm−1 respectively. Determine suitable dimensions for the effective depth and width of the beam.

q k = 10 kN m−1
g k = 15 kN m−1

8m

From Table 3.17, span/effective depth ratio for a simply supported beam is 12. Hence effective depth, d, is
span 8000
d = = ≈ 670 mm
12 12
Total ultimate load = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span = (1.4 × 15 + 1.6 × 10)8 = 296 kN
Design shear force (V ) = 296/2 = 148 kN and design shear force, υ, is
V 148 × 103
υ= =
bd 670b
Assuming υ is equal to 1.2 Nmm−2, this gives a beam width, b, of
V 148 × 103
b= = = 185 mm
dυ 670 × 1.2
Hence a beam of width 185 mm and effective depth 670 mm would be suitable to support the given design loads.

3.9.1.6 Reinforcement details (clause 3.12, 0.24%bh ≤ As ≤ 4%bh when fy = 250 Nmm−2
BS 8110)
The previous sections have covered much of the 0.13%bh ≤ As ≤ 4%bh when fy = 500 Nmm−2
theory required to design singly reinforced con-
crete beams. However, there are a number of code 2. Spacing of reinforcement (clause 3.12.11.1,
provisions with regard to: BS 8110). BS 8110 specifies minimum and max-
imum distances between tension reinforcement.
1. maximum and minimum reinforcement areas
The actual limits vary, depending upon the grade
2. spacing of reinforcement of reinforcement. The minimum distance is based
3. curtailment and anchorage of reinforcement on the need to achieve good compaction of the con-
4. lapping of reinforcement.
crete around the reinforcement. The limits on the
These need to be taken into account since they maximum distance between bars arise from the need
may affect the final design. to ensure that the maximum crack width does not
exceed 0.3 mm in order to prevent corrosion of
1. Reinforcement areas (clause 3.12.5.3 and embedded bars (section 3.8).
3.12.6.1, BS 8110). As pointed out in section 3.8, For singly reinforced simply supported beams
there is a need to control cracking of the concrete the clear horizontal distance between tension bars,
because of durability and aesthetics. This is usually sb, should lie within the following limits:
achieved by providing minimum areas of reinforce-
ment in the member. However, too large an area hagg + 5 mm or bar size ≤ sb ≤ 280 mm
of reinforcement should also be avoided since it when fy = 250 Nmm−2
will hinder proper placing and adequate compaction hagg + 5 mm or bar size ≤ sb ≤ 155 mm
of the concrete around the reinforcement. when fy = 500 Nmm−2
For rectangular beams with overall dimensions b
and h, the area of tension reinforcement, As, should where hagg is the maximum size of the coarse
lie within the following limits: aggregate.
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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110
ω Cut-off 50% of bars

x = 0.146ᐉ
50% 100% 50%
ᐉ
A s /2 As A s /2

A B
0.08ᐉ 0.08ᐉ
ᐉ
ωᐉ 2 ωᐉ 2
ωᐉ 2 16
1.6 (a)
8
0.25ᐉ
Fig. 3.26 0.15ᐉ 100%
⬍45ø
3. Curtailment and anchorage of bars (clause 30% 60% 30%
3.12.9, BS 8110). The design process for simply
supported beams, in particular the calculations re- 100%
lating to the design moment and area of bending
reinforcement, is concentrated at mid-span. How- 0.1ᐉ 0.15ᐉ
ᐉ
ever, the bending moment decreases either side of
the mid-span and it follows, therefore, that it should (b)
be possible to reduce the corresponding area of
bending reinforcement by curtailing bars. For the Fig. 3.27 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in
beam shown in Fig. 3.26, theoretically 50 per cent beams: (a) simply supported ends; (b) continuous beam.
of the main steel can be curtailed at points A and
B. However, in order to develop the design stress
in the reinforcement (i.e. 0.87fy at mid-span), these d
+ 12Φ
12Φ 2
bars must be anchored into the concrete. Except at
end supports, this is normally achieved by extend- CL
ing the bars beyond the point at which they are
theoretically no longer required, by a distance equal
to the greater of (i) the effective depth of the mem-
ber and (ii) 12 times the bar size.
Where a bar is stopped off in the tension zone,
e.g. beam shown in Fig. 3.26, this distance should
be increased to the full anchorage bond length in (a) (b)
accordance with the values given in Table 3.18.
However, simplified rules for the curtailment of Fig. 3.28 Anchorage requirements at simple supports.
bars are given in clause 3.12.10.2 of BS 8110. These
are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3.27 for simply
supported and continuous beams. not begin before the centre of the support for rule
The code also gives rules for the anchorage of (a) or before d/2 from the face of the support for
bars at supports. Thus, at a simply supported end rule (b).
each tension bar will be properly anchored provided
the bar extends a length equal to one of the fol- 4. Laps in reinforcement (clause 3.12.8, BS
lowing: (a) 12 times the bar size beyond the centre 8110). It is not possible nor, indeed, practicable
line of the support, or (b) 12 times the bar size to construct the reinforcement cage for an indi-
plus d/2 from the face of the support (Fig. 3.28). vidual element or structure without joining some
Sometimes it is not possible to use straight bars of the bars. This is normally achieved by lapping
due to limitations of space and, in this case, an- bars (Fig. 3.30). Bars which have been joined in
chorage must be provided by using hooks or bends this way must act as a single length of bar. This
in the reinforcement. The anchorage values of hooks means that the lap length should be sufficiently
and bends are shown in Fig. 3.29. Where hooks or long in order that stresses in one bar can be trans-
bends are provided, BS 8110 states that they should ferred to the other.
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 Beams

4Φ
Table 3.18 Anchorage lengths as multiples of
Φ +r bar size (based on Table 3.27, BS 8110)
(a)
LA

4Φ fcu = 25 30 35 40
or more
r
Φ + Plain (250)
(b) Tension 43 39 36 34
Compression 34 32 29 27
For mild steel bars minimum r = 2Φ Deformed Type 1 (500)
For high yield bars minimum r = 3Φ or Tension 55 50 47 44
4Φ for sizes 25 mm and above Compression 44 40 38 35
Deformed Type 2 (500)
Fig. 3.29 Anchorage lengths for hooks and bends
Tension 44 40 38 35
(a) anchorage length for 90° bend = 4r but not greater
than 12φ; (b) anchorage length for hook = 8r but not Compression 35 32 30 28
greater than 24φ.

tension anchorage length, but will often need to

be increased as outlined in clause 3.12.8.13 of
BS 8110. The anchorage length (L) is calculated
Lap

using
Starter bars
L = LA × Φ (3.17)
Kicker
where
d
Φ is the diameter of the (smaller) bar
LA is obtained from Table 3.18 and depends
Fig. 3.30 Lap lengths. upon the stress type, grade of concrete and
reinforcement type.
The minimum lap length should not be less For compression laps the lap length should
than 15 times the bar diameter or 300 mm. For be at least 1.25 times the compression anchorage
tension laps it should normally be equal to the length.

Example 3.5 Design of a simply supported concrete beam (BS 8110)

A reinforced concrete beam which is 300 mm wide and 600 mm deep is required to span 6.0 m between the centres
of supporting piers 300 mm wide (Fig. 3.31). The beam carries dead and imposed loads of 25 kNm−1 and 19 kNm−1
respectively. Assuming fcu = 30 Nmm−2, fy = fyv = 500 Nmm−2 and the exposure class is XC1, design the beam.

q k = 19 kN m−1
A h = 600
g k = 25 kN m−1
300 A 300
6m
b = 300
Section A–A

Fig. 3.31

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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Example 3.5 continued

DESIGN MOMENT, M
Loading
Dead
Self weight of beam = 0.6 × 0.3 × 24 = 4.32 kNm−1
Total dead load (gk) = 25 + 4.32 = 29.32 kNm−1

Imposed
Total imposed load (qk) = 19 kNm−1

Ultimate load
Total ultimate load (W ) = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span
= (1.4 × 29.32 + 1.6 × 19)6
= 428.7 kN

Design moment
Wb 428.7 × 6
Maximum design moment (M ) = = = 321.5 kN m
8 8

ULTIMATE MOMENT OF RESISTANCE, MU

Effective depth, d

Φ/2
Φ′
c

Assume diameter of main bars (Φ) = 25 mm

Assume diameter of links (Φ′) = 8 mm
From Table 3.6, cover for exposure class XC1 = 15 + ∆c = 25 mm.
d = h − c − Φ′ − Φ/2
= 600 − 25 − 8 − 25/2 = 554 mm

Ultimate moment
Mu = 0.156fcubd 2 = 0.156 × 30 × 300 × 5542
= 430.9 × 106 Nmm = 430.9 kNm > M
Since Mu > M no compression reinforcement is required.
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 Beams

Example 3.5 continued

MAIN STEEL, A s
M 321.5 × 106
K = = = 0.116
fcubd 2 30 × 300 × 5542
z = d [0.5 + (0.25 − K /0.9)] = 554[0.5 + (0.25 − 0.116/0.9)] = 470 mm
M 321.5 × 106
As = = = 1573 mm2
0.87f y z 0.87 × 500 × 470
Hence from Table 3.10, provide 4H25 (A s = 1960 mm2).

SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
W

RA RB
V

Ultimate design load, W = 428.7 kN

Shear stress, υ
Since beam is symmetrically loaded
RA = RB = W/2 = 214.4 kN
Ultimate shear force (V ) = 214.4 kN and design shear stress, υ, is
V 214.4 × 103
υ= = = 1.29 Nmm−2 < permissible = 0.8 30 = 4.38 Nmm−2
bd 300 × 554

Design concrete shear stress, υc

100 A s 100 × 1960
= = 1.18
bd 300 × 554
From Table 3.11,
υc = (30/25)1/3 × 0.66 = 0.70 Nmm−2

Diameter and spacing of links

Where υ < (υc + 0.4) = 0.7 + 0.4 = 1.1 Nmm−2, nominal links are required according to
A sn 0.4b 0.4 × 300
= = = 0.276
sn 0.87f yn 0.87 × 500
Hence from Table 3.13, provide H8 links at 300 mm centres where υ < 1.10 Nmm−2, i.e. 2.558 m either side of the
mid-span of beam.
v = 1.29 N mm−2

x 3
3m 3m = = 2.558 m
1.10 1.29
x
v

x
1.10 N mm−2

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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Example 3.5 continued

Where υ > (υc + 0.4) = 1.10 Nmm−2 design links required according to
A sn b (υ − υc ) 300(1.29 − 0.70)
= = = 0.407
sn 0.87f yn 0.87 × 500
Maximum spacing of links is 0.75d = 0.75 × 554 = 416 mm. Hence from Table 3.13, provide 8 mm diameter links at
225 mm centres (A sv/s v = 0.447) where v > 1.10 Nmm−2, i.e. 0.442 m in from both supports.
EFFECTIVE SPAN
The above calculations were based on an effective span of 6 m, but this needs to be confirmed. As stated in section
3.9.1.4, the effective span is the lesser of (1) centre-to-centre distance between support, i.e. 6 m, and (2) clear
distance between supports plus the effective depth, i.e. 5700 + 554 = 6254 mm. Therefore assumed span length of
6 m is correct.
DEFLECTION
Actual span/effective depth ratio = 6000/554 = 10.8
M 321.5 × 106
= = 3.5
bd 2 300 × 5542
and from equation 8 (Table 3.16)
5 A s,req 5 1573
fs = × fy × = × 500 ×
= 251 Nmm−2
8 A s,prov 8 1960
From Table 3.14, basic span/effective depth ratio for a simply supported beam is 20 and from Table 3.16, modification
factor ≈ 0.97. Hence permissible span/effective depth ratio = 20 × 0.97 = 19 > actual (= 10.8) and the beam therefore
satisfies the deflection criteria in BS 8110.

REINFORCEMENT DETAILS
The sketch below shows the main reinforcement requirements for the beam. For reasons of buildability, the actual
reinforcement details may well be slightly different and the reader is referred to the following publications for further
information on this point:
1. Designed and Detailed (BS 8110: 1997), Higgins, J.B. and Rogers, B.R., British Cement Association, 1989.
2. Standard Method of Detailing Structural Concrete, the Concrete Society and the Institution of Structural Engin-
eers, London, 1989.

4H8 at 225 14H8 at 300 4H8 at 225

H12
300 mm 5700 mm 300 mm
H8 links
2H12
H25

r = 100 mm 100 mm
H8 links 554 mm

46 mm
4H25
150 mm
300 mm CL of support

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 Beams

Example 3.6 Analysis of a singly reinforced concrete beam (BS 8110)

A singly reinforced concrete beam in which fcu = 30 Nmm−2 and fy = 500 Nmm−2 contains 1960 mm2 of tension
reinforcement (Fig. 3.32). If the effective span is 7 m and the density of reinforced concrete is 24 kNm−3, calculate the
maximum imposed load that the beam can carry assuming that the load is (a) uniformly distributed and (b) occurs as
a point load at mid-span.

b = 300

h = 500
4H25
(A s = 1960 mm2)
30 mm cover

Fig. 3.32

(A) MAXIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED IMPOSED LOAD, qk

Moment capacity of section, M

b εcu = 0.0035 0.67fcu/γγ mc

x 0.9x Fcc

d
z

Fst
ε st

fv/γms = 500/1.15

200 kNmm–2

εy

Effective depth, d, is
d = h − cover − φ/2 = 500 − 30 − 25/2 = 457 mm
For equilibrium Fcc = Fst
0.67fcu
0.9xb = 0.87fy A s (assuming the steel has yielded)
g mc
0.67 × 30
0.9 × x × 300 = 0.87 × 500 × 1960 ⇒ x = 236 mm
1.5
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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Example 3.6 continued

ε cc ε st
From similar triangles =
x d −x
0.0035 ε st
= ⇒ ε st = 0.0033
236 457 − 236
f y /γ ms 500/1.15
εy = = = 0.00217 < ε st
Es 200 × 106
Therefore the steel has yielded and the steel stress is 0.87fy as assumed.
Lever arm, z, is
z = d − 0.45x = 457 − 0.45 × 236 = 351 mm
Moment capacity, M, is
0.67fcu
M= 0.9xbz
γ mc
 0.67 × 30  −6
M=   0.9 × 236 × 300 × 351 × 10 = 299.7 kNm
 1.5 

Maximum uniformly distributed imposed load, qk

qk
gk

7m

Dead load
Self weight of beam (gk) = 0.5 × 0.3 × 24 = 3.6 kNm−1

Ultimate load
Total ultimate load (W ) = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span
= (1.4 × 3.6 + 1.6qk)7

Imposed load
WB (5.04 + 1.6qk )72
Maximum design moment (M ) = = = 299.7 kNm (from above)
8 8
Hence the maximum uniformly distributed imposed load the beam can support is
(299.7 × 8)/72 − 5.04
qk = = 27.4 kNm−1
1.6

(B) MAXIMUM POINT LOAD AT MID-SPAN, Q k

Qk

g k = 3.6 kN m−1 (from above)

7m

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 Beams

Example 3.6 continued

Loading
Ultimate load
Ultimate dead load (WD) = 1.4gk × span = 1.4 × 3.6 × 7 = 35.3 kN
Ultimate imposed load (WI) = 1.6Qk

Imposed load
Maximum design moment, M, is
WD b WIb 35.3 × 7 1.6Q k × 7
M = + (Example 2.5, beam B1–B3) = + = 299.7 kNm (from above)
8 4 8 4
Hence the maximum point load which the beam can support at mid-span is
(299.7 − 35.3 × 7/8)4
Qk = = 96 kN
1.6 × 7

3.9.2 DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM DESIGN 3.9.2.1 Compression and tensile steel areas
If the design moment is greater than the ultimate (clause 3.4.4.4, BS 8110)
moment of resistance, i.e. M > Mu, or K > K′ The area of compression steel (As′) is calculated
where K = M/fcubd 2 and K′ = Mu /fcubd 2 the con- from
crete will have insufficient strength in compression M − Mu
to generate this moment and maintain an under- A′s = (3.18)
reinforced mode of failure. 0. 87f y (d − d ′)
where d ′ is the depth of the compression steel from
Area of concrete the compression face (Fig. 3.33).
in compression The area of tension reinforcement is calculated
from
Neutral axis
Mu
As = + A ′s (3.19)
0.87 f y z
where z = d [0.5 + ( 0.25 − K′ /0.9)] and K ′ = 0.156.
Equations 3.18 and 3.19 can be derived using
The required compressive strength can be the stress block shown in Fig. 3.33. This is basic-
achieved by increasing the proportions of the beam, ally the same stress block used in the analysis of a
particularly its overall depth. However, this may singly reinforced section (Fig. 3.17) except for the
not always be possible due to limitations on the additional compression force (Fsc) in the steel.
headroom in the structure, and in such cases it will In the derivation of equations 3.18 and 3.19 it is
be necessary to provide reinforcement in the com- assumed that the compression steel has yielded (i.e.
pression face. The compression reinforcement will design stress = 0.87fy) and this condition will be
be designed to resist the moment in excess of Mu. met only if
This will ensure that the compressive stress in the
concrete does not exceed the permissible value and d′ d′ d −z
≤ 0.37 or ≤ 0.19 where x =
ensure an under-reinforced failure mode. x d 0.45
Beams which contain tension and compression
reinforcement are termed doubly reinforced. They If d ′/x > 0.37, the compression steel will not
are generally designed in the same way as singly have yielded and, therefore, the compressive stress
reinforced beams except in respect of the calcula- will be less than 0.87fy. In such cases, the design
tions needed to determine the areas of tension and stress can be obtained using Fig. 3.9.
compression reinforcement. This aspect is discussed
below.
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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

b 0.0035 0.45f cu

Fsc
d′
A ′s x = d /2 s = 0.9x
Fcc
Neutral
d axis z
ε sc

As
ε st Fst

Section Strains Stress block

Fig. 3.33 Section with compression reinforcement.

Example 3.7 Design of bending reinforcement for a doubly reinforced

beam (BS 8110)
The reinforced concrete beam shown in Fig. 3.34 has an effective span of 9 m and carries uniformly distributed dead
(including self weight of beam) and imposed loads of 4 and 5 kNm−1 respectively. Design the bending reinforcement
assuming the following:
fcu = 30 Nmm−2
fy = 500 Nmm−2
Cover to main steel = 40 mm

q k = 5 kN m−1 h = 370 mm
A
g k = 4 kN m−1
A
9m

b = 230 mm
Section A–A

Fig. 3.34

DESIGN MOMENT, M
Loading

Ultimate load
Total ultimate load (W) = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span
= (1.4 × 4 + 1.6 × 5)9 = 122.4 kN

Design moment
Wb 122.4 × 9
Maximum design moment (M ) = = = 137.7 kNm
8 8
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 Beams

Example 3.7 continued

ULTIMATE MOMENT OF RESISTANCE, Mu

Effective depth, d
Assume diameter of tension bars (Φ) = 25 mm:
d = h − Φ/2 − cover
= 370 − 25/2 − 40 = 317 mm

Ultimate moment
Mu = 0.156fcubd 2
= 0.156 × 30 × 230 × 3172
= 108.2 × 106 Nmm = 108.2 kNm
Since M > Mu compression reinforcement is required.

COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT
Assume diameter of compression bars (φ) = 16 mm. Hence
d′ = cover + φ/2 = 40 + 16/2 = 48 mm
z = d [0.5 + ( 0.25 − K ′/0.9)] = 317 [0.5 + ( 0.25 − 0.156/0.9)] = 246 mm
d − z 317 − 246
x = = = 158 mm
0.45 0.45
d′ 48
= = 0.3 < 0.37, i.e. compression steel has yielded.
x 158
M − Mu (137.7 − 108.210
) 6
A ′s = = = 252 mm2
0.87f y (d − d ′) 0.87 × 500(317 − 48)
Hence from Table 3.10, provide 2H16 (A s′ = 402 mm2)

(III) TENSION REINFORCEMENT

Mu 108.2 × 106
As = + A ′s = + 252 = 1263 mm2
0.87f y z 0.87 × 500 × 246
Hence provide 3H25 (A s = 1470 mm2).

2H16
d ′ = 48

d = 317

3H25

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 Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

14
x /d = 0.3
4.0 x /d = 0.4
13 2.0
1.5 x /d = 0.5
12
11
1.0
10
9
M /bd 2 (N mm−2)

8 0.5
b

100A ′s / bd
7 d′
x A′s
6 0 d
5
As
4
3
2 f cu 30
fy 500
1
d ′/d 0.15

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

100A s /bd

Fig. 3.35 Design chart for doubly reinforced beams (based on chart 7, BS 8110: Part 3).

Using the figures given in Example 3.7, Mu =

3.9.2.2 Design charts 108.2 kNm < M = 137.7 kNm
Rather than solving equations 3.18 and 3.19 it is Since d ′/d (= 48/317) = 0.15 and fcu = 30 N/mm2,
possible to determine the area of tension and com- chart 7 is appropriate. Furthermore, since the beam
pression reinforcement simply by using the design is simply supported, no redistribution of moments
charts for doubly reinforced beams given in Part 3 is possible, therefore, use x/d = 0.5 construction
of BS 8110. Such charts are available for design line in order to determine areas of reinforcement.
involving the use of concrete grades 25, 30, 35,
M 137.7 × 106
40, 45 and 50 and d ′/d ratios of 0.1, 0.15 and = = 5.95
0.2. Unfortunately, as previously mentioned, BSI bd 2
230 × 3172
issued these charts when grade 460 steel was the 100A s′/bd = 0.33 ⇒ A s′ = 243 mm2
norm rather than grade 500 and, therefore, use of
these charts will overestimate the steel areas by 100As /bd = 1.72 ⇒ As = 1254 mm2
around 10 per cent. Fig. 3.35 presents a modified Hence from Table 3.10, provide 2H16 compres-
version of chart 7 for grade 500 reinforcement. sion steel and 3H25 tension steel.
The design procedure involves the following
steps:
3.9.3 CONTINUOUS, L AND T BEAMS
1. Check Mu < M. In most real situations, the beams in buildings are
2. Calculate d ′/d. seldom single span but continuous over the sup-
3. Select appropriate chart from Part 3 of BS 8110 ports, e.g. beams 1, 2, 3 and 4 in Fig. 3.36(a). The
based on grade of concrete and d ′/d ratio. design process for such beams is similar to that
4. Calculate M/bd 2. outlined above for single span beams. However,
5. Plot M/bd 2 ratio on chart and read off corres- the main difference arises from the fact that with
ponding 100A s′/bd and 100A s /bd values (Fig. continuous beams the designer will need to con-
3.35) sider the various loading arrangements discussed
6. Calculate A s′ and As. in section 3.6.2 in order to determine the design
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 Beams

Table 3.19 Design ultimate moments and shear forces for continuous beams (Table 3.5, BS 8110)

End support End span Penultimate support Interior span Interior support

Moment 0 0.09Fb −0.11Fb 0.07Fb −0.08Fb

Shear 0.45F – 0.6F – 0.55F

F = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk; b = effective span

design the beam as an L or T section by including
the adjacent areas of the slab (Fig. 3.36(b)). The
(a) actual width of slab that acts together with the
X beam is normally termed the effective flange.
4 According to clause 3.4.1.5 of BS 8110, the effec-
tive flange width should be taken as the lesser of
(a) the actual flange width and (b) the web width
3 plus bz /5 (for T-beams) or bz /10 (for L-beams),
where bz is the distance between points of zero
moments which for a continuous beam may be
2 taken as 0.7 times the distance between the centres
of supports.
The depth of the neutral axis in relation to the
1
depth of flange will influence the design process
and must therefore be determined. The depth of the
neutral axis, x, can be calculated using equation
A B C D
3.9 derived in section 3.9.1, i.e.
X
d −z
x =
Effective Effective flange (b) 0.45
flange
Where the neutral axis lies within the flange,
which will normally be the case in practice, the
T-beam L-beam beam can be designed as being singly reinforced
1 2 3 4
taking the breadth of the beam, b, equal to the
Section X–X effective flange width. At the supports of a con-
tinuous member, e.g. at columns B2, B3, C2 and
Fig. 3.36 Floor slab: (a) plan (b) cross-section. C3, due to the moment reversal, b should be taken
as the actual width of the beam.
moments and shear forces in the beam. The analy-
sis to calculate the bending moments and shear 3.9.3.1 Analysis of continuous beams
forces can be carried out by moment distribution Continuous beams (and continuous slabs that span
as discussed in section 3.9.3.1 or, provided the in one direction) are not statically determinate and
conditions in clause 3.4.3 of BS 8110 are satisfied more advanced analytical techniques must be used
(see Example 3.10), by using the coefficients given to obtain the bending moments and shear forces in
in Table 3.5 of BS 8110, reproduced as Table 3.19. the member. A straightforward method of calculat-
Once this has been done, the beam can be sized ing the moments at the supports of continuous
and the area of bending reinforcement calculated members and hence the bending moments and
as discussed in section 3.9.1 or 3.9.2. At the inter- shear forces in the span is by moment distribu-
nal supports, the bending moment is reversed and tion. Essentially the moment-distribution method
it should be remembered that the tensile reinforce- involves the following steps:
ment will occur in the top half of the beam and
compression reinforcement in the bottom half of 1. Calculate the fixed end moments (FEM) in each
the beam. span using the formulae given in Table 3.20 and
Generally, beams and slabs are cast elsewhere. Note that clockwise moments are con-
monolithically, that is, they are structurally tied. At ventionally positive and anticlockwise moments
mid-span, it is more economical in such cases to are negative.
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